CRC for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment

National Remediation Framework

Technology guide: Soil washing

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CRC CARE National Remediation Framework Technology guide: Soil washing

National Remediation Framework

The following guideline is one component of the National Remediation Framework

(NRF). The NRF was developed by the Cooperative Research Centre for
Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE) to
enable a nationally consistent approach to the remediation and management of
contaminated sites. The NRF is compatible with the National Environment Protection
(Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure (ASC NEPM).
The NRF has been designed to assist the contaminated land practitioner undertaking a
remediation project, and assumes the reader has a basic understanding of site
contamination assessment and remediation principles. The NRF provides the
underlying context, philosophy and principles for the remediation and management of
contaminated sites in Australia. Importantly it provides general guidance based on best
practice, as well as links to further information to assist with remediation planning,
implementation, review, and long-term management.
This guidance is intended to be utilised by stakeholders within the contaminated sites
industry, including site owners, proponents of works, contaminated land professionals,
local councils, regulators, and the community.
The NRF is intended to be consistent with local jurisdictional requirements, including
State, Territory and Commonwealth legislation and existing guidance. To this end, the
NRF is not prescriptive. It is important that practitioners are familiar with local
legislation and regulations and note that the NRF does not supersede regulatory
requirements.
The NRF has three main components that represent the general stages of a
remediation project, noting that the remediation steps may often require an iterative
approach. The stages are:
• Define;
• Design and implement; and
• Finalise.
The flowchart overleaf provides an indication of how the various NRF guidelines fit
within the stages outlined above, and also indicates that some guidelines are relevant
throughout the remediation and management process.
It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the ASC NEPM and will consult other CRC
CARE guidelines included within the NRF. This guideline is not intended to provide the
sole or primary source of information.

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Executive summary

Soil washing is a physical or chemical technology that separates contaminated and

non-contaminated soil components by exploiting physical differences between them,
such as particle size, shape, density and / or surface properties. Following soil
washing, the contamination is concentrated into a smaller fraction of the total volume of
impacted soil or sediment (generally in the fine fraction) which can be more easily
disposed of or treated further (e.g. by solidification or stabilisation). The ‘clean’ fraction
of the treated soil, comprising larger particles such as sand and gravel, is then able to
be re-used separately, such as on-site (providing the concentrations meet the
remediation criteria).
Soil washing falls into the ‘separation’ category of remediation technologies – it does
not destroy contaminants, but rather separates them from most of the soil particles to
reduce the volume of soil that requires further treatment
During soil washing, the remediation of the contaminated soil occurs in one of two
ways:
• Dissolving or suspending contaminants in water:
• Concentrating contaminants into a smaller volume of soil:
Wash water can be supplemented with several substances to help remove
contaminants, such as basic leaching agents, surfactants, acids or chelating agent
There are four main stages in applying soil washing as a treatment technology:
• Soil preparation and screening;
• Physical separation;
• Chemical extraction; and
• Waste water treatment.
Soil washing is rarely a stand-alone treatment technology, as the fine soils and waste
water will generally require additional treatment following completion of the washing
process. While the waste water is generally treated using standard industry practices,
the sludge generated during the waste water treatment may require treatment by an
alternative remediation technology such as solidification/stabilisation, bioremediation,
chemical treatment (e.g. the base catalysed decomposition process) or thermal
treatment.
Key considerations that will often determine the feasibility of applying soil washing
systems as a potential remediation option include:
• Whether the contaminated material has a significant percentage of coarse
material that can be separated as a clean fraction suitable for reuse or lower
cost disposal;
• Whether the separated fine contaminated material (slurry) can be dewatered
and disposed of;
• Whether the relative volumes and costs for disposal of the resulting coarse or
clean fraction and the fine or contaminated fraction makes the process
economic.

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• Will the relevant regulatory agencies accept soil washing as a viable means of
remediation?
• Can the treated material be reused? Will the concentrations of inorganics and
residual organics allow the treated material to be reused as backfill on the site
or as clean fill elsewhere, or will subsequent treatment (e.g. stabilisation) or
landfill disposal be required?
• Is it likely that other stakeholders (such as local government or members of
the public) will accept the use of the technology, particularly those
stakeholders that can have a significant bearing on whether the technology is
applied at the site? Are there sensitive sites nearby that would not be
compatible with the proposed operation?
• Is there a time constraint, and can the application of soil washing meet this
constraint?
• Is the expected order of cost of treatment acceptable?

