MODULE 1: TEACHING ENGLISH ACROSS CULTURES

Table of Contents

1.1 Introduction to Module 1............................................................................................................2

1.2 Optional Discussion: Getting to Know Each Other.......................................................................4
1.3 Warm-Up: Attitudes about English as an International Language..............................................6

1.4 Lecture: English as an International Language (EIL) and Levels of Culture.................................7

1.4.1 Optional Reading: McCay, 2004................................................................................................17
1.4.2 Optional Discussion: Materials Review for Teaching English in International Context............24
1.5 Culture Spotlight: Equality of Opportunity and OERs..................................................................26

1.5.1 Activity: Famous Americans Talk about Equality of Opportunity.............................................28

1.5.2 Quiz: Equality of Opportunity...................................................................................................33
1.6 English Attitudes Survey Review..................................................................................................33
1.7 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey............................................................................34
Module 1 Check..................................................................................................................................35

© 2020 by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 1: Teaching English across Cultures for the Online
Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State with funding provided by the U.S.
government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License,
except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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1.1 Introduction to Module 1

Welcome to Module 2: Learning-Centered

Instruction, Learning Strategies, and Critical
Thinking
Please view the introduction video. You can download the transcript here.

Video Transcript:

Welcome to the TESOL Methodology course! We are excited to have you join us.
In this course, we will look at best practices for teaching English. We will emphasize the
teaching of English in settings where English is generally not spoken as a native, or first,
language.
As you begin, it is important to set some learning goals. Think about what you hope to gain
from this course.
 Do you want to explore new teaching techniques and strategies?
 Are you looking for ideas to address specific needs, such as increasing learners’ oral
fluency or motivating students?
 Would you like to interact with English teaching colleagues from your country, your
region, and around the world?

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  Do you wish to improve your academic English?
Take a minute to write or type your goals for this course. If you choose to participate in the
introduction discussion, you can also share your goals there. Please pause the video while you
write about your goals.
Fantastic! We will check in at the end of the course to see whether you have made progress
on your course goals.
As I mentioned, this course is focused on teaching English where it is typically not a native
language. Think about your own teaching context.
 Why do people learn English?
 What do they use it for?
 Who do they use it with?
 What varieties of English are used in your area?
 Is one variety preferred over others? Why?
 What variety or varieties of English do you teach in your classroom?
 How do you incorporate culture in your teaching?
In the first module, we will examine the role of English as an international language and how
that affects the choices we make as teachers and course developers. We will also explore
levels of culture in teaching languages. Finally, we will expand our access to instructional
materials through the use of open educational resources to promote equality of opportunity.

Module 1 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Participate in the optional Getting to Know Each Other discussion (15 minutes)
2. Complete the warm-up activity about Attitudes About English as an International
Language (30 minutes)
3. Read English as an International Language (EIL) and Levels of Culture (60 minutes)
4. Participate in an optional discussion about Materials Review for Teaching English in
International Context (30 minutes)
5. Read Culture Spotlight: Equality of Opportunity and OERs (30 minutes)
6. Complete the activity about Famous Americans Talk About Equality of Opportunity (30
minutes)
7. Take the Equality of Opportunity Quiz (30 minutes)
8. Reflect on the module in the Cascading New Knowledge Survey (30 minutes)
9. Complete the English Attitudes Survey Review (15 minutes)

The Module 1 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download it here
.
Module Requirements

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 Each page of the module should be viewed and read
 All quizzes require a score of at least 70% to pass
 Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
 Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
 Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

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1.2 Optional Discussion: Getting to Know
Each Other

“Hello Hi Foreign Background Greeting Bounjour” .by Maialisa is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

This discussion board is a great way for you to get to know some of the people taking this course.
Who knows? You might even "meet" someone from your home town.
Take a moment to introduce yourself to your fellow participants and colleagues. Discuss the
following topics in your post:

1. Introduce yourself (where you are from, what you teach, years of experience in English
teaching or learning).
2. What is your most memorable moment in teaching or learning a language?
3. What do you like to do in your free time?
This discussion is not graded, but we encourage you to comment on other people's posts.
Here is an example for an introduction:
Hello Everyone,
My name is Kati. I am originally from Budapest, Hungary, but I have lived in the USA for the last 20
years. I live in Baltimore, Maryland, where I teach at the University of Maryland Baltimore County. I
teach ESL classes, a freshmen writing course for the English Department, and a graduate linguistics
course for the Education Department.

