Process Management Overview

Notes on Operating Systems (Process Management) – Based on the

Hindi Transcript

1. Introduction to Operating Systems and Process Management

Operating systems (OS) are crucial for managing hardware and software resources on a
computer. A key function of OS is process management, which ensures that processes
(programs in execution) are handled efficiently.

System Software and Operating Systems play a vital role in managing processes,
memory, and resources in a computer system. OS deals with running multiple tasks and
managing system resources like CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

2. What is a Process?

A process is a program that is currently being executed. It starts when a program is

loaded into memory and terminates when the program finishes execution.

A process can have multiple states and involves multiple steps from initiation to
completion. These states include:

New State: A process is being created.

Ready State: The process is waiting to be executed by the CPU.

Running State: The process is being executed by the CPU.

Blocked/Waiting State: The process is waiting for some I/O operation or resource.

Terminated State: The process has completed execution.

3. Process Control Block (PCB)

A Process Control Block (PCB) stores important information about the process, such as
its current state, process ID, memory pointers, and CPU registers.

The PCB helps the operating system manage process execution and provides the
necessary data to schedule and control the execution of processes.

4. Process Creation and Execution

When a process is initiated (for example, by double-clicking an icon), it enters the new
state. It is then loaded into memory and moves into the ready state, where it waits for
the CPU to execute it.

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 The central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for executing processes, and it
allocates resources to processes in an orderly manner to avoid conflicts and ensure
optimal system performance.

5. Process Scheduling

Process scheduling is crucial for managing multiple processes effectively. The OS decides
which process will get CPU time using scheduling algorithms.

Multitasking systems allow multiple processes to run simultaneously by switching

between them rapidly, creating the illusion of parallel execution. The CPU needs to
manage and prioritize which process to execute based on factors like process priority
and resource requirements.

6. CPU Scheduling and Queue Management

In systems where multiple processes are running at the same time, the CPU must
allocate time slices to each process. The scheduling algorithm determines the order in
which processes are executed.

Processes are placed in queues, and the scheduler picks the next process to execute
based on the algorithm being used (e.g., First Come First Serve (FCFS), Shortest Job First
(SJF), Round Robin).

7. Multitasking and Process Management

Modern operating systems support multitasking, where multiple processes are

executed simultaneously by rapidly switching between tasks.

Multilevel Queue Scheduling is often used where different types of processes (e.g.,
interactive, batch) are assigned different priority levels, and each has its own queue.

8. Context Switching

Context switching occurs when the CPU switches from one process to another. This
involves saving the current state of the process (its context) and loading the state of the
next process to be executed.

The operating system is responsible for saving and restoring the process state to ensure
that each process can resume from where it left off.

9. Inter-Process Communication (IPC)

In systems with multiple processes, there is often a need for processes to communicate
with each other. This can be done using Inter-Process Communication mechanisms

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 such as shared memory, message passing, and semaphores.

IPC helps coordinate tasks between different processes, which might be working on
related or interdependent tasks.

10. Memory Management and Process Execution

Memory management ensures that each process has access to the memory it needs
while preventing processes from interfering with each other.

The OS uses various techniques such as virtual memory and paging to manage
memory efficiently and ensure that processes do not overwrite each other’s data.

11. Managing Process Termination

When a process completes its execution, it moves to the terminated state. The OS
deallocates any resources used by the process and removes it from memory.

A process may also terminate prematurely due to errors or issues like exceeding time
limits or lack of resources.

12. Important Concepts for Exam Preparation

The operating system process management unit is essential, as it is often heavily

tested in exams.

Be prepared to answer questions on process states, process control blocks, scheduling

algorithms, context switching, and inter-process communication.

Understanding these concepts will allow you to tackle around 95% of questions related
to process management in operating systems.

13. Practical Application of Process Management

Real-world systems require managing hundreds or thousands of processes at once.

Effective process management ensures that the system runs efficiently, with minimal
delays and maximum throughput.

In systems with limited resources, it is important to prioritize processes and manage

resource allocation effectively to prevent bottlenecks and ensure smooth operation.

This summary provides a structured overview of the process management concepts covered
in the transcript.

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Detailed Notes on the Transcript (in English):
The given transcript discusses several key concepts related to the functioning of processes in
a computer system, particularly focusing on process states, scheduling, and job
management. Here's a structured breakdown of the important concepts:

1. Process Lifecycle
New State: The first state when a process is created. When a new process is started, it
enters the "New" state. It requires further processing to transition into other states.

Ready State: After a process has been created and initialized, it is ready to run but is
waiting for CPU time. The process waits in the "Ready" state.

Running State: A process in the "Ready" state eventually transitions into the "Running"
state when the CPU allocates it time for execution.

2. Job Management and Queueing

Job Control: Once a job starts, it needs to be managed through a system that tracks its
progress. A "job" is essentially a process that may involve various activities or stages.

