Chapter 1: Introduction Null hypothesis can be either rejected or
retained
Statement of the Problem - When a null hypothesis is rejected,
- Contains the purpose statements this means that there is a difference
and the research question(s) between the variables being
- “This study (or research aims investigated. On the other hand, if
to…(make congruent with the title).” you fail to reject the null hypothesis,
- “Specifically, this research (or study) this means that the alternative
seeks to answer the following hypothesis should be rejected.
questions.”
- Phrases questions with the data to Marczyk, DeMatteo, and Festinger (2005)
be collected in mind. Answer the proposed a second category of a research
questions and rephrase questions, if hypothesis, namely:
your intended answer does not
match the question. Directional hypothesis
- have a particular direction
Hypothesis
- Assumption about the variables Non-Directional hypothesis
- Valid hypothesis brings direction to - cannot determine which direction
your study
Examples:
Characteristics
(Marczyk et al. 2005; Kumar 2011) Directional Hypothesis: Female students
- A hypothesis should be falsifiable. of ABC Academy receive higher scores in
- A hypothesis should be predictable. the college entrance examinations than
- A hypothesis should be simple and male students do.
specific.
- A hypothesis should be based on an Nondirectional Hypothesis: Students of ABC
existing body of knowledge. Academy receive high scores in the college
- A hypothesis should be capable of entrance examinations.
being operationally defined.
- A hypothesis should be reflective of Types of Error in Hypothesis
the research problem. - Type I error - the null hypothesis
was rejected when, in reality, it is
Types true.
Plano Clark and Creswell (2015) explained - Type II error - the null hypothesis
that there are two types of research was not rejected when, in reality, it is
hypotheses in quantitative research: false.
Null hypothesis Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
- there is no difference or no Theory
relationship - A statement of how facts are related.
Alternative hypothesis - A system of ideas intended to
- there is a difference or relationship explain a specific phenomenon.
Theoretical Framework Scope and Delimitation
- Research map
- Conceptual model of all the factors Scope
contributing to the problem and - extent of the content
generates hypotheses. - areas of the study that will be
- Identifying the network of focused on
relationships among the variables.
- pertains to the theory where the Delimitation
researchers based their study. - specific characteristics that limit the
scope of the study
Components of Theoretical Framework - dependent and independent
- Clearly defined relevant variables. variables
- State how two or more variables are - set and decided by the researchers
related (relationship). themselves
- Indication of nature of relationship.
- Clear explanation to expect Writing the scope and delimitation
relationships to exist. 1. Limiting your sample size
- Diagram of theoretical framework 2. Limit the profile of the
respondents to survey
Conceptual Framework questionnaire items
- Skeleton 3. The general design of the
- A diagrammatic presentation of the study must be reflected in
study also called the research this section
paradigm. 4. State the general method of
- A basic structure or frame of your data collection
reference which is designed to 5. Select the design of your
support or enclose something. study that will best fit the
- Connects the variables of the study timeframe
with lines (correlations) or arrows 6. Always consider your
(cause-effect relationships). sources before conducting
- illustrates how a research problem any research
will be investigated 7. Access to literature can be a
- relationships and limitation to a study
- connections of concepts, and the
means of exploring the problem Significance of the Study
- States the audience and who will
Rule of thumb benefit from a study.
- The number of research questions is - Explain how exactly the results will
at least equal to the number of be significant to them.
lines/arrows in the conceptual - In writing this section,
framework. ● Paragraph form, cite
beneficiaries of results of
study.
● Specifically describe how it - To prove researchers familiarity
will benefit them. - To establish your study as one link in
a chain of research
Definition of Terms
- set boundaries on how specific Summary
terms are going to be used in the - explaining the content of any
study material in a concise and coherent
manner
Conceptual and Operational Definitions - provides an objective
- Contains essential information on
Conceptual definition the main arguments and claims
- easily described as the definition
found in the dictionary Citation Styles
Citations
Operational definition - acknowledging literature sources
- refers to how a certain concept was - in-text citations
used or measured in a particular - A list of citations at the end of the
study paper is known as a reference list
(also called bibliography).
