Surface and groundwater quality

A. Surface Water Quality

Surface water quality refers to the condition of water in rivers, lakes, reservoirs,
streams, and oceans. The quality of surface water is influenced by various
physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These parameters determine the
suitability of water for different uses, including drinking, recreation, agriculture,
and industrial processes. Effective management of surface water quality is
essential for protecting ecosystems, ensuring public health, and maintaining
sustainable water resources.

Key Parameters of Surface Water Quality

1. Physical Parameters:
o Temperature: Influences the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms
and the solubility of gases in water. Higher temperatures can
decrease dissolved oxygen levels, affecting aquatic life.
o Turbidity: Measure of water clarity. High turbidity can reduce light
penetration, affecting photosynthesis in aquatic plants and harming
fish and other organisms.
o Color: Can indicate the presence of organic and inorganic materials.
Natural water color is often due to dissolved and suspended
particles.
2. Chemical Parameters:
o pH: Measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water. Most aquatic
organisms thrive in a pH range of 6.5 to 8.5.
o Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Essential for the survival of aerobic
aquatic organisms. Low DO levels can lead to hypoxic conditions,
harmful to fish and other aquatic life.
 o Nutrients: Include nitrates and phosphates. Excessive nutrients can
lead to eutrophication, causing algal blooms and oxygen depletion.
o Heavy Metals: Such as lead, mercury, and cadmium. Toxic to
aquatic life and can accumulate in the food chain.
o Organic Pollutants: Include pesticides and hydrocarbons. Can be
toxic to aquatic organisms and disrupt ecosystems.
3. Biological Parameters:
o Pathogenic Microorganisms: Include bacteria, viruses, and
protozoa. Presence of pathogens can pose health risks to humans and
animals.
o Algae: High levels of algae can indicate nutrient pollution and can
lead to harmful algal blooms.

Sources of Surface Water Contamination

1. Point Sources:
o Direct discharges from identifiable sources, such as industrial
effluents, sewage treatment plants, and stormwater outfalls.

Example:

o Industrial Discharge into Rivers: Factories that discharge

untreated or poorly treated waste directly into rivers can introduce
heavy metals, organic chemicals, and other pollutants, degrading
water quality.
2. Non-Point Sources:
o Diffuse sources of pollution, such as agricultural runoff, urban
runoff, and atmospheric deposition.
 Example:

o Agricultural Runoff: Runoff from agricultural fields can carry

fertilizers, pesticides, and sediments into nearby water bodies.
Excessive nutrients from fertilizers can lead to eutrophication.

Examples of Surface Water Quality Issues

1. Eutrophication:
o Overview: Eutrophication is the process by which water bodies
become enriched with nutrients, leading to excessive growth of
algae and aquatic plants. This can result in oxygen depletion and
harm aquatic life.

Case Study:

o Chesapeake Bay, USA: The Chesapeake Bay has experienced

severe eutrophication due to nutrient runoff from agriculture and
urban areas. Efforts to reduce nutrient inputs through best
management practices (BMPs) and restoration projects have been
implemented to improve water quality and restore aquatic
ecosystems.
2. Heavy Metal Contamination:
o Overview: Heavy metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium can enter
water bodies through industrial discharges, mining activities, and
atmospheric deposition. These metals are toxic to aquatic life and
can bioaccumulate in the food chain.

Case Study:

o Cuyahoga River, Ohio, USA: The Cuyahoga River was heavily

polluted with industrial waste, including heavy metals and organic
 pollutants. The river famously caught fire in 1969, highlighting the
severe pollution. This event led to significant environmental
legislation, including the Clean Water Act, which has since helped
improve water quality.
3. Pathogenic Contamination:
o Overview: Pathogenic microorganisms from sewage and animal
waste can contaminate surface water, posing health risks to humans
and animals.

Case Study:

o Milwaukee Cryptosporidium Outbreak (1993):

Cryptosporidium, a protozoan pathogen resistant to chlorine
disinfection, contaminated Milwaukee's drinking water supply,
causing over 400,000 cases of gastrointestinal illness. This outbreak
emphasized the need for advanced filtration methods and better
monitoring.