Waiting Queue: Sometimes, processes must wait in a queue until they can proceed. This
occurs if the system's resources are fully occupied or if the process depends on some
other process or resource.

Scheduling: The process scheduling system manages which process gets to run at a
given time, balancing between the processes in the "Ready" queue and allocating CPU
time based on specific algorithms.

3. Process States and Transitions

Processes can transition between multiple states:

New → Ready → Running

From "Running", the process might move back to "Ready" if it needs to wait for
resources.

If a process has completed its task, it enters the Exit state.

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 Non-Preemptive Scheduling: In some systems, once a process starts, it is allowed to
finish its execution without interruption. This type of scheduling ensures that a process
is not prematurely removed from the CPU.

4. Process Execution
The system manages processes by allocating CPU time when a process is ready to run. If
a process is interrupted (for instance, by a higher-priority process), it may have to wait
again in the ready queue.

Processes are checked for available resources (memory, CPU) and may need to "wait" if
resources are not free.

5. Resource Management and Job Control

Secondary Storage: For storing large data or less frequently used data, secondary
storage is utilized. It holds information about processes that are not actively running but
may need to be brought into memory at a later point.

Memory Management: The system maintains a memory management unit that handles
allocating memory resources to processes. It tracks which parts of memory are in use
and ensures efficient distribution to avoid memory conflicts.

6. Scheduling Algorithms
Preemptive vs Non-Preemptive Scheduling:

In preemptive scheduling, processes can be interrupted before they complete, and

the CPU can be assigned to another process based on priority or other factors.

Non-preemptive scheduling ensures a process completes its execution once started

unless the process voluntarily releases the CPU.

7. Process Termination
A process completes its execution when all the tasks assigned to it are finished. It then
exits the system and frees up resources for other processes to use.

8. The Role of the Teacher-Student Analogy

The transcript uses an analogy where a teacher manages multiple students' questions:

The teacher represents a process scheduler, and each student represents a

process.

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 The teacher answers a question (executes a process) from one student (process)
before moving on to the next.

The process is completed when the teacher has answered all the questions of a
particular student.

This metaphor emphasizes the idea of job scheduling and resource management within a
system, where tasks are handled in a specific sequence or order based on availability and
priority.

Key Concepts Recap:

Process States: New, Ready, Running, Exit.

Job Scheduling: Managing processes via queues.

Non-Preemptive Scheduling: Ensures a process runs to completion.

Resource Management: Efficient allocation of CPU and memory.

Memory Management: Tracking resource use and availability.

Teacher-Student Analogy: Illustrates job scheduling and process handling.

These concepts are essential for understanding how an operating system manages
processes and resources, ensuring that tasks are completed efficiently and in a timely
manner.

Detailed Notes on the Hindi Transcript

Overview:

The provided transcript primarily discusses various types of scheduling algorithms and
processes, their working principles, and the reasons behind naming these processes. The
focus is on short-term and long-term scheduling, their characteristics, and examples to
illustrate how these algorithms function in a computing context.

Key Concepts:

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1. Short-Term Scheduler:

The short-term scheduler is responsible for selecting processes that are ready to
execute from the ready queue and allocating them the CPU for execution. It is also
known as the CPU scheduler.

Characteristics:

Frequent operation: The short-term scheduler operates very frequently since it

is responsible for quickly allocating the CPU to processes in the ready state.

Shorter execution time: The processes selected by the short-term scheduler are
typically ready to run immediately or with minimal delay.

Example: When a process enters the ready queue, it is given immediate

attention by the short-term scheduler, which selects it for execution.

2. Long-Term Scheduler:

The long-term scheduler is responsible for determining which processes should be

moved from the job pool to the ready queue. It controls the degree of
multiprogramming (i.e., how many processes can be in the system at one time).

Characteristics:

Less frequent operation: The long-term scheduler runs less frequently and
selects processes based on the system's capacity to handle them over a longer
duration.

Longer execution time: Processes that the long-term scheduler selects might
require more resources or need to be initiated in a more complex environment.

Example: A process may need to be loaded from secondary storage into

memory, requiring more time and resources than the short-term scheduler can
handle.

3. Medium-Term Scheduler:

The medium-term scheduler controls the movement of processes between the

ready and waiting queues. It is involved in managing processes in a way that
balances system load.

Characteristics:

Moderate frequency: This scheduler operates between the short-term and long-
term schedulers to manage memory and CPU resources more effectively.

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 Example: In the case of a job waiting for input or resources, the medium-term
scheduler manages its suspension and resumption.

Detailed Examples and Discussion:

Scheduler Naming Convention:

The naming of schedulers (short-term, long-term, and medium-term) is based on

the frequency of their operations and the nature of the tasks they handle. The short-
term scheduler has a high frequency of operation due to its need to manage
frequent context switching between processes.