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My most memorable teaching moments are when former students come back to my office to thank
me for helping them lay the foundation for their academic success. It is so nice to see students
succeed at the university, knowing that the fact that they attended our program helped them
achieve this.
In my free time I enjoy reading books, working out, and cooking.
I am looking forward to working with all of you in this MOOC.
Kati

Note: Submit your post online. A good discussion board post is about 150-250 words long.

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1.3 Warm-Up: Attitudes about
English as an International Language

“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann.is licensed under a Pixabay. License. It is free to use and share.

There are many opinions about language, culture, and language teaching. As we start our course,
please take a moment to consider what you already know or believe about these ideas. Complete
the following survey to get a better understanding of how you view language and culture. This
survey is not graded and there are no right or wrong answers. It is designed to help you consider
some ideas about language and culture. You can only take this survey once.
The survey must be completed online.

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1.4 Lecture: English as an International
Language (EIL) and Levels of Culture

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Read more about Sandra Lee McKay's three levels of culture.
Introduction
There are many people who speak English all over the world. One might assume that English is the
most widely spoken language in the world. However, that is not the case. Mandarin (a language
spoken by many people in China) has the most native speakers (L1--first language). What makes
English unique is the number of speakers who are non-native English speakers (L2--second
language). With the growing number of English learners, the approach of teaching English as an
International Language has become more and more important in recent years. This raises the
question of how we should teach culture. Is it important for EIL learners to learn about native
English speakers' cultures? Whose cultures should we teach?
Culture and Language
In order to answer those questions, it is important to examine what role culture plays in language
teaching. Obviously, it is present in many words and expressions that are specific to certain
cultures. For example, the expression yellow journalism, which is a type of journalism that uses
sensational headlines instead of well-researched news to sell more newspapers, is a US term that
would have no special meaning for an EIL learner in other cultures. There are also cultural
differences between spoken and written language in social context. For example, the way business
communication is written or certain essays are composed is different from culture to culture. It is,
therefore, very important to keep these differences in mind when designing a curriculum (plan of
what to teach in a course or program) or textbooks for EIL learners.
Three Levels of Culture
There are three levels of culture that we should consider when making decisions about curriculum
design and instructional materials for EIL learners.

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1. Teachers can draw on learners' own culture (source culture) in English. For example, a teacher
in Brazil might use the carnival in Rio to teach greeting visitors.
2. Teachers can teach the culture of certain countries where English is spoken as a native
language (target culture). For example, a teacher might use Halloween (an American tradition)
as an example when teaching about scary ideas.
3. Teachers can include different cultures from all over the world (international target culture).
For example, a teacher in Japan might use an African dance to teach describing with the
present continuous tense.

Source Culture Materials, Target Culture Materials, and International Cultural Materials
“3 Types of Cultural Materials” by Zarin Marvi for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use in the AE E-Teacher
Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

It is important to emphasize that it is the teachers who must decide which approach to use .
Teachers are the ones who can determine what is best for their students. However, keep in mind
that learners may use English for many purposes and contexts in their lives, so learning about all
cultures in all three levels can be helpful.
Optional Reading:
Reference (OER):
McKay, S. L. 2004. “Western Culture and the Teaching of English as an International
Language.” English Teaching Forum. 42(2): 10-
15. https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/04-42-2-f.pdf.

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Sandra Lee McKay

WesternCulture
U N I T E D STATES

and the
T e a
a s a n Englis
ching of

In te rn
La n g
u a ge
at io n al

O NE OF THE MOST COMPLEX PROBLEMS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL

language(EIL) is determiningtheculturalbasis of EIL. For some, thelearningof

any language necessitates learning how to use the language correctly and appro-
priately according to native speaker norms. For others, however, an international
language by definition is not linked to any particular culture. Smith (1976),
for example, argues that in reference to an internationallanguage:
a) non-native speakers do not need to internalize the cultural norms of
native speakers of that language,
b) an international language becomes “de-nationalized,” and

c) the purpose of teaching an international language is to facilitate the com-

munication of learners’ ideas and culture in an English medium.
 (For a discussion of additional features of an international language, see McKay
2002.)