Guidelines in Writing the Definition of - to avoid intellectual property issues
Terms
● Avoid defining terms by merely repeating Citing Literature Sources
the word. - Gives credit to other researchers
● Simple and familiar words are preferred in - Supports arguments
defining terms. Avoid the use of words - Identifies and organizes literature
that is too complex. This is to avoid sources
misinterpretations in your study.
● The terms defined should be arranged In-text Citation
alphabetically. - An in-text citation is a marker placed
● Acronyms should be spelled out before or after the text that was
completely, especially if it is uncommon or quoted or paraphrased.
will be used for the first time in the research
paper. Types of In-text Citation
Parenthetical Citation
Chapter 2 - citation details are put inside the
Review of Related Literature and Studies parentheses and are placed at the
- Written summary of journal articles, end of the sentence containing the
books, and other documents that referenced material
describes the past and current state
of information on the topic of your
research study
- To justify your choice
- To establish importance
- To provide background information
Narrative Citation - commonly-used citation format in the
- incorporated into the sentence field of humanities like language,
structure of the body text. arts, communication, and literature
- the author’s surname followed by the
page numbers of the cited content
Citation Formats
The three common citation style guides in
research are the APA, MLA, and CMOS.
APA Style Guide (7th edition)
- stands for American Psychological
Association
- most commonly used citation
formats in academic writing
- the surname of the author and the
year of publication CMOS (17th edition)
- refers to the Chicago Manual of
Style
- used by multiple fields like social
sciences, humanities, and other
physical sciences
- CMOS style comes in two forms: the
notes and bibliography and the
author-date system.
Notes and bibliography: uses superscript
numbers at the end of the sentence or
paragraph followed by footnotes
Author-date: similar to the APA style
MLA Style Guide (8th edition)
- stands for Modern Language
Association
To be more specific, an experimental design
must contain the following elements
(Drummond and Murphy-Reyes 2017):
1. Manipulation or intervention: must
manipulate the independent variable
Synthesis
to see if it has an effect on the
- links multiple summaries
dependent variable.
- coherent and logical explanation of
2. Controlled extraneous variables: the
an idea or argument
changes in the dependent variable
are solely because of the
manipulation of the independent
variable.
3. Random selection of participants:
removes the selection bias to
balance the different groups with
different treatment conditions.
Quasi-Experimental Design
- requires the independent variable to
be manipulated
- it lacks a key element of an
experimental design, which is
Chapter 3 randomization.
Research Design
- empirical, straightforward, and can
test their reliability and validity
Experimental Research Design
- find out whether an intervention Correlational Research Design
considered as the independent - used to study the association
variable has an effect on a between two variables
dependent variable - Does not tell about the causality
- extraneous variables - Only describes the degree of
association
- as age, gender, ethnicity, and annual
income are some of the information
asked in a demographic form.
Performance Measures
- measure an individual’s attitudes
and opinions
Behavioral Observation Checklist
- used to record individuals’ behaviors
Factual Information Documents
- to tell information about the
participants’ documents
Descriptive Research Design - School records, attendance records,
- to study a naturally occurring medical records or even census
phenomenon information.
- describes a specific characteristic or
behavior Validity and Reliability
- does not involve the manipulation
Reliability
Survey Research - the stability and consistency of an
- explore the trends instrument under different
circumstances or points in time.
Demographic Research
- Life events Internal Consistency
- that any group of items taken out
Epidemiological Research from a specific instrument will likely
- patterns of disease and health bring about the same results
The internal consistency of a measure can
Instruments be obtained through the following
- According to Plano Clark and techniques (Howitt 2014):
Creswell (2015), quantitative studies 1. Split-half reliability: resulted from
mostly have five general types of half of the items on the instrument
research instruments: demographic was correlated with the score on the
forms, performance measures, other half of the instrument.