Methods for Improving Surface Water Quality

1. Pollution Control:
o Implementing regulations and best management practices to reduce
pollution from point and non-point sources.
o Example: The Clean Water Act in the USA regulates industrial
discharges and sets water quality standards to protect surface water
bodies.
2. Riparian Buffer Zones:
o Establishing vegetated areas along water bodies to filter runoff,
reduce erosion, and provide habitat for wildlife.
 o Example: Buffer zones along agricultural fields can trap sediments
and nutrients before they reach water bodies, reducing pollution.
3. Restoration Projects:
o Initiating projects to restore natural hydrology, habitat, and water
quality in degraded water bodies.
o Example: Wetland restoration projects can enhance water quality
by acting as natural filters, removing pollutants from water.
4. Public Education and Awareness:
o Educating communities about the importance of surface water
quality and encouraging practices that protect water resources.
o Example: Public awareness campaigns on reducing pesticide and
fertilizer use can help minimize nutrient runoff.

Conclusion

Surface water quality is influenced by various physical, chemical, and biological

parameters. Maintaining high water quality is essential for environmental health,
human consumption, and economic activities. Effective monitoring, pollution
control measures, and sustainable management practices are crucial to protect and
improve surface water quality. By understanding the specific challenges and
sources of contamination for surface water, we can implement targeted strategies
to safeguard our water resources.
 B. Groundwater Quality

Groundwater quality is a crucial aspect of water resources planning, as it directly

impacts drinking water supplies, agricultural irrigation, and industrial uses. The
quality of groundwater is influenced by both natural processes and human
activities. Understanding these factors is essential for managing and protecting
groundwater resources effectively.

Key Parameters of Groundwater Quality

1. Physical Parameters:

o Temperature: Groundwater temperatures are generally stable but

can vary with depth and geological conditions. Temperature affects
the solubility of gases and chemical reactions in water.

o Turbidity: Measure of water clarity. Groundwater is typically low

in turbidity unless influenced by surface water infiltration or human
activities.

o Color: Usually clear, but can be affected by dissolved minerals or

organic matter.

2. Chemical Parameters:

o pH: Measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water. Groundwater pH

typically ranges from 6.5 to 8.5.

o Hardness: Primarily caused by calcium and magnesium ions. Hard

water can cause scale buildup in pipes and appliances.

o Dissolved Solids: Includes minerals, salts, and organic matter. High

levels can affect taste and usability.
 o Nitrates: Often from agricultural runoff or septic systems. High
nitrate levels can pose health risks, especially to infants.

o Heavy Metals: Such as arsenic, lead, and mercury. These metals

can be toxic and have long-term health effects.

o Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Include industrial solvents,

fuels, and pesticides. VOCs can contaminate groundwater through
spills or improper disposal.

3. Biological Parameters:

o Pathogens: Bacteria, viruses, and protozoa that can cause diseases

if present in drinking water.

o Microbial Activity: Indicates the presence of bacteria and other

microorganisms that can influence water quality.

Sources of Groundwater Contamination

1. Natural Sources:

o Geological Formations: Groundwater can naturally contain

minerals and elements dissolved from the surrounding rocks and
soil.

o Geothermal Activity: Can introduce heat and minerals into

groundwater, especially in areas with hot springs or volcanic
activity.

Example:

o Arsenic Contamination: In regions like Bangladesh and West

Bengal, India, groundwater naturally contains high levels of arsenic
due to the dissolution of arsenic-bearing minerals. Long-term
 consumption of arsenic-contaminated water has led to significant
health issues, including skin lesions and cancers.

2. Anthropogenic Sources:

o Agricultural Activities: Use of fertilizers and pesticides can lead to

the leaching of nitrates, phosphates, and chemicals into
groundwater.

o Industrial Activities: Improper disposal of industrial waste and

chemical spills can introduce pollutants like heavy metals and VOCs
into groundwater.

o Septic Systems: Leaking septic tanks can release pathogens and

nutrients into the groundwater.

o Landfills: Leachate from improperly managed landfills can

contaminate groundwater with a variety of pollutants.

Example:

o Nitrate Contamination from Agriculture: In agricultural regions,

such as the Central Valley in California, extensive use of fertilizers
has led to high nitrate levels in groundwater. This poses a risk to
human health, particularly for infants, causing conditions like
methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome).