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Abbreviations

Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination

CRC CARE
Assessment and Remediation of the Environment
NRF National Remediation Framework
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
RAP Remediation Action Plan

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Glossary

Remedial activity carried out as part of a treatability

study on a small scale to assess the feasibility, efficacy,
inputs, costs, time and risk of the planned remedial
Bench test
action. Normally conducted in an ex-situ laboratory with
contaminated material collected from the site. May
preceed a pilot test.
The amount of material or agent dissolved or contained
Concentration
in unit quantity in a given medium or system.
A representation of site-related information including
the environmental setting, geological, hydrogeological
and soil characteristics together with the nature and
Conceptual site model distribution of contaminants. Contamination sources,
exposure pathways and potentially affected receptors
are identified. Presentation is usually graphical or
tabular with accompanying explanatory text.
Any chemical existing in the environment above
Contaminant background levels and representing, or potentially
representing, an adverse health or environment risk.
A site that is affected by substances that occur at
concentrations above background or local levels and
which are likely to pose an immediate or long-term risk
Contaminated site
to human health and/or the environment. It is not
necessary for the boundaries of the contaminated site
to correspond to the legal ownership boundaries.
The presence of a substance at a concentration above
background or local levels that represents, or potentially
Contamination
represents, a risk to human health and/or the
environment.
The government agency in each state or territory that
Environment(al) protection has responsibility for the enforcement of various
authority / agency jurisdictional environmental legislation, including some
regulation of contaminated land.
Remedial activity carried out as part of a treatability
study on a small scale to assess the feasibility, efficacy,
Pilot trial inputs, costs, time and risk of the planned remedial
action. Normally conducted in-situ on a restricted scale.
May follow a bench test.
Those in the private sector professionally engaged in
Practitioner the assessment, remediation or management of site
contamination.

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A person who is legally authorised to make decisions

Proponent about a site. The proponent may be a site owner or
occupier or their representative.
An action designed to deliberately break the source-
pathway-receptor linkage in order to reduce the risk to
Remediation
human health and/or the environment to an acceptable
level.
The probability that in a certain timeframe an adverse
outcome will occur in a person, a group of people,
plants, animals and/or the ecology of a specified area
that is exposed to a particular dose or concentration of
Risk
a specified substance, i.e. it depends on both the level
of toxicity of the substance and the level of exposure.
‘Risk’ differs from ‘hazard’ primarily because risk
considers probability.
A parcel of land (including ground and surface water)
being assessed for contamination, as identified on a
map by parameters including Lot and Plan number(s)
Site
and street address. It is not necessary for the site
boundary to correspond to the Lot and Plan boundary,
however it commonly does.
A remediation method where contaminants in the soil
are separated from the non-contaminated soil particles
Soil washing by physical separation or chemical extraction
techniques or a combination of the two. Also referred to
as soil separation or physical separation.
The process by which one substance becomes
Sorbed attached to another substance. This may occur through
adsorption or absorption.
A series of tests designed to ascertain the suitability of
Treatability studies the treatment for the contaminants under the site
conditions

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Measurements

Unit or symbol Expansion

% Percent
mm Millimetre

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Table of contents

National remediation framework Error! Bookmark not defined.

Executive summary iii
Abbreviations v
Glossary vi
Measurements viii
Introduction 1
Technology description 2
Soil preparation and screening 3
Physical separation 3
Chemical extraction 4
Waste water treatment 4
Integration with other remediation technology 5
Feasibility assessment 6
Data requirements 7
Physical properties of soil 7
Chemical composition of soil 7
Waste streams 8
Treatable contaminants 8
Treatable matrices 8
Regulatory requirements 9
Treatability studies 10
Desktop assessment 10
Bench testing 10
Pilot trial 11
Validation 12
Health and safety 13
Appendix A – Case studies 16
Appendix B – References 17