attitudinal measures, behavioral 2. Odd-even reliability: obtained
observation checklists, and factual score of the even-numbered items
information documents. was correlated with the score on the
odd-numbered items
Demographic Forms 3. Cronbach’s alpha: obtained by
- collect basic information about the getting the mean of every possible
participants half of the items correlated with
every possible other half of the items
Concurrent validity
Stability Over Time - obtained by correlating two research
- test-retest reliability instruments taken at the same time
- simply the correlation between the
scores of the participants on an Predictive validity
instrument at one point in time with - an instrument to predict another
their scores on the same instrument variable, which is called a
given at a later point in time. criterion(criterion should be different
from the construct originally being
Alternate Forms measured)
- called parallel forms reliability
- to use equivalent versions of the Construct Validity
test, wherein the participant’s scores - by examining whether a specific
in both tests are being correlated instrument relates to other measures
Validity
- instrument’s capacity to measure Construct validity can be classified into
what it is supposed to measure two types: convergent validity and
There are three types of validity: face and discriminant validity (Leary 2011).
content validity, criterion validity, and
construct validity (Kumar 2011). Convergent validity
- an instrument correlates with other
Face and Content Validity similar instruments
- item both speak of the instrument’s
capability to measure the intended Discriminant validity
construct - an instrument does not correlate
with other instruments
Face Validity
- an instrument appears to measure Errors in Writing Questions
what it is supposed to measure
1. Do you like cellphones? (Unclear, vague
Content Validity question)
- test items to include important
characteristics of the concept that is REVISION: Do you believe that students
intended to be measured must be allowed to use cellphones during
class?
Criterion Validity
- instrument can give the same result 2. Do you believe cellphones and laptops
as compared to other similar must be allowed for use inside the
instruments classroom? (A combination of two
There are two types of criterion validity: questions/Double barreled)
concurrent and predictive validity
(Langdridge and Hagger-Johnson 2013). REVISION: Do you believe that laptops
must be allowed for use inside the
classroom?
Ethical Considerations
3.Do you consider a quad core processor to - knowing the right and wrong ways in
be an important feature of a cellphone? constructing the synthesis of
(Contains jargon) literature sources
REVISION: Is the speed of response of the
cellphone important to you?
4.Whenever the teacher is discussing in
front of the class and a phone rings right in
the middle of it, it can be distracting. Do you
find the ringing of a phone distracting
enough to take you out of your focus? (Too
long)
REVISION: Do you find ringing sounds of a
phone distracting while in class? Pilot Testing
- Sa airplane
😜
5. Agree or disagree: The school should not - Sa rosary
discontinue its ban of cellular phones in - Hindi ko po alam baka alam niyo
class.(Double negatives) - preliminary test or study conducted
before a larger-scale study (sabi ni
REVISION: Do you agree that the school google)
should continue banning phones in class?
Sampling
6. Community organizing is hard. Do Population: a group of people
leadership trainings help you feel prepared Sample: subgroup or a portion from a
for community organizing?[Blased/leading population
question)
Much more prepared Probability Sampling
Somewhat more prepared - equal chance
Slightly more prepared - Random
Not more prepared
Simple Random Sampling
REVISION: The leadership training - randomly selects their participants
prepares me for community organizing.
Strongly agree The following are the options in doing this
Agree technique (Coolican 2014):
Disagree 1. Computer selection: computer
Strongly disagree programs that can generate a
random set of names for your
sample
2. Random number tables: assign a Snowball Sampling
number for each individual from the - characteristics of the participants are
population uncommon
3. Manual selection: known as the
fishbowl method. The names of each
member of the population are listed
down on slips of paper, and put in a
box or container
Systematic Random Sampling
- randomly decides on a starting point
in the list of the members of the
target population
Sample Size
- chooses every nth case from the
- actual number of individuals, who
population
participated in the research study
and contributed significant data.
Stratified Random Sampling
- randomly selects participants from
Respondents and Data Collection
each subgroup
- The most common methods are
- the sample will represent a
questionnaires, experiments,
proportionate number of subgroups
observation, and interviews.
1. Questionnaires: written list of item
Nonprobability Sampling
questions
- sample is chosen by the researcher
2. Experiment: test hypotheses under
controlled conditions and involves
Convenience Sampling
the manipulation of variables
- participants who readily available
(Laboratory, Field, and natural
and accessible to participate
experiments)
3. Quantitative Observation: more
Quota Sampling
interested in the interactions and
- selecting people from different
behavior
subgroups
4. Quantitative Interview: questions
- solely based on the researcher’s
are being read to respondents
decision
Purposive Sampling
- chooses their participants
intentionally
- most suitable in providing
information for the research study
- have appropriate expertise and
experience