10 A P R I L 2 0 0 4 E NGLISHT EACHINGF ORU M

 In many countries today there is tremen- quarter of the students wanted to study either
dous interest in learning English for
interna- tional purposes, yet there is
ambivalence toward the linking of EIL with
the culture of countries where English is
spoken as a native language. To exemplify
this ambivalence, I begin by discussing
several countries in which educators have
rejected the inclusion of West- ern culture
and values in the teaching of Eng- lish.
Then I demonstrate how, ironically, at the
same time, many of those countries include
Western culture and values in their
approved textbooks.

Attitudes toward western cultures

Currently, in many countries
throughout the world, there is tremendous
pressure to learn English. This pressure is
evident in a variety of ways. To begin, in
many countries, English is a required subject
beginning in mid- dle school and continuing
through high school and is often one of the
areas tested on college entrance
examinations. In addition, many
international corporations are encourag- ing
their employees to develop their English
skills by providing English training on the
job. Along with the pressure to learn
English comes concern about how English
should be taught and what role culture
should play in the teaching of English.
Many language edu- cators support the
inclusion of a cultural com- ponent in the
teaching of English. Adaskou, Britten, and
Fahsi (1990), for example, sum- marize the
following arguments for having a cultural
component in language teaching: it can
promote international understanding,
deepen an understanding of
one’sownculture, facilitate learners’ visits to
foreign countries,
and motivate learners.
Prodromou (1992), on the other hand,
dis- putes the value of including cultural
content in language teaching materials. He
bases his opinion on the results of a survey
he gave to Greek students, mostly young
adults (studying in private language institutes
and at the British Council Teaching Centre),
regarding what they believe should be the
subject matter of English lessons. The two
top choices of topics were the English
language and science and society. The
reaction to cultural content was quite
mixed. Whereas 60 percent wanted to study
British life and institutions, only about a
American or example, in examining the Moroccan situa-
Greek life and tion, Adaskou, Britten, and Fahsi (1990)
institutions. found that the inclusion of culture,
Pro- dromou specifical- ly Westernculture, in teaching
hypothesizes materials is not motivating or beneficial to
that the students. Drawing on interviews with
students’ inter- Moroccan teachers, Adask- ou, Britten, and
est in British Fahsi maintain that, in gener- al,
life and Moroccaneducators believe that including
institutions information about Western culture, and
may be due to then inviting cultural comparisons,
students’ contributes to students’ discontent with
belief that if their own culture. Teachers also pointed
they knew out that some patterns of behavior that
more about exist in English-speaking social contexts
British life, are ones that many Moroccans would prefer
they would do their young people not see. Finally, the
better on the teachers believe that students will be more,
British-based not less,motivated to learnEnglish if the
Cambridge language is presented in contexts that
exam. If that relate to their lives as young adults rather
is the case, than in the context of an English-speaking
overall these country. In Chile, the Ministry of
students did Education has decided that it would be
not find learn- more motivating for students to focus on
ing about their own culture and country. Hence, the
culture, either Ministry has designed a series of textbooks
their own or for the public schools enti- tled Go
others, very forChile(Mugglestone,Elsworth, and Rose
motivating. 1999, 2000) that implements the Min-
In other istry’s learning objectives. Go for Chile
contexts, features a group of students from various
there appears countries onboard a
to be sup- shipsailingalongthecoast of Chile. The
port for scenario of the sea voyage enables the
including a textbook writers to deal with Chilean
cultural places and concerns. Thus, the book is
component in filled with information about various areas
language of Chile and
teaching issues facing the country.
materials, but One of the strongest rejections of the
only if the inclu- sion of Western culture in EIL teaching
materials deal mate- rials appears in a Japanese bestseller
with the local entitled Why the Japanese people are no good
culture. For at English by Suzuki Takao. Suzuki (1999)
offers several