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Introduction

The purpose of this guideline is to provide information on soil washing as a treatment

technology for the remediation of contaminated sites to assist with selection of
remediation options. The document contains information to inform remediation planning
and aid compilation of a remediation action plan (RAP).
This guidance is primarily intended to be utilised by remediation practitioners and those
reviewing practitioner’s work, however it can be utilised by other stakeholders within
the contaminated sites industry, including site owners, proponents of works, and the
community.
Soil washing is one of many technologies available for contamination remediation, and
other technologies may be more appropriate. It is assumed that the information
presented within will be used in a remediation options assessment to identify and
select the preferred technologies for more detailed evaluation. This guideline provides
information for both initial options screening and more detailed technology evaluation.
This guideline does not provide detailed information on the design of soil washing
systems as this is a complex undertaking and should be carried out by appropriately
qualified and experienced practitioners. Readers are directed to the NRF Guideline on
performing remediation options assessment for detailed advice on assessing
remediation options. In addition, the remediation objectives, particularly the required
quality of the soil after treatment, are a critical matter and it is assumed that these have
been determined and considered in the remediation options assessment and selection
process. Readers are directed to the NRF Guideline on establishing remediation
objectives for more detailed advice.
References to case studies are presented in Appendix A.
A number of sources of information were reviewed during the formulation of this
document to compile information on potential technologies. These are listed in
references, and provide an important resource to readers.

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Technology description

Soil washing is a physical or chemical technology that separates contaminated and

non-contaminated soil components by exploiting physical differences between them,
such as particle size, shape, density and / or surface properties. Following soil
washing, the contamination is concentrated into a smaller fraction of the total volume of
impacted soil or sediment (generally in the fine fraction) which can be more easily
disposed of or treated further (e.g. by solidification or stabilisation). The ‘clean’ fraction
of the treated soil, comprising larger particles such as sand and gravel, is then able to
be re-used separately, such as on-site (providing the concentrations meet the
remediation criteria).
Soil washing falls into the ‘separation’ category of remediation technologies – it does
not destroy contaminants, but rather separates them from most of the soil particles to
reduce the volume of soil that requires further treatment.
Soil washing is also be referred to as ‘soil separation’ or ‘physical separation’. Soil
washing systems can include only physical separation or chemical extraction or a
combination of the two techniques.
During soil washing, the remediation of the contaminated soil occurs in one of the
following ways:
• Dissolving or suspending contaminants in water:
- This can be expedited via the addition of chemicals such as solvents and
surfactants to the wash water.
• Concentrating contaminants into a smaller volume of soil:
- Particle size separation: This process is based on the knowledge that
contaminants, both organic and inorganic, usually bind to silt, clay or
organic soil particles. These particles are in turn bound to larger sand and
gravel particles in the matrix through sedimentation or other processes.
The washing process acts to separate the soil components by particle
size, removing the smaller particles and contaminants from the larger
particles of the soil. This has the effect of concentrating the contaminants
into a much smaller volume which can effectively be removed or further
treated.
- Gravity separation: Useful where contaminants have a particularly high or
low specific gravity, such as heavy metals and metal compounds (e.g.
lead, radium oxide).
- Attrition scrubbing – strips contaminants adhering as coatings to coarser
particles. Attrition washing can increase the fines in soils processed with
the aim of returning the clean, coarser fraction to the site for continued
use if the remediation criteria are met.
Wash water can be supplemented with several substances to help remove
contaminants, such as basic leaching agents, surfactants, acids or chelating agent
Different methods (different wash fluids, soil to water ratios, solvents, surfactants and
other additives) are used for different combinations. Complex combinations of
contaminant types (such as a mixture of metals, non-volatile organics and semi-volatile

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organics) and non-uniform distribution of contaminants in the soil body can make
prescription of a soil washing method difficult. In these cases, the best approach may
be conduct successive rounds of treatment using different soil wash variables to target
different contaminants.
The resultant contaminated water (and/or silt) must then be treated with appropriate
methods, and / or appropriately disposed of.
There are four main stages in applying soil washing as a treatment technology:
• Soil preparation and screening;
• Physical separation;
• Chemical extraction; and
• Waste water treatment.
Figure 1 below provides a flow diagram of the soil washing process.