Example of Short-Term Scheduling:

Consider a user who opens a process. Once the process starts, it is initialized and
executed by the short-term scheduler, ensuring that it is allocated CPU time
immediately.

Example of Long-Term Scheduling:

A process might be selected by the long-term scheduler if it is moved from

secondary storage to primary memory for execution. The long-term scheduler
ensures that the system doesn't become overloaded by too many processes running
simultaneously.

Practical Use Case:

A real-world scenario, such as a person visiting a bank for depositing money or a

check, is used to explain the process of managing time. The person's interaction
with the bank involves waiting, processing, and completing the task. These steps are
analogous to managing processes in computing, where waiting times, processing
times, and response times are critical metrics.

Process Time Management:

Arrival Time, Waiting Time, and Response Time:

Arrival Time: The time at which a process enters the system or queue.

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 Waiting Time: The amount of time a process spends in the ready queue waiting for
CPU allocation.

Response Time: The time between the initiation of a process and the first response
from the system.
These metrics are crucial for evaluating system performance and optimizing scheduling
algorithms.

Conclusion:
The discussion highlights the importance of understanding the different types of schedulers
(short-term, long-term, and medium-term) and how they manage processes in computing.
By drawing parallels with real-world scenarios like bank transactions, the complexity of
process management and the significance of time metrics such as arrival time, waiting time,
and response time are made clear.

Here is the detailed English translation and academic-style notes based on the Hindi
transcript:

Process Scheduling and Time Management in Computational Systems

Overview:

In computational systems, tasks or processes need to be managed efficiently to ensure

minimal delay and maximum output. These processes are often prioritized based on their
arrival time and execution duration. The concepts covered here include process scheduling
techniques such as First Come First Serve (FCFS) and Shortest Job First (SJF), and how they
affect overall system performance, including waiting time and response time.

Key Concepts:

1. Process Scheduling:

Process scheduling is a method used by operating systems to manage the execution

of tasks or processes. The system follows a set of rules to determine which task to
execute first, depending on the criteria such as arrival time or duration of execution.

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 FCFS (First Come First Serve): The process that arrives first is executed first.

SJF (Shortest Job First): The process with the shortest execution time is given
priority.

2. Time Metrics:

Arrival Time: The time at which a process enters the system.

Execution Time: The time taken to complete a process.

Completion Time: The time when a process finishes its execution.

Waiting Time: The time a process spends waiting in the queue before its execution
starts. It is calculated as:

Waiting Time = Completion Time − Arrival Time − Execution Time

Response Time: The time between the submission of a request and the first
response to it.

Turnaround Time: The total time taken for a process from arrival to completion. It is
calculated as:

Turnaround Time = Completion Time − Arrival Time

3. Execution Sequence:

In this context, the process with the shortest execution time is prioritized first, then
the subsequent processes follow. This ensures minimal waiting time for each
process.

Processes are managed based on their arrival times. For example, if Process A
arrives first, it will begin execution before others. If Process B arrives after Process A
but has a shorter execution time, it will be processed next.

4. Multi-layered Execution and Backtracking:

Some processes may have multiple steps or stages. For example, in cases where a
process involves several tasks, the system must determine the correct order to
process them, typically starting with the simplest or shortest task and progressing
sequentially.

The system often requires backtracking to optimize scheduling. If a certain task

cannot be completed within its allocated time, the system must adjust by either
restarting or moving to the next process.

5. Optimal Time Calculation:

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 The ideal execution sequence is one where all processes are scheduled in a way that
minimizes the waiting and response times.

The waiting time for each process is critical in ensuring the system operates
efficiently. The formula for calculating response time involves considering both
process time and the waiting time.

Formula for Response Time:

Response Time = Start Time of the Process − Arrival Time

6. Simulation and Practical Application:

A simulation model can be created to visualize how each process is executed,

including how much time each process spends waiting and the total completion
time.

Example Scenario: If Process A arrives at 0 seconds and takes 10 seconds to

execute, and Process B arrives at 2 seconds and takes 5 seconds, Process A will be
executed first, followed by Process B, after waiting for Process A to complete.

Arrival Time and Execution Order Example:

Process A (Arrival: 0 sec, Execution: 10 sec)

Process B (Arrival: 2 sec, Execution: 5 sec)

Process C (Arrival: 4 sec, Execution: 7 sec)

The system will first process A, then B, and finally C. The total waiting time for each
process is calculated based on their respective start and finish times.

7. Importance of Efficient Scheduling:

Efficient scheduling helps reduce system bottlenecks and ensures better resource
utilization.

Optimizing waiting times and response times improves the overall performance of
the system, ensuring tasks are completed in the shortest possible duration.

8. Real-World Application:

This process scheduling model can be applied in real-world systems such as

banking software, web servers, or any computational system where multiple tasks
must be executed in a controlled and efficient manner.