Methods for Assessing and Improving Groundwater Quality

1. Monitoring:

o Regular Sampling: Collecting water samples from wells and

aquifers to test for various contaminants.

o Continuous Monitoring: Using sensors and automated systems to

track changes in groundwater quality over time.
Example:

o Monitoring Programs: The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)

operates extensive groundwater monitoring programs to assess
water quality and track changes across the country.

2. Water Treatment:

o Filtration: Removing suspended particles and contaminants

through sand or activated carbon filters.

o Ion Exchange: Removing specific ions, such as calcium and

magnesium, to soften water.

o Reverse Osmosis: Using a semi-permeable membrane to remove

dissolved solids and contaminants.

o Chemical Treatment: Adding chemicals to neutralize

contaminants, such as chlorine for disinfection or lime for adjusting
pH.

Example:

o Arsenic Removal: Various treatment methods, such as adsorption

using activated alumina or iron-based materials, are used to remove
arsenic from drinking water in affected regions.

3. Source Control and Remediation:

o Preventing Pollution: Implementing best management practices in

agriculture, industry, and waste management to reduce the
introduction of pollutants into groundwater.

o Remediation Techniques: Cleaning up contaminated sites using

methods like bioremediation (using microorganisms to degrade
 pollutants), phytoremediation (using plants to absorb contaminants),
and pump-and-treat (extracting and treating contaminated water).

Example:

o Superfund Sites: In the United States, the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) oversees the cleanup of contaminated groundwater at
Superfund sites. These efforts involve removing pollutants and
restoring groundwater quality.

Case Studies

1. Arsenic Contamination in Bangladesh:

o Groundwater in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta contains

high levels of naturally occurring arsenic. This has led to a public
health crisis, with millions of people exposed to arsenic-
contaminated drinking water. Efforts to address the issue include
installing arsenic removal filters and providing alternative water
sources.

2. Nitrate Contamination in the Central Valley, California:

o Intensive agricultural practices in the Central Valley have resulted

in elevated nitrate levels in groundwater. Programs to mitigate this
issue include promoting the use of precision agriculture to reduce
fertilizer application and encouraging the adoption of cover crops to
prevent nitrate leaching.

Conclusion

Groundwater quality is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic factors.

Effective management of groundwater quality involves monitoring, treatment,
and source control measures to protect and improve water resources. By
understanding the key parameters and sources of contamination, we can
implement strategies to ensure safe and sustainable groundwater supplies for
drinking, agriculture, and industrial uses.

Objective Type Questions

Q1: What parameter measures the clarity of water in a surface water body?
A) pH B) Turbidity C) Hardness D) Conductivity

Key: B) Turbidity

Q2: Excessive nutrients in surface water bodies often lead to which

condition? A) Eutrophication B) Salinization C) Acidification D) Desalination

Key: A) Eutrophication

Q3: Which pathogen is commonly monitored in surface water as an indicator

of fecal contamination? A) Salmonella B) Giardia C) Norovirus D) E. coli

Key: D) E. coli

Q4: What is the main source of non-point source pollution in surface water?
A) Industrial discharge B) Agricultural runoff C) Sewage treatment plants D)
Stormwater outfalls

Key: B) Agricultural runoff

Q5: Which physical parameter influences the metabolic rates of aquatic

organisms and the solubility of gases in water? A) pH B) Temperature C) Color
D) Turbidity

Key: B) Temperature

Q6: What is the primary cause of nitrate contamination in groundwater? A)

Natural mineral dissolution B) Agricultural activities C) Industrial spills D)
Geothermal activity

Key: B) Agricultural activities

Q7: Which heavy metal, often found in groundwater, poses significant health
risks including skin lesions and cancer? A) Lead B) Arsenic C) Mercury D)
Cadmium

Key: B) Arsenic

Q8: Which parameter is used to measure the total concentration of dissolved

minerals and salts in groundwater? A) Hardness B) Total dissolved solids
(TDS) C) pH D) Turbidity

Key: B) Total dissolved solids (TDS)

Q9: What is the primary method for removing dissolved solids and
contaminants in groundwater through a semi-permeable membrane? A)
Filtration B) Ion exchange C) Reverse osmosis D) Sedimentation

Key: C) Reverse osmosis

Q10: Which natural process can introduce heat and minerals into
groundwater, especially in areas with hot springs or volcanic activity? A)
Agricultural runoff B) Geothermal activity C) Industrial discharge D) Septic
systems

Key: B) Geothermal activity