How is the Body Supported?

Introduction - Why is a knowledge of bones important to you?

Our body is largely the shape it is because it hangs off our skeleton. Damage to our skeleton affects
our ability to move and our ability to live life to the full. A poor diet and lack of exercise affects our
bones and this can have far reaching consequences, affecting our immunity, teeth, skin, muscle
contractions and nerve impulses to name a few.
More specifically, in addition to providing a rigid structure, our 206 bones also provide protection,
enable movement, store minerals and form new blood cells. In this module we look at the cell types
involved in the creation and maintenance of bone tissue, the hormones which affect this tissue, the
different bones of the body and their location. We also look briefly at some of the different types of
joints (articulations) that hold

STATION 1 - Bone as Tissue I

Bone Tissue is made up of a number of components; the cells and the intercellular matrix.
1. Fill in the table below by naming the three cell types associated with bone tissue and their
function Subconscious control over the body can be via reflexes or hormones.

Bone Cell Type Function

1 Osteoblasts Bone forming cells, lay down bone matrix

2 Osteocytes Maintain bone matrix

3 Osteoclasts Bone destroying cells, remodel bone matrix

The intercellular matrix in bone has two components: the organic (made up of the cells, collagen
and glycoproteins) and inorganic (made up of the hydroxyapatites, Ca+2 salts). Organic substances
are produced by living things (organisms), they contain carbon and they burn to give off CO2 and
H2O.
2. Highlight the following substances that are organic.

lipid water hydroxyapatite carbohydrate manganese dioxide

carbon dioxide testosterone collagen calcium amino acid

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3. A bone that has been decalcified is bendy. Which component of the bone matrix (organic or
inorganic) has been removed in the decalcification process?
Calcium – Inorganic (calcium is a mineral)
4. Name the crystals that make up this missing component.
Hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate)
5. Which component of the matrix (organic or inorganic) remains in the bone tissue after these
crystals are removed?
Organic components
6. If you burnt a bone, which matrix component would be destroyed and what properties would
the bone then have?
Organic component burns (collagen, proteins, cells); inorganic left, very brittle
Compact bone vs Cancellous bone (also called spongy bone or trabeculae bone).
Unlike cancellous bone, compact bone has a very organised intercellular matrix. The bone is
organised into functional units where layers of bone are wrapped around a central canal containing
a blood vessel.
7. Examine a specimen of sectioned dry bone to see the difference between compact and
cancellous bone. On the figure below label where you would expect to find the two types.

Figure 2.5: Coronal section of proximal femur

Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th Ed.).

8. What is this functional unit of compacted bone called?

An Osteon (Haversion system)

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9. Examine the Bone Model; which represents a wedge of compact bone. Name the features
labelled A - F based on the stated function.

Feature Function

Dense irregular CT sheath surrounding bone that supports

blood and nerve supply. Found where ever there is no
A Periosteum
articular cartilage, protects bone and contains cells involved
in the formation of bone

Contains blood vessels, and nerves supplying bone tissue.

B Central canal
Found in centre of the osteon (Haversian system)

C Osteon (Haversian system) Functional unit of bone

D Osteocyte The cell responsible for bone matrix maintenance

Thin membrane lining the medullary cavity. Some CT and a

E Endosteum
single layer of bone-forming cells

Layers of bone (calcified tissue)

F Lamellae
Can be concentric, interstitial or circumferential

10. The feature “C” on the model has a cylindrical shape what is the functional advantage of this in
dense bone?
Strength

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STATION 2 - Bone as a Tissue II
Bone Development and long bone anatomy
There are two types of bone formation (ossification); endochondral and intramembranous. In general
terms, long bones are formed by endochondral ossification while flat bones via intramembranous
ossification. However, there are some bones, such as the clavicle and scapula for example, that ossify
via both methods.
1. Complete the table below with the method of ossification (endochondral or intramembranous)
represented by the two definitions.

Method of Ossification Definition

Bone forms directly from mesenchyme (embryological

intramembranous
connective tissue).
Bone forms from mesenchyme producing a hyaline
endochondral
cartilage model first which is replaced by bone tissue.

2. Name two flat bones that develop via intramembranous ossification.

Bones of the skull such as frontal, parietal temporal and occipital
3. Name two long bones that develop via endochondral ossification.
Humerus, femur, tibia, fibula, radius, ulna, metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges
4. Find the sectioned dry bone preparation, this is an example of a long bone.

Figure 2.6: General structure of a long bone

Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th Ed.).
Locate the following long bone features and label them on Figure 2.6.
• epiphysis (or epiphyses at each end)
• diaphysis (shaft)
• medullary cavity
• epiphyseal line (located at the junction between the diaphysis and epiphysis, you will
need to look closely at the specimen to see it!)
The epiphyseal line is an important landmark found at either end of all long bones. It marks the point
where the epiphysis has fused to the diaphysis.