For instance, in a banking application, transactions (like deposits and withdrawals)

are processed in the order they arrive, but if one transaction takes much longer than

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 others, it may cause delays for subsequent transactions.

Conclusion:

The scheduling of processes in computing systems is a complex task that requires careful
consideration of arrival times, execution durations, and resource allocation. The goal is to
ensure minimal waiting times and optimal response times to enhance system performance.
By understanding and implementing different scheduling algorithms like FCFS and SJF, and
calculating time metrics such as waiting, response, and turnaround times, system efficiency
can be significantly improved.

Notes on System Software and Operating System Scheduling

Algorithms

Introduction

This lecture focused on the concepts of system software, specifically operating systems. It
emphasized the principles of scheduling algorithms, their types, and how they function
under different conditions.

Key Concepts

1. Scheduling Algorithms

Scheduling is crucial in an operating system for managing processes effectively. Two main
categories are:

Preemptive Scheduling: Allows processes to be interrupted and resumed later.

Non-Preemptive Scheduling: Processes run to completion before switching.

2. Types of Scheduling
a. Non-Preemptive Scheduling:

A process runs until completion without interruptions.

Example: First-Come, First-Served (FCFS).

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b. Preemptive Scheduling:

Processes can be interrupted and shifted based on priority or time slice.

Examples: Round Robin (RR), Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF).

3. Common Scheduling Algorithms

a. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS):

Processes are executed in the order they arrive.

Pros: Simple to implement.

Cons: Long waiting time for processes that arrive later.

b. Shortest Job Next (SJN):

Executes the process with the shortest execution time.

Non-preemptive by nature.

Suitable for batch systems.

c. Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF):

Preemptive version of SJN.

Continuously selects the process with the smallest remaining time.

d. Round Robin (RR):

Each process gets a fixed time slice (quantum) in a cyclic order.

Effective for time-sharing systems.

e. Priority Scheduling:

Processes are assigned priorities, and the scheduler selects the highest-priority process.

Can be preemptive or non-preemptive.

f. Multilevel Queue Scheduling:

Processes are divided into multiple queues based on priority or type.

Each queue can have its scheduling algorithm.

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4. Metrics for Evaluation
a. Turnaround Time (TAT):

Total time taken from process arrival to completion.

Formula:
T AT = Completion T ime − Arrival T ime

b. Waiting Time (WT):

Time spent by a process waiting in the ready queue.

Formula:
W T = T urnaround T ime − Burst T ime

c. Response Time (RT):

Time from process arrival to its first execution.

Important for interactive systems.

5. Scheduling Example
Given:

Processes: P0, P1, P2, P3

Arrival Times: A0 = 0, A1 = 2, A2 = 4, A3 = 6

Burst Times: B0 = 6, B1 = 8, B2 = 7, B3 = 3

Steps to Calculate:

1. Identify the scheduling type (e.g., FCFS, RR).

2. Compute metrics like TAT, WT, and RT for each process.

3. Create a Gantt Chart to visualize execution order.

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6. Gantt Chart Example
Using FCFS:

Order: P0 → P1 → P2 → P3

Completion Times: C0 = 6, C1 = 14, C2 = 21, C3 = 24

TAT and WT:

T ATP 0 = 6, W TP 0 = 0
​ ​

T ATP 1 = 12, W TP 1 = 4
​ ​

T ATP 2 = 17, W TP 2 = 10
​ ​

T ATP 3 = 18, W TP 3 = 15
​ ​

7. Observations
Preemptive scheduling provides better response times for interactive systems.

Non-preemptive scheduling can cause delays in high-priority processes if a long process

is executed first.

Conclusion
The choice of a scheduling algorithm depends on system requirements, such as throughput,
response time, and CPU utilization. Understanding the metrics and visualizing execution with
Gantt charts help in analyzing and optimizing performance.

Notes on Preemptive Scheduling Algorithm and Process States

1. Introduction to Preemptive Scheduling:

Preemptive scheduling is a CPU scheduling approach where the operating system can
interrupt and replace a currently running process with a higher-priority process.

This method ensures optimal CPU utilization and responsiveness in real-time systems.

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2. Key Concepts:

Arrival Time:

It represents when a process enters the ready queue.

Execution Timeline:

Processes are handled in small time intervals (quantums).

At the end of each quantum, the scheduler checks for other ready processes.

Ready Queue and Comparison:

If only one process is in the queue, no comparisons are needed; the single process
executes.

When multiple processes are present, comparisons are based on priority or other
scheduling criteria.

Process Execution:

A process executes for its allocated quantum. If it completes within this time, it
terminates.

Otherwise, it is preempted and re-added to the ready queue for further execution.

3. Handling Process States:

States in Process Lifecycle:

1. New: Process is created.

2. Ready: Process is waiting in the ready queue for CPU allocation.

3. Running: Process is currently being executed.

4. Blocked/Waiting: Process is waiting for an I/O operation to complete.

5. Terminated: Process has completed execution.

Transition Between States:

Ready to Running: Short-term scheduler selects the highest-priority process.