EN G L I S H TE A C H I N G FO R U M AP R I L2 0 0 4 11
 reasons why he believes the teaching of presented
Eng- lish should be separated from was
information about Western cultural values. American.
First, he argues that Japan as an
international power has no need to teach
Western culture. Secondly, he believes that
Japan must fight against the sub- tle form of
Western imperialism that suggests the need
to emulate everything Western, including
the English language. For him, such
emulation is a form of mental colonization.
He says:
When Japanese come into contact with
for- eigners [Westerners, specifically,
Ameri- cans], they have been
historically predis- posed to accepting
that person’s way of thinking and
acting,thatperson’svaluesys- tem, and
even that person’s habits. And if they
seem better than one’s own, they don’t
hesitate to imitate them and take these
dif- ferences in as their own, even
hoping to become like them. This is the
mental pre- disposition to what I
referred to earlier as auto-colonization.
(p. 145)
For Suzuki, promoting Western cultural stan-
dards in the use of English often results in
Japanese people having a feeling of inferiority.
As illustrated by the examples above, man-
ifestations of attitudes toward including West-
ern culture in EIL teaching materials vary by
country. Some countries emphasize making
the local culture the focus of the content,
while other countries reject any inclusion of
Western culture.

Western culture and EFL textbooks

While educational leaders in some coun-
tries are hesitant to include Western culture in
English language teaching, many of the
text- books adopted in these countries do
include Western characters and values. Japan
is a case in point. Although the majority of
characters in textbooks approved by the
Ministry of Edu- cation are Japanese, those
that are not Japan- ese are Western
characters. In examining cur- rent high
school English oral communication
textbooks, Shimako (2000) found that
although Japanese culture was the main
con- tent used in the books, when foreign
cultures were mentioned in the texts, it was
in the con- text of visitors to Japan (almost
exclusively Western visitors) being
introduced to Japanese culture by Japanese.
By and large, the main Western culture
 This tendency to focus mainly on Western English-speaking cultures is family. Then they wash the plates.
also evident in junior high school textbooks approved by the Japanese Barbara just likes to eat. She doesn’t like
Ministry of Education.This is demon- strated by the chart on the next page, to work in the kitchen. She thinks it
which lists the countries of origin of the non-Japanese characters in such takes a lot of time and it isn’t interesting.
textbooks. Steve never criticizes her. Do you think
Perhaps more interesting than the national- ities of characters in textbooks he’s right? (page 41)
is how charac- ters are used in the textbooks. In many coun- tries where In this case, although the wife plays a tradi-
Western characters are introduced in textbooks, it is often in the context of tional role in that she doesn’t work outside
pre- senting differences between Western culture and local cultures, often of the home, nonetheless, she is unusual
accompanied by an emulation of Western culture and traditions. Examples because shedoesn’tparticipate in
in the following discussion demon- strate this tendency. All of these thetraditionalfemale role of making meals.
examples involve the issue of gender roles, and all of them appear in Steve, on the other hand, by undertaking
textbooks approved by the local Ministry of Education. domestic duties, illus- trates a male role
In one Moroccan textbook (English in Life), students are introduced to that is often encouraged in Western
an American engineer, Steve Lynch, and his family of three children. In terms cultures. Hence, not only does the book
of gender roles, the family is fairly traditional because the wife, Barbara, depict gender roles advocated by many
doesn’twork outside of the home. However, in one of the readings, the Westerncultures, but it also opens a
family’s activities are described in such a way that traditional gender roles discussion of gender roles by asking whether
are questioned. or not Bar- bara should be criticized for not
Example One: playing a tra- ditional female role.
After work Steve comes back home. He likes to be with his family in
theevening. Usually he or Nancy [his daughter] cooks dinner for the

12 A P R I L 2 0 0 4 E NGLISHT EACHINGF ORU M

 USA (5 characters)

USA (4 characters)

USA(3 characters)

USA (1 character)

USA (1 character)

Sunshine

Source:
Watanabe. S., R. Ogasawara, and R. Goris, eds. 2002. Total Active Communication 1. Tokyo: Shubunkan. N Tojo, K., ed. 2002. Columbus 21 English Course 1. Tokyo: Mitsumura Tosho. N M
2002. Total English New Edition 1. Tokyo: Gakko Tosho.