Figure 1: Soil washing process diagram

Soil preparation and screening

Soil preparation and screening comprises mechanical screening to remove oversize
particles from the soil, such as rock fragments or deleterious materials. Generally, the
maximum particle size of the soils to be washed is approximately 50 mm.
Physical separation
Physical separation is generally only applicable to coarse grained materials and is not
effective at treating contamination that is sorbed onto finer soil particles. However,

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attrition scrubbing can assist with stripping the contamination from soil particles prior to
treatment. There are various operating units in a physical separation system, including:
• Mechanical screening, where particles are separated based on size using
either mechanical vibrating or gyratory screens;
• Hydrodynamic classification, where particles are separated utilising the
settling velocity of the soil particles or centrifugal force to achieve size
separation, using either hydrocyclones or centrifuges;
• Gravity concentration, where high and low density particles are separated in a
in a slurry using a shaking table or dense media separation;
• Froth flotation, where the differing hydrophobic properties of the soil particles
are exploited to encourage contaminants to attach to air bubbles, using
flotation undertaken in cell or column;
• Magnetic separation, where particles are separated based on their magnetic
properties using dry or wet separators;
• Electrostatic separation, where separation is achieved using the surface
electrical conductivity of the soil particles using electrostatic or electrodynamic
separators; and
• Attrition scrubbing, where a slurry with a high solid content is agitated to
encourage contaminants to sorb to the surface of the soil particles, using
scrubbers.
Chemical extraction
Chemical extraction uses a fluid containing a chemical reagent to transfer
contaminants from the soil into the wash solution. The chemical reagent used will
depend on the soil type and contaminants to be treated but could be acids, surfactants,
chelating agents, salts or redox agents. Acids can improve the solubility of
contaminants, especially heavy metals. Surface active agents can be added to aid
dispersion of oily contaminants. Chelating agents increase the solubility of metals via
complexation. Combining chemicals may improve the efficiency of contaminant
removal, as may increasing the temperature and / or addition of an oxidiser to enable
chemical oxidation of the contaminants.
Following washing, the soil is separated from the washing liquid and the soils are then
separated into coarse and fine fractions. The coarse soil fraction is then usually
washed with clean water to remove any residual contamination and fine particles that
may have adhered to the fine fraction. The fine particles are then separated in a
sedimentation tank and the silt is removed using a cyclone or centrifuge device.
The fine silts and clays will require further treatment while the coarse fraction can be
reused, providing it meets the remediation criteria.
Waste water treatment
The final stage of the process is to treat the contaminated fine fraction and waste water
generated by the soil washing process. The liquid waste may require precipitation to
remove soluble substances such as metals, and the addition of flocculating agents to
assist in clarification and/or filtration to remove suspended solids as a sludge or filter
cake. If there is a high fraction of clay or silt, the wastewater may be difficult to dewater
to a solid consistency required for disposal, and it may remain as a slurry unacceptable

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for landfill disposal without the application of a high energy dewatering process. Note
that the requirements for mechanical dewatering (such as the addition of a flocculant
aid and separation with a belt filter or filter press) can add greatly to the cost. Where
the resulting wastewater requires further polishing treatment to comply with discharge
criteria, such as can occur with dissolved contaminants, the treatment may involve a
granular adsorbent (such as activated carbon).
Soil washing will result in the contamination being concentrated in the fine soil fraction,
and this will generally require further treatment. Emission controls might be necessary
if volatile organic compounds are present.
Full-scale soil washing plants can be either portable units, or a fixed soil washing
facility. A portable unit can process soil on the contaminated site, saving the cost of
transporting the soil to the nearest fixed plant. However, there can be large costs
associated with obtaining the necessary regulatory approvals and mobilising and
demobilising a portable plant, and this can make a portable plant less preferred unless
large volumes of soil are required to be treated.

Integration with other remediation technology

Soil washing is rarely a stand-alone treatment technology, as the fine soils and waste
water will generally require additional treatment following completion of the washing
process. While the waste water is generally treated using standard industry practices,
the sludge generated during the waste water treatment may require treatment by an
alternative remediation technology such as solidification/stabilisation, bioremediation,
chemical treatment (e.g. the base catalysed decomposition process) or thermal
treatment.