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 Running to Blocked: Process moves to waiting state for I/O.

Blocked to Ready: Upon completion of I/O, process returns to ready queue.

Running to Ready: Occurs during preemption if a higher-priority process arrives.

4. Gantt Chart Representation:

The Gantt chart is a visual representation of the CPU allocation timeline for processes.

Each process's execution duration, waiting time, and turnaround time are depicted.

Calculation Formulas:

Turnaround Time (TAT): Finish Time - Arrival Time.

Waiting Time (WT): Turnaround Time - Burst Time.

5. Example Scenario:

Processes Overview:

Process P1: Arrival at 0, executes for 3 seconds.

Process P2: Arrival at 5 seconds, ready but waits for its turn.

Process P3: Arrival at 10 seconds, starts after P2 completes.

Execution:

P1 runs first as it is the only process at time 0.

At 3 seconds, no new process has arrived; hence, P1 continues if not completed.

Scheduler ensures processes are prioritized when multiple options are available.

Final State:

At 10 seconds, P3 preempts based on its priority.

Gantt chart reflects all transitions with corresponding times.

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6. Preemptive Scheduling Features:

Reduces waiting time for high-priority tasks.

Increases system responsiveness.

Requires frequent context switches, which can introduce overhead.

7. Summary:

Preemptive scheduling ensures dynamic allocation based on real-time priorities.

Efficient for systems requiring immediate attention to high-priority processes.

Gantt charts and mathematical models like TAT and WT assist in analysis and
optimization.

Detailed Notes on Preemptive and Non-Preemptive Scheduling

Algorithms

Introduction

Scheduling is a core concept in operating systems, determining the order in which

processes are executed.

Two primary scheduling types:

1. Non-Preemptive Scheduling: Once a process starts execution, it cannot be

interrupted until it finishes.

2. Preemptive Scheduling: Processes can be interrupted mid-execution to

accommodate other higher-priority tasks.

Non-Preemptive Scheduling

Behavior:

Once a process is assigned the CPU, it runs until completion.

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 No interruptions, regardless of incoming higher-priority processes.

Example Scenario:

A teacher answers all questions from one student before moving to the next.

This approach avoids context switching but may lead to delays for other processes.

Advantages:

Simplicity in implementation.

Minimal context-switching overhead.

Disadvantages:

Potentially higher waiting time for processes with lower priority.

Preemptive Scheduling

Behavior:

Processes can be interrupted and resumed later based on priority or time quantum.

Example: Round Robin, Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF).

Round Robin (RR) Algorithm:

Each process is assigned a fixed time slice (time quantum).

After the time quantum, the process is preempted and placed at the end of the
queue.

Cyclic scheduling ensures fairness.

Example:

A teacher rotates among students, answering one question per student in each
round, ensuring everyone gets attention within a fixed time.

Advantages:

Fairness and responsiveness.

Better utilization of CPU time.

Disadvantages:

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 Higher context-switching overhead.

Round Robin Scheduling Example

Assumptions:

Processes P 1, P 2, P 3, P 4.

Burst Times: P 1 = 5, P 2 = 3, P 3 = 6, P 4 = 4.
Time Quantum: 2 milliseconds.

Execution Steps:

1. Start with P 1: Execute for 2 ms (Remaining: 3 ms).

2. Switch to P 2: Execute for 2 ms (Remaining: 1 ms).

3. Continue to P 3: Execute for 2 ms (Remaining: 4 ms).

4. Move to P 4: Execute for 2 ms (Remaining: 2 ms).

5. Repeat the cycle for remaining burst times.

Key Metrics:

Turnaround Time (TAT): Time from process arrival to completion.

Waiting Time (WT): Time spent waiting in the ready queue.

Practical Considerations

1. Time Quantum Selection:

A very small quantum increases context-switching overhead.

A large quantum approximates non-preemptive scheduling.

2. Priority Handling:

In preemptive scheduling, higher-priority processes can interrupt lower-priority

ones.

3. Implementation in Systems:

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 Real-time operating systems often rely on preemptive scheduling for critical tasks.

Comparative Analysis

Aspect Non-Preemptive Preemptive

Interruptions None Allowed

Complexity Low High

Fairness May favor longer tasks Ensures fairness

Context Switching Minimal Frequent

Use Cases Batch systems Real-time systems

Conclusion

The choice between preemptive and non-preemptive scheduling depends on system

requirements.

Preemptive scheduling, especially Round Robin, is well-suited for interactive systems

requiring responsiveness.

Non-preemptive scheduling is more suitable for scenarios with minimal task

interruptions.

Detailed Notes (English Translation and Structured Explanation)

Context

The transcript appears to explain the implementation of Round Robin Scheduling, a CPU
scheduling algorithm. It uses concepts such as process execution time, response time,
waiting time, and queue management.