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In an adult, a thin line of dense bone, called the epiphyseal line marks the epiphyseal junction.
However, if the bone is still growing (in length) there will be a plate of hyaline cartilage at that
location, called the epiphyseal plate. This plate of cartilage is all that remains of the cartilage model
that was once formed as part of the endochondral ossification process. The epiphyseal plate may
also be called a physis or growth plate.
5. Examine the dry sectioned bone and the fresh cow bone and determine which one has an
epiphyseal line and which has an epiphyseal plate (i.e., is it a line of bone or a plate of
cartilage?)

Specimen Epiphyseal Line/ Epiphyseal Plate

Section dry bone epiphyseal line

Fresh Cow bone epiphyseal plate

6. Now, examine the two x-rays of long bones, below. You should notice that x-rays of bone tissue
is white, whereas soft tissues such as cartilage and muscle appear dark.

Which of the following features correspond to the epiphysis, diaphysis, epiphyseal line and
epiphyseal plate.

1. epiphysis
2. diaphysis
3. epiphyseal plate
4. epiphyseal line

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7. Which of the two radiographs below (A or B) is from a child (in which the bones are still growing
in length) and which is from an adult (and have stopped growing in length)? Give a reason for
your choice. A B

Radiograph A or B Reason
Child A Has epiphyseal plate
Adult B Has epiphyseal line

STATION 3 - Skull
1. Identify the following bones of the skull:

1 Frontal 5 Parietal

2 Occipital 6 Mandible

3 Sphenoid 7 Maxilla

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 4 Temporal 8 Zygomatic

2. Identify and name the following bony features. In which of the above bones is each does each
feature belong to?

Name of Bony Feature Bone it Belongs to

9 Foramen magnum – occipital

10 External auditory meatus – temporal

11 Pituitary fossa or sella turcica sphenoid

3. The common name for the type of joint found between bones 2 & 5 is a suture; to which
structural category of articulation does it belong? How much movement does it permit?
Structural category Suture
Fibrous
Amount of movement permitted: None – it is functionally classed as an immovable joint
4. The common name for the articulation found between the parietal and frontal bones (#12), uses
the term for the standard anatomical plane in which it runs; can you name the plane?
Coronal suture
5. From the bones you identified in Question 1, label Figures 2.7, 2.8.

Figure 2.7: Right lateral view of the skull

Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed).

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 Figure 2.8: Posterior view of the skull
Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed).

STATION 4 - Vertebrae, Ribs & Sternum

1. Label the following on your diagram of a typical vertebra: spinous process, transverse process,
body, vertebral foramen, lamina, pedicle

Figure 2.9: Thoracic vertebrae superior view.

Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed).

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2. Examine the vertebrae in front of you and determine which region they come from (either
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral or coccygeal). Note any features that are characteristic to each,
ie size of body, size of processes, overall shape of vertebral foramen. Summarise the regions of
the vertebral column in this table:

Purpose of the
feature
List two
Number of e.g.,
Region distinguishing
vertebrae articulation,
features
muscle
attachment,

For vertebral
Transverse
arteries
foraminae for
vertebral Only need to
Cervical 7
arteries support the
weight of the
Small in size
head

Long spinous
For muscle
process
attachment
Thoracic 12 Circular
Contains spinal
vertebral
cord
foramen

Weight/load
Large bodies
bearing
Lumbar 5 Short spinous
For muscle
processes
attachment

Fused into
Sacral 5 (fused) Stability, support
wedge shape

No purpose –
Coccyx 1 (3-5 semifused) Fused together
vestigial

Table 2.9: Comparison of Vertebrae

Diagrams sourced from Van Putte (2014). p 216-217

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3. On the diagram of a rib, label the following: head, neck, body, tubercle.

Figure 2.10: Typical Rib inferior view

Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed).

4. How many ribs are there and how are they numbered?
1-12, from superior to inferior

5. There are three isolated ribs in on the table front of you labelled A, B and C. Use the skeleton to
determine approximately which section each rib belongs (e.g. High (ribs 1-2), Middle (ribs 3- 10)

Grouping Comment on Difference Between Ribs

A Low (12) Very short, flattened vertically, slight curve

B High (1) Short, flattened horizontally, tight curve

C Middle (6) Long flattened vertically, large curve

or Low (Ribs 11-12). Comment on how the size/shape of each differs.