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Feasibility assessment

Key considerations that will often determine the feasibility of applying soil washing
systems as a potential remediation option include:
• Whether the contaminated material has a significant percentage of coarse
material that can be separated as a clean fraction suitable for reuse or lower
cost disposal;
• Whether the separated fine contaminated material (slurry) can be dewatered
and disposed of;
• Whether the relative volumes and costs for disposal of the resulting coarse or
clean fraction and the fine or contaminated fraction makes the process
economic.
Appropriate remediation data must be collected to evaluate the applicability of soil
washing and the chemicals (if any) that should be added to the washing liquid. If there
is reasonable confidence that soil washing will achieve the required treatment outcome,
other issues will need to be considered to determine if soil washing is likely to be an
appropriate solution. These include:
• Will the relevant regulatory agencies accept soil washing as a viable means of
remediation?
• Can the treated material be reused? Will the concentrations of inorganics and
residual organics allow the treated material to be reused as backfill on the site
or as clean fill elsewhere, or will subsequent treatment (e.g. stabilisation) or
landfill disposal be required?
• Is it likely that other stakeholders (such as local government or members of
the public) will accept the use of the technology, particularly those
stakeholders that can have a significant bearing on whether the technology is
applied at the site? Are there sensitive sites nearby that would not be
compatible with the proposed operation?
• Is there a time constraint, and can the application of soil washing meet this
constraint?
• Is the expected order of cost of treatment acceptable?
It is noted that soil washing will result in a higher concentration of contamination. For
example, if the clean fraction constitutes 75% of the original material, the fine fraction
can contain contamination with an average concentration in the order of four times the
original. As such the ability and cost of dispose of or treat the more concentrated waste
material must be considered within the remediation options assessment. Readers are
directed to the NRF Technology guide: Bioremediation for more information on treating
the slurry.
Even in cases where most of the contamination has been removed, the contaminant
concentrations in the remaining soil must comply with the remediation criteria. To be
cost-effective, the cleaned fraction of the soil should typically be about 70-80% of the
original volume, however, in the case where the cost of soil disposal or treatment is
particularly high, a somewhat lower cleaned fraction (perhaps 50%) might be feasible.
Note that the volumes and mass resulting after treatment need to be considered: it may

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be difficult to dewater the fine fraction and if it has a high water content (which may be
as high as 50 to 80% after dewatering) the volume and mass may be relatively high.

Data requirements
Successful implementation and design of a soil washing remediation program is
dependent upon the following key technical considerations:
• The physical properties of the soil to be treated.
• The chemical composition of the soil to be treated.
• The chemistry and concentrations of contaminants.
There are some key data requirements to initially assess whether soil washing may be
a viable treatment option. These include:
• Particle size distribution (0.24 to 2 mm is the optimum range, and there should
not be a large fraction of clay or silt);
• Soil type (coarse grained materials best suited);
• Physical form / particulate shape;
• Handling properties and moisture content;
• Contaminant type(s) and concentration(s);
• Texture;
• Organic content;
• Cation exchange capacity;
• pH; and
• Buffering capacity.
Physical properties of soil
The physical composition of the material to be treated needs to be well characterised.
Important factors include:
• Soil particle size and its variability needs to be characterised: coarse material
(gravel or sand) is likely to be most amenable to soil washing with the finer
fraction separated during the process and likely to require additional
treatment;
• Soil heterogeneity: differing grain sizes and the presence of larger lumps of
material (such as masonry in fill) can affect the distribution of the wash water
in the contaminated soil;
• The permeability and plasticity of the material, which can also affect the
distribution of wash water in the contaminated soil; and
• Water content, which may be high if soil from below the water table (or a
sediment in a surface water body) is to be treated.
Chemical composition of soil
The composition of the material to be treated needs to be well characterised. Important
factors include:

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• The distribution concentrations and mass of contaminants in soils at the site,

and the requirement to locate and treat contamination that exceeds certain
concentrations, noting that contamination may be irregular in extent and
location;
• The maximum allowable concentration and variation in concentration of the
contaminants in the treated soil. If very stringent remediation criteria are
applicable, then several rounds of washing may be required, or a higher
volume may need further treatment or removal from the site;
• Humic acids and organic material. Contaminants tend to sorb to organic
particles so if the soil has a high organic content, it is likely to be less
receptive to being treatable by washing;
• Maximum allowable concentrations and forms of miscellaneous material such
as plastic lining systems, steel, rock or asbestos, and the requirement for
exclusion of unacceptable material. Soils are generally screened prior to
washing to remove oversize or deleterious material prior to treatment; and
• Salt content, such as can occur if sediments in saline water are to be washed,
and whether the resulting saline waste stream can be disposed of.
Waste streams
Once the soil has been washed, there will be waste streams generated by the process
that will need further treatment and/or disposal, including for example:
• Treated material (that does not meet the remediation criteria).
• Oversized material rejected during pre-screening.
• Fine fraction material containing higher concentrations of contaminants and
water.
• Used PPE and associated consumables.