A presentation of Westernvalues regarding Latifa: That’s true. Well, have you

gender roles is evident later in this same consid- ered a career in business?
text- book when the daughter, Nancy, is That doesn’t need
discussing her future with her Moroccan muchintelligence.
friend, Latifa. Thefollowingis an
Nancy: Oh really? Yes, I’d like to be a
excerptfromthisdialogue:
busi- ness woman. But no, it’s
Example Two: impossible. I’mtoolazyfor a career
Nancy: Do you want to see this in business.
magazine, Latifa? It’s all about Latifa: Well, have you thought about
different possi- ble careers. jour- nalism? Some journalists
Latifa: No thanks. I’ve decided on my don’t work very hard.
career. I’m going to be a Nancy: Oh yes! I’d like to be a
university professor. journalist. But…I don’t know…I
Nancy: Oh, that’s nice. Congratulations. don’t write well enough.
What university are you going to Latifa: It’s difficult, isn’t it? You aren’t
teach at? intelligent, you aren’t hard-working
Latifa: I haven’t decided yet. Probably and you don’t write well. What
the biggestone.Whataboutyou, careers have you thought about?
Nancy? Have you decided on Nancy: Well, I’d like to be a gym teacher
your career? – you know, physical education.
Nancy: No, not yet. I’m still thinking Latifa: Oh. I see yes…Well, I must get
about it. back to work. See you.
Latifa: Have you thought about a career in Nancy: Bye, Latifa. (pages 156–57)
medicine?
The dialogue presents a complex account of
Nancy: Hm. I’d like to be a doctor. But
gender roles. Although the interaction sug-
no, I can’t. I’m not intelligent
gests that it is important for a woman to
enough.
have
EN G L I S H TE A C H I N G FO R U M AP R I L2 0 0 4 13
a career, a value often promoted in Western The dialogue is a vivid example of what
contexts, the Western figure appears to be Suzuki (1999) refers to as auto-colonization, in
incapable of managing most careers. which Japanese are depicted as emulating
Hence, Nancy provides a far from and accepting Western values. In the dialogue,
exemplary role model. On the other hand, Rye not only appears to apologize for aspects
Latifa, a Moroc- can, appears quite of his own culture, agreeing with Jim that
determined to pursue a suc- cessful Japanese “work too much and too long,” but
professional career. Dialogues like this one he quickly points out that his father is
demonstrate that even though there appears
emulating Western traditions by learning to
to be little support among Moroccan
cook. As if this is not sufficient evidence of
educators for the inclusion of Western culture
a type of auto-coloniza- tion, he goes on to
in teaching materials, textbooks do, in fact,
say that his father, however, has not
include examples of Western values, often pre-
managed to undertake this Western pattern
sented in an ambivalent manner.
very effectively since everything he cooks
Presentation of cultural values is less
is “very very well-done.”
am- bivalent in the Chilean context
mentioned ear- lier. Although characters Conclusion
from many countries are portrayed in the Go
As Smith (1976) argued almost 30 years
For Chile textbooks, the gender roles depicted
ago, the fact that English has become an
reflect typical Western values. Most of the
inter- national language suggests that
families presented inthe textbook include a
English no longer needs to be linked to the
mother who works outside of the home in a
culture of those who speak it as a first
professional job. For exam- ple, in the
language. Rather, the purpose of an
family of one character, the mother is a
international language is to describe one’s
secretary and the aunt is a dentist. There is no
own culture and concerns to others. The
mention of a family in which the mother
examples in this article demon- strate that,
works in the home taking care of the
in many countries, the teaching of English is
family.
becoming much more closely aligned with
Perhaps the most vivid example of the
the host culture as those coun- tries use
pro- motion of Western gender roles appears
local characters, places, and issues as the
in the following dialogue from a Japanese
content for their teaching materials. On the
textbook.
other hand, a closer look at some of these
Example Three: materials demonstrates that, in more subtle
Rye: Jim? ways, English is still being linked to the
Jim: What. cul- ture of English-speaking countries.
Rye: Is your father always doing the First, in many cases where characters other
dish- es like that? than local figures are included in teaching
Jim: Yes. My parents take turns cooking materials, the characters are from Western
and doing the dishes. English-speaking countries. These
Rye: My father never helps with the depictions persist even though, in many
housework. He’s too tired after a instances today, second lan- guage speakers
long day’s work. of English use EIL to commu- nicate not with
Jim: I think the Japanese work too much native speakers of English but with other
and too long. What do you think? second language users of English. By not
Rye: I think so too. But people are portraying second language speakers of
taking more holidays than before. English in dialogue with one another,
My father stays home longer. educa- tors are missing an opportunity to
Jim: What does he do on holidays? provide learners with models of second
language speakers of English communicating
Rye: Usually, he just relaxes. But you
effectively with each other. Secondly, and
know what? He started to learn
perhaps more importantly, the use of
cooking.
Western charactersin some language
Jim: Does he cook well?
teaching materials is illustrat- ing in subtle
Rye: Yes, he cooks very well. Everything
ways that the use of English necessitates the
is very very well-done.
acceptance of Western values. It would be
(Source: Echo. 1997. Tokyo: Sanyusya, Lesson
unfortunate if dialogues such as those noted
18, “Housework,” as cited in Shimako 2000)
above left students with that
14 A P R I L 2 0 0 4 E NGLISHT EACHINGF ORU M
impression. For, as Smith claimed long ago, Mugglestone, P., S. Elsworth, an
only when English is used to express and 2000. Go for Chile, Book 1
uphold local culture and values will it truly Chile: Addison Wesley Long
represent an international language. Prodromou, L. 1992. What cult
ture? ELT Journal 46 (1): 39
Acknowledgements Smith, L. 1976. English as an in
Thanks to David Malinowski for his transla- iary language. RELC Journal
tion of Suzuki (1999) and Takako Nishino for Suzuki, T. 1999. Nihonjin wa
naze
her analysis of the junior high school ka [Why the Japanese peopl
textbook characters. English]. Tokyo: Iwanami Sh
Shimako, I. 2000. Evaluating cul
References
content in EFLmaterials: A
stu