Round Robin Scheduling - Concept

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Round Robin (RR) scheduling is a preemptive scheduling algorithm that allocates a fixed time
quantum to each process in a cyclic order. If a process is incomplete after its allocated time
quantum, it is moved to the back of the ready queue, and the next process is executed.

Key Concepts
1. Time Quantum (TQ):

The fixed time duration allocated to a process for execution.

Example: If TQ = 2 ms , each process gets 2 milliseconds for execution.

2. Parameters in Scheduling:

Arrival Time (AT): Time when the process enters the ready queue.

Burst Time (BT): Total time required for a process to complete.

Completion Time (CT): Time when a process finishes execution.

Turnaround Time (TAT): CT - AT (Total time taken for execution, including waiting).

Waiting Time (WT): TAT - BT (Time spent in the ready queue waiting).

3. Queues:

Ready Queue: Maintains processes waiting for their turn.

Running Queue: Tracks the currently executing process.

4. Preemption:

If a process exceeds its allocated time quantum, it is preempted and moved to the
back of the ready queue.

Process Execution Workflow

1. Initialization:

Define processes with their respective AT and BT .

Assign a fixed TQ .

Initialize queues and parameters ( WT = 0 , TAT = 0 ).

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 2. Execution Cycle:

Start with the first process in the ready queue.

Allocate TQ for execution:

If BT ≤ TQ : Process completes, calculate CT .

Else: Subtract TQ from BT , move the process to the back of the queue.

Repeat until all processes are completed.

3. Handling Response Time:

Response time for each process is determined by its first execution in the CPU.

Illustrative Example

Given Data:

Processes: P0, P1, P2, P3

Arrival Times (AT): [0, 1, 2, 3]

Burst Times (BT): [5, 3, 8, 6]

Time Quantum (TQ): 2 ms

Execution Steps:

1. Time = 0:

Process P0 starts.

P0 executes for 2 ms (remaining BT = 3 ms).

Add P0 to the back of the queue.

2. Time = 2:

Process P1 starts.

P1 executes for 2 ms (remaining BT = 1 ms).

Add P1 to the back of the queue.

3. Time = 4:

Process P2 starts.

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 P2 executes for 2 ms (remaining BT = 6 ms).

Add P2 to the back of the queue.

4. Time = 6:

Process P3 starts.

P3 executes for 2 ms (remaining BT = 4 ms).

Add P3 to the back of the queue.

Repeat the cycle until all processes complete. Update CT , TAT , and WT accordingly.

Performance Metrics
1. Average Turnaround Time (TAT):

Sum of all TATs

Average TAT =
Total number of processes
​

2. Average Waiting Time (WT):

Sum of all WTs

Average WT =
Total number of processes
​

3. Response Time:

Calculated as the time difference between a process entering the CPU for the first
time and its arrival time.

Advantages of Round Robin:

1. Fairness: Each process gets an equal share of the CPU.

2. Preemptive Nature: Ensures responsiveness for all processes.

3. Efficient for Time-Sharing Systems: Well-suited for multitasking environments.

Key Observations

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 Time Quantum Selection: If TQ is too small, context switching overhead increases. If
too large, it behaves like FCFS scheduling.

Response Time Optimization: Small time quantum ensures quicker response but may
increase waiting time.

Summary
The transcript outlines the execution of processes using Round Robin Scheduling. It
emphasizes the importance of time quantum, the management of queues, and the
calculation of scheduling parameters such as response time, waiting time, and turnaround
time. The goal is to ensure efficient CPU utilization and fair process scheduling in time-
sharing environments.

Detailed Notes on Round-Robin Scheduling and Context Switching

1. Overview of Round-Robin Scheduling (RR):

Definition: Round-Robin is a preemptive scheduling algorithm primarily used in

multitasking systems. Each process is assigned a fixed time quantum (also called a time
slice) and is executed cyclically.

Purpose: Ensures fair CPU allocation and avoids starvation by cycling through all
processes.

2. Process Execution in Round-Robin Scheduling:

A ready queue is maintained with all processes in a "Ready" state.

The CPU executes a process for a fixed time quantum or until the process completes,
whichever occurs first.

If the process does not complete within its time quantum, it is preempted and placed at
the back of the queue.

The next process in the queue is selected for execution.

3. Key Metrics and Formulas:

Turnaround Time (TAT):

Turnaround Time = Completion Time − Arrival Time

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 Waiting Time (WT):

Waiting Time = Turnaround Time − Burst Time

Response Time (RT):

Response Time = First Execution Start Time − Arrival Time

CPU Utilization: Indicates efficient resource usage.

Higher utilization minimizes idle time.

4. Context Switching:

Occurs when the CPU shifts from executing one process to another.

Saves the current process state (program counter, registers, etc.) and loads the next
process state.