Treatable contaminants
Soil washing is most commonly used to treat:
• Heavy metals;
• Petroleum hydrocarbons; and
• Some volatile organic compounds.
However, it can also be effective at treating the following contaminants:
• Polychlorinated biphenyls;
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons;
• Acids;
• Pesticides and herbicides; and
• Cyanides.

Treatable matrices
Soil washing is most suitable for treatment of coarse grained or sandy soils that have a
clay and silt content less than approximately 30% of the soil. Soils with a more

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dominant fine fraction may be able to be remediated using this method, however, it is
likely that significant volumes of waste material will need to be disposed of or require
further treatment after completion of the process, which can reduce cost effectiveness.
Readers are directed to the NRF Technology guide: Bioremediation for more
information on treating the slurry.
Soil washing via chemical extraction, in comparison, may not be subject to such matrix
constraints, as the contaminant may be able to be leached from relatively fine material.

Regulatory requirements
Regulatory agencies, particularly those responsible for protection of the environment,
town planning, and licensing treatment facilities should be consulted to determine the
specific requirements relating to obtaining the necessary approvals, permits and
licences, and controls that can be expected, prior to conducting the soil washing
remediation program.

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Treatability studies

If there is uncertainty as to whether soil washing will achieve the desired outcome in
terms of treated soil, or there are other issues that make it uncertain as to whether soil
washing will be effective, it may be necessary to conduct treatability tests to investigate
the application and results of soil washing in the conditions prevailing at the site to be
remediated.
Designing the treatability study may require input from several technical specialists
including environmental specialists, chemical engineers, mechanical engineers and air
quality specialists to ensure that the study is targeted to obtain the data required to
develop an appropriate implementation strategy.
The additional information required may be able to be determined by reviewing the
published literature and information on case studies on the application of soil washing.
There are generally three stages of testing that can be undertaken:
• Desktop assessment: to determine whether soil washing is a viable treatment
solution for the specific site;
• Bench testing: to assess the effectiveness of soil washing for the specific site
conditions and contaminant concentrations. In general, the RAP can be
designed and written upon completion of this stage.
• Pilot trial: to determine specific operating parameters and performance criteria
and provide sufficient information to enable completion of the RAP.
The data from each stage of treatability testing should be reviewed and interpreted
jointly by the consultant and remediation contractor, with a projection being made of the
results that will be achieved under full scale operation and requirements established for
implementation.

Desktop assessment
Desktop assessment aims to broadly assess the applicability of soil washing to the
general site conditions. In many cases, this stage may be preceded by some testing of
discrete soil samples at the site assessment stage as a preliminary options screening,
and as part of determining suitable materials for the treatability tests.
Soil washing feasibility is usually assessed based on a review of the data available
from a previous contamination assessment where, for example, soil bore records
document the ground conditions present at the site and analytical reports will detail the
contaminant concentrations. The particle size distribution should be known and the
constraints on disposal of the concentrated fine fraction are likely to be critical factors in
determining whether soil washing will be feasible. However, where insufficient data are
available to assess the potential for soil washing to work, tests can be undertaken at
bench scale, using soil and wash water in jars. These preliminary tests can usually be
completed within a few hours.

Bench testing
Bench testing aims to assess whether soil washing can meet the remediation
objectives and its applicability to the specific waste type under the specific site
conditions.