6. The spaces found between each of the ribs are called what?
Intercostal spaces
The ribs articulate posteriorly with the vertebrae and anteriorly with the sternum. Posteriorly, each
rib head articulates with the thoracic vertebra. Structurally, each point of articulation is a small,
freely movable synovial joint, allowing the rib to move.
7. What are the directions in which the ribs move?
Elevate (Up) and depress (down)
8. What process is assisted by this action?
Breathing
9. The sternum comprises three parts; name them in order from superior to inferior.
1. Manubrium
2. Body
3. Xiphoid process

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STATION 5 - Upper Limb and Shoulder Girdle

1. On the skeleton of the upper limb identify the component bones:

1. Phalanges 5. Ulna
2. Metacarpals 6. Humerus
3. Carpals 7. Scapula
4. Radius
2. The scapula also has 2 surfaces, costal (faces towards the ribs) and dorsal.
Which of these surfaces can be seen in Figure 2.11?
Dorsal (posterior)
3. On the Figure 2.11 of the scapula, label the following features:
3 borders - medial, lateral, superior; scapula spine, acromion process and glenoid fossa

Figure 2.11: Right scapula – anterior and posterior view

Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed).

4. Locate the clavicle, state the bones to which it attaches both medially and laterally.
Medial Bone Sternum
Lateral Bone Scapula

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5. How many carpal bones are there?
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6. How are the metacarpals numbered (i.e., lateral to medial or medial to lateral)? Note the
position of the thumb when numbering – it must be in the Anatomical Position.
Lateral to medial
7. How many metacarpals are in each hand?
5
8. How many phalanges are in each digit?
3 in digits 2-5, 2 in thumb (digit 1)
9. On Figure 2.12 label; the carpals (as a group), metacarpals (numbered 1-5) and phalanges (as a
group).

Figure 2.12: The dorsum (posterior surface) of the right hand.

Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed).

STATION 6 - Lower Limb and Pelvic Girdle

1. The right and left coxal bones (os coxae or “hip bones”) are composed of three separate bones
that fuse during development. What are the names of these three bones?
pubis, ilium, ishium
2. Which of these bones do you sit on?
ischium
3. Which of these bones contain the “hip bones” or iliac crest?
Ilium

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4. Identify the following features of the pelvis:

1. Pelvic brim 6. Anterior superior iliac spine

2. Subpubic angle 7. Ischial tuberosity
3. Acetabulum 8. Pubic symphysis
4. Obturator foramen 9. Sacroiliac joint
5. Iliac crest
Below is an anterior view of the pelvis (Figure 2.13). Orient the model of the pelvis at this station so
that it matches that in this diagram. Label the features you identified in Q4 on the diagram
below.

Figure 2.13: Pelvis

Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed).

5. Each os cox (the left and the right) is joined to the sacrum posteriorly and to each other
anteriorly to form a ring of bone called the pelvic girdle.
6. The pelvis includes what additional structure?

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 The coccyx (i.e., the pelvis is made up of the 2 os coxa, the sacrum and the coccyx)
7. Name the articulation that joins the two os coxae anteriorly.
Pubic symphysis
8. The articulation in Question 7 is a cartilaginous joint, how much movement does it permit?
Movement: Slightly movable
9. On the skeleton of the lower limb, identify the following bones:

1. Phalanges 5. Tibia
2. Metatarsals 6. Fibula
3. Talus 7. Patella
4. Calcaneus 8. Femur
10. How many phalanges are in each digit?
3, 2 in big toe
11. Is the big toe (Hallux) located medial or lateral in the Anatomical Position?
Medial
12. How are the metatarsals numbered (i.e., lateral to medial or medial to lateral)?
Medial to lateral

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13. On Figure 2.14 label; the tarsals (as a group, which one of these is the calcaneous?), metatarsals
(numbered 1-5) and phalanges (as a group).

Figure 2.14: Bones of the foot.

Van Putte et al. (2017) Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed).

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Types of Movement occurring at Joints

Read through the document outlining the different types of movements that occur at synovial joints.
To begin, stand in the anatomical position. In this position most joints are extended, except the
ankle joint, which is considered to be in the neutral position. Most movements are grouped in pairs
and occur in opposite directions.

1. Name the five (5) types of movement that are possible at the shoulder joint.
Flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, rotation (note: while the joint can also circumduct.
Circumduction is not a true movement and is only possible if a joint can flex, extend, abduct and
adduct
To improve the stability of the shoulder joint there are a group of muscles (the rotator cuff muscles)
that hold the head of the humerus tightly within the glenoid cavity. These muscles are often injured
in sporting accidents.

2. If you flexed your shoulder to 90o (from the resting position), flexed the elbow to 90o (from full
extension) and fully pronated your forearm, in which direction would the palmar surface of your
hand face?
anterior
3. As you move from standing to sitting, what movements take place at the hips and knees?

Hips Flexion
Knees Flexion
4. Place your palm on your lower back. Describe the positions of the shoulder, elbow and forearm.

Shoulder Hyperextention

Elbow Flexed

Forearm Supinated
5. Pretend you’re a little teapot short and stout and describe the position of your handle and spout!
(Assume that your right arm is the handle and your left is the spout)

Left shoulder Abducted, laterally rotated

Left elbow Flexed

Left forearm Pronated

Left wrist Flexed

Right shoulder Abducted, medially rotated

Right elbow Flexed

Right forearm Pronated

Right wrist Hyperextended