Involves overhead time due to saving and restoring states.

Excessive context switching increases inefficiency, leading to system performance

degradation.

5. Choosing the Time Quantum:

A small time quantum increases responsiveness but leads to frequent context

switching, causing higher overhead.

A large time quantum minimizes context switching but behaves like a First-Come-First-
Serve (FCFS) algorithm, leading to potential starvation of shorter processes.

6. Example Illustration:

Given Data:

Processes: P0 , P1 , P2 , P3
​ ​ ​

Burst Times: P0 ​ = 7ms, P1 = 5ms, P2 = 3ms, P3 = 1ms

​ ​ ​

Time Quantum: 2ms

Execution Order:

P0 : 2ms → P1 : 2ms → P2 : 2ms → P3 : 1ms → P0 : 2ms → …

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Resulting Metrics:

Calculate TAT, WT, and RT for each process using the formulas above.

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7. Advantages of Round-Robin Scheduling:

Simple and easy to implement.

Fair and equitable allocation of CPU time.

Ensures a reasonable response time for all processes.

8. Disadvantages of Round-Robin Scheduling:

Inefficiency due to frequent context switching.

Poor performance when the time quantum is improperly chosen.

Not suitable for real-time systems with strict deadlines.

9. Practical Considerations:

Time quantum should be tuned based on the average process burst time.

Systems with intensive I/O operations may require adaptive scheduling mechanisms.

10. Context of Use:

Round-Robin scheduling is commonly used in time-sharing systems, operating systems, and
environments where fairness is prioritized over strict performance.

By understanding the principles of Round-Robin scheduling and context switching, system

administrators and developers can better optimize CPU resource allocation while balancing
fairness and efficiency.

Detailed Notes on the Transcript (English)

Topic: Operating System Scheduling - Round Robin Algorithm

Overview of Scheduling
Scheduling in an operating system involves the allocation of CPU time to various processes
based on scheduling algorithms. One such algorithm, the Round Robin (RR) scheduling, is
designed for time-sharing systems where each process gets a fixed time slice or quantum.

Key Concepts Discussed

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 1. Broad Categorization of Processes:

Foreground Processes: Interactive processes requiring frequent user interaction.

Background Processes: Non-interactive processes that run without user

involvement.

2. Round Robin Scheduling:

Time Quantum: A fixed time slice allocated to each process in the ready queue.

Processes are executed in a cyclic order.

If a process does not complete its execution within the time quantum, it is
preempted and sent back to the ready queue.

3. Objective: To minimize the average waiting time and ensure fairness by giving equal
CPU time to all processes.

Illustrative Example

Given Data:

Processes: P1, P2, P3, P4

Arrival Times: As per the input sequence.

Burst Times: Provided as specific durations for each process.

Time Quantum: 2 milliseconds.

Steps to Solve:

1. Create a Gantt Chart:

Illustrate process execution based on the given time quantum.

Processes are scheduled in a round-robin manner until all are complete.

2. Calculate Times:

Completion Time (CT): The time at which a process finishes execution.

Turnaround Time (TAT): TAT = CT - Arrival Time

Waiting Time (WT): WT = TAT - Burst Time

3. Iterate Over Processes:

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 Execute each process for the given time quantum.

If the remaining burst time exceeds the time quantum, the process is added back to
the ready queue.

4. Example Calculation:

P1: Arrives at 0 ms, executed for 2 ms, then sent back to the queue if not complete.

Continue this process cyclically until all processes finish execution.

Important Formulas
1. Turnaround Time:

TAT = Completion Time (CT) − Arrival Time (AT)

2. Waiting Time:

WT = TAT − Burst Time (BT)

3. Average Waiting Time:

∑ WT of all processes
AWT =
Number of processes
​

Insights and Tips

Key Considerations:

The size of the time quantum critically affects performance. Smaller quanta may
lead to excessive context switching, while larger quanta can degrade response time
for interactive processes.

Ensure accurate calculation of waiting and turnaround times to avoid common

mistakes.

Practical Application:

Understand RR scheduling by working with example problems, including those with

different arrival times and burst times.

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Sample Problem

Question:

Four processes (P1, P2, P3, P4) with the following characteristics are given:

Arrival Times: 0, 1, 2, 3 (in milliseconds)

Burst Times: 5, 3, 8, 6 (in milliseconds)

Time Quantum: 2 milliseconds

Find:

Average Waiting Time

Average Turnaround Time

Solution:

1. Build a Gantt chart for execution.

2. Use the formulas for TAT and WT.

3. Compute averages for AWT and ATAT.

Conclusion
Round Robin scheduling is effective for ensuring fairness and responsiveness in multitasking
environments. It is crucial for students to practice problem-solving with variations in time
quantum and arrival/burst times to master the concept.