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Soil washing bench testing generally comprises laboratory testing to enable a mass
balance to be calculated and assess the contaminant concentrations in the washed
soil. The results should allow an estimate of the quantity of soil that will be sufficiently
treated that it meets the remediation criteria (i.e. the success rate for soil washing).
Likely data objectives for the second stage of treatability testing are:
• Assess what chemicals/reagents will be needed to treat the contaminants in
the soil (e.g. acids or surfactants) which may impact the treatment
requirements for the waste residue. Can they be treated?
• Assess contaminant concentrations in the clean soil fraction achieved
following treatment (to determine whether the nominated remediation criteria
can be met), and what percentage of the soil can meet the remediation criteria
• Assess contaminant concentrations in the concentrated waste soil fraction
following treatment (to determine the requirements for dewatering and
disposal or treatment). The variability in contaminant concentrations needs to
be considered, as soil washing will result in magnified concentrations in the
waste material. Will soil washing be cost effective?
• What is the likely water balance – the extent to which water can be recycled
and make up is required? Will there be a build-up of soluble salts in recycled
water? What is likely to be the most effective soil:wash water ratio?
Bench testing is more expensive than a desktop assessment and generally takes
several weeks to plan and implement. These tests have the objective of more closely
replicating the physical and chemical parameters of the site under investigation.
The information obtained in the second stage of testing is usually sufficient to enable
development of the RAP.

Pilot trial
If insufficient data was obtained during bench testing to design the RAP, a third stage
of treatability testing can be undertaken to obtain information necessary for the design
of the soil washing remediation program, specific to the conditions of the site.
Field trials usually comprise a small-scale test of the full remediation program. A large
volume of the soil to be remediated may be taken to a soil washing facility and put
through the unit with various chemical mixtures to assess the soil washing efficiency
under differing operating conditions.
The cost of this stage of testing is high (comparable to the full remediation program) so
clear data objectives should be determined at the outset. On completion of this stage of
treatability testing, it should be possible to establish the requirements for the full-scale
implementation, the time scale for the completion of remedial works, and an improved
estimate of the level of cost.

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Validation

The following information describes the specific validation appropriate for soil
washing, to assist validation planning within the RAP. Readers are directed to the
NRF Guideline on validation and closure, which among other things, provides further
information on each of the lines of evidence.
The primary lines of evidence for the validation of soil washing are:
• Reduction in contaminant concentration over time; and
• Analysis of geochemical and biochemical parameters
Where remediation is a moving stream, validation soil sampling may be from:
• Fixed points (with or without composite samples); or
• Homogenised treated stockpiles using statistically appropriate sampling and
analysis.
Where the remediation is an active process, validation soil sampling may be from:
• Locations within and around the remediation area; and
• Locations within the reagent delivery/contaminant extraction system.

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Health and safety

Soil washing units, like many types of industrial equipment, pose hazards to workers. If
these hazards are properly evaluated and controlled, the technology can be used
safely.
Some of the hazards associated with soil washing and control mechanisms are
outlined in Table 1. The list is intended to provide an indication of the hazards
potentially associated with soil washing application. They will vary significantly from site
to site and the list is not intended as a substitute for a detailed hazard assessment of
the operation, which should be provided in the RAP.
Readers are directed to the NRF Guideline on health and safety for further information
on health and safety on remediation sites, including risk assessment, the hierarchy of
controls and suggested documentation.

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Table 1: Common soil washing hazards and suggested controls

Hazard Sources of hazard Suggested controls

Process • Splashing or leaking chemicals • Use and store smaller quantities of process chemicals.
Chemicals while mixing into wash water.
• Install eye wash and emergency shower.
• Responding to an emergency
• Prepare and train for spill containment.
release of process treatment
chemicals or fuel. • Personnel are trained in the use of the equipment and handling of
chemicals
• Ensure use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
Site contaminants • Releasing volatile contaminants as • Work ‘up-wind’ of disturbed soil, when possible.
soil is moved to soil washing unit.
• Segregate treated feedstock until tested.
• Releasing or coming in contact
• Routinely monitor work areas; some contaminants require an initial
with contaminants while sampling
assessment of exposure (e.g. lead).
or handling.
• Ensure use of PPE.
Storage of slurries • Physical danger of access by • Security;
personnel (quicksand)
• Signage;
• Training.
Dust • Releasing dust while excavating • Spray water or use dust suppressants on storage piles and exposed soil.
and transporting soil.
• Do not operate earth moving equipment during high winds Cover
untreated and treated soil stockpiles.
• Ensure use of PPE.
Ergonomic risks • Lifting or performing any other • Provide conveniently located equipment for the job including correctly
movement with too much force sized tools.
and/or in an awkward position or
• Train workers on ergonomic risks and prevention.
repeating the lift/movement too
often.