आपका सवाल लंबा और जटिल है, और यह विभिन्न पहलुओं को कवर करता है। इसे बेहतर ढंग से समझने और संबोधित करने
के लिए इसे कु छ भागों में विभाजित करने की आवश्यकता है। कृ पया बताएं कि आप किस विशिष्ट मुद्दे पर मदद चाहते हैं:

1. प्रोसेसिंग टाइम और शेड्यूलिंग एल्गोरिदम

क्या आप "राउंड रोबिन," "शॉर्टेस्ट जॉब नेक्स्ट," या किसी अन्य शेड्यूलिंग एल्गोरिदम की चर्चा कर रहे हैं?

क्या आपको उदाहरणों या कोड इंप्लीमेंटेशन की जरूरत है?

2. मैथेमेटिकल टाइम और कै ल्कु लेशन

क्या आप वेटिंग टाइम, टर्नअराउंड टाइम, या किसी विशेष प्रकार के समय की गणना पर काम कर रहे हैं?

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 3. डिटेल्स ऑफ सबस्क्रिप्शन और प्रोसेस एराइवल टाइम्स

क्या आप विशेष रूप से इनपुट टाइम और प्रोसेस की प्रायोरिटी समझना चाहते हैं?

4. वीडियो या प्रीवियस ईयर क्वेश्चन पेपर

क्या आप पूर्व वर्षों के प्रश्नों पर ध्यान कें द्रित कर रहे हैं, या उनकी व्याख्या चाहते हैं?

कृ पया स्पष्ट करें कि मुख्य रूप से आपका फोकस कहां है, ताकि मैं उसी के अनुसार मदद कर सकूं ।

Notes on Scheduling and Process Management (Detailed)

Context and Scope

The transcript discusses process scheduling in operating systems, focusing on key

scheduling techniques and scenarios, emphasizing how processes are handled in a
multitasking environment. It addresses comparisons, prioritizations, and completion of tasks
in time-critical settings.

Key Concepts and Details

1. Smallest Process Selection

The smallest process is selected using specific criteria based on priority or weight
(e.g., execution time or size).

If multiple processes have equal weights, the system prioritizes based on their
arrival time or other predefined rules.

2. Process Execution Steps

Initialization: Start with identifying processes and their respective weights or

execution times.

Iteration: Each process is executed for a defined time quantum (e.g., one
millisecond or more), after which the next process in the queue is considered.

Completion: Processes with minimal execution time are prioritized, and completed
processes are removed from the active queue.

3. Key Metrics in Scheduling

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 Remaining Time: Time left for a process to complete.

Waiting Time: Total time a process spends waiting in the queue before execution.

Turnaround Time: The total time taken for a process from arrival to completion.

Response Time: The time from when a process is submitted to when it first
executes.

4. Scheduling Strategies

Round-Robin (RR): Processes are given equal time slices (e.g., 1 millisecond). After
completing their time slice, they are placed at the back of the queue.

Shortest Job Next (SJN): Selects the process with the smallest remaining time for
execution.

Preemptive Scheduling: Interrupts ongoing processes if a higher-priority process

arrives.

Non-preemptive Scheduling: Completes the currently executing process before

starting another.

5. Handling Equal Priority Processes

Conflict Resolution: When processes share the same weight or priority:

Continue with the one that started earlier.

Use additional metrics like arrival time or execution duration to decide.

Example: If two processes (P1 and P2) require equal execution time, P1 is selected if
it arrived earlier.

6. Execution Cycle Example

Processes: P0, P1, P2, and P3.

Steps:

Begin execution with the smallest process (P0).

Continue iteratively for predefined time slices.

If a new process arrives with less remaining time than the currently executing
one, it preempts the current process.

Completion: Processes terminate after their execution times are fully utilized.

7. Finalizing Schedules

Compute the following:

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 Total waiting time for all processes.

Total turnaround time for completed processes.

Average metrics for comparison.

8. Real-Time Scenarios

In scenarios where time-critical tasks are processed (e.g., flight control systems),
ensure that the smallest or most urgent task is prioritized without unnecessary
delays.

Adjust weights dynamically if process execution requirements change during

runtime.

Illustrative Example
Process Arrival Time Burst Time Completion Time Waiting Time Turnaround Time

P0 0 ms 6 ms 6 ms 0 ms 6 ms

P1 2 ms 4 ms 10 ms 4 ms 8 ms

P2 4 ms 5 ms 15 ms 6 ms 11 ms

P3 6 ms 3 ms 18 ms 9 ms 12 ms

Key Takeaways
Understanding Metrics: Accurate calculation of waiting, turnaround, and response
times is essential for effective scheduling.

Adaptability: The scheduling system must adapt dynamically to changes in process

priorities or arrival times.

Optimization: Aim to minimize average waiting and turnaround times for overall
efficiency.

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This document provides a framework for addressing scheduling problems, handling
conflicts, and optimizing process management efficiently.

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