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Hazard Sources of hazard Suggested controls

Flying particles • Falling soil from excavator or soil • Designated work areas and plant movement routes
and falling washing unit.
• Ensure workers use proper PPE.
material
Noise • Working near soil washing unit. • Locate noisy operations away from other workers.
• Identify and mark areas requiring hearing protection.
Slips, trips and • Storing construction materials or • Keep walking and working areas free of debris, tools etc. and maintain a
falls other unnecessary items on policy of good housekeeping.
walkways and in work areas.
• Keep walking and working areas as clean and dry as possible.
• Creating and/or using wet, muddy,
• Install handrails, and guardrails on work platforms.
sloping, or otherwise irregular
walkways and work surfaces. • Clean and inspect ladders and stairs routinely.

• Constructing and/or using • Ensure use of PPE, including fall arrest systems.
improper walkways, stairs, or
• Train workers on fall hazards and use of ladders.
landings or damaging these
surfaces.
• Creating and/or using uneven
terrain in and around work areas.
• Working from elevated work
surfaces and ladders.
Moving vehicles • Moving and stockpiling untreated • Train affected employees on limitations of equipment and drivers.
and treated soil.
• Train equipment and vehicle operators in safe operation.
• Loading and unloading soil
• Set acceptable speed limits and traffic patterns Ensure that equipment
washing unit.
has, and workers use, back-up alarms, mirrors, and seat-belts.
• Receiving and transferring process
• Establish vehicle inspection schedules and procedures.
chemicals and other materials
from commercial vehicles. • Do routine maintenance on plant, vehicles and road ways.

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Appendix A – Case studies

Soil washing has been attempted several times in Australia, but projects demonstrating
a successful outcome were not identified in this review. Examples include:
• The application of soil washing for the treatment of mercury contaminated soil
at Botany NSW in 2012 was not found to be successful due to low
productivity, even after a bulk treatability study;
• A full-scale soil washing plant was mobilised at Cabarita NSW to treat lead
contaminated soil from paint coatings in the mid-1990s, but this was not
successful. It is not known if a treatability study was undertaken;
• Soil washing was trialled for application to Homebush Bay sediments in NSW,
but this was not successful; and
• Soil washing was tested for treating PAH contaminated sediments from the
Swan River in WA, but this was not pursued because of the difficulty of
dewatering and disposing of the resulting waste slurry.
Soil washing has also been undertaken overseas. Examples include:
• Avenue Coking Works field
trial: http://www.claire.co.uk/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=file
&id=9:case-study-bulletins&Itemid=230 ;
• King of Prussia Technical Corporation Superfund site cost performance
trial: http://costperformance.org/profile.cfm?ID=125&CaseID=125
• 37 case studies for the application of soil washing to treat metal contaminated
soils in Europe, the USA and Canada are summarised and fully referenced in
Table 1 of DERMONT, BERGERON, MERCIER & RICHER-LAFLECHE
(2008);
• Remediation of Basford Gasworks using Soil
Washing: http://www.claire.co.uk/index.php?option=com_virtuemart&view=pro
ductdetails&virtuemart_product_id=18&virtuemart_category_id=6&Itemid=124
• London Olympic
Park: http://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/article/10.1680/geng.11.00109

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Appendix B – References

DERMONT, BERGERON, MERCIER & RICHER-LAFLECHE, 2008, Soil washing for

metal removal: A review of physical/chemical technologies and field
applications, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 152(1), pp 1-31.
FRTR, 2014, Remediation technologies screening matrix and reference guide (V4):
Issue 4.19 Soil Washing [Online]: United States Federal Remediation
Technologies Roundtable. Available: https://frtr.gov/matrix2/section4/4-19.html
[Accessed 10 June 2014].
US DOD, 2013, United Facilities Guide Specification: Soil washing through
separation/solubilization, UFGS-02-54-23, United States Department of
Defence, Washington, DC.
US EPA, 1991, Guide for conducting treatability studies under CERCLA: Soil washing
(interim guidance), EPA/540/2-91/020A, United States Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.

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