Adaskou, K., D. Britten, and B. Fahsi. 1990. level oral communication (O

Design Japan. Paper presented at the i
decisions on the cultural content of a vention of Teachers of Englis
secondary
English course for Morocco. ELT Journal 44 Other Languages, Vancouver,
(1):3–10.
English in Life. 1990. Casablanca: Royaume du
SANDRA MCKAY is a Professor
Maroc, Ministere de L’Education Nationale
[Morocco’s Ministry of Education]. San Francisco State Universit
McKay,S.L. 2002. Teaching English as an program. She has been involv
interna-
tional language: Rethinking goals and approaches. education programs in many
Oxford: Oxford University Press. including Chile, Morocco, and
1.4.1 Optional Discussion: Materials Review
for Teaching English in International Context

Directions
We all have to use and create different types of teaching materials for our students. For this
activity, please do the following:
1. Review how culture is taught in your teaching materials (textbooks, handouts, andother
books such as novels) and answer the following questions:

• How do the textbook and/or your other teaching materials present culture?
• Do they show all three levels of culture? Give some examples.
• If you don't have teaching materials, or if your materials don't teach all the levels ofculture,
how might you include the three levels of culture in your lessons?
2. Post your responses to these questions in the discussion thread below. Your responses
should be between 150-250 words long.

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Here is a sample post for this discussion:
Hello Fellow Participants,
In my classes, I use textbooks and easy readers (books designed especially to be used for ESL
students of different levels). They represent two levels of cultural materials: target culture,
providing insights on the American and British culture from a variety of perspectives (traditional
holidays such as Thanksgiving and Christmas; festivals such as Mardi Gras and Coachella), and
international cultural materials, introducing traditions and practices from around the world
(Single's Day in China, Latin American food, Mediterranean travels, etc.). I try to expand the
international culture materials by using videos, articles, and interviews showing a variety of
accents, traditions, and habits. I also use current cultural and political topics from all over the
world.
Since our textbooks do not include source culture materials, I use the internet to find sources
written in English about our traditions, culture, and history. The lack of source culture materials
is also a great opportunity to have the students do some research about their own culture
in English and then maybe compare it with either the target or international culture.
Kati
This discussion is not graded. However, please see this self-assessment rubric for scoring on
how well you address each part of the assignment.

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 1.5 Culture Spotlight: Equality
of Opportunity and OERs

CULTURE SPOTLIGHT
“Cultural Spotlight icon” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S.
Department of State.

Culture spotlight is a part of each module, where you will have a chance to learn about
American values and teaching practices. In this Module, we will focus on equality of
opportunity.

Directions: Read the introduction to the cultural value of equality of opportunity, and how it
connects to open education resources (OERs). On the next page you will complete a model OER
activity on equality of opportunity.

Words to know

Equality the right of different groups of people to have a similar social position
and receive the same treatment (CEFR)

Equity
equality and fairness in relationships (Wikipedia)

Equal
the same in importance and deserving the same treatment (CEFR)

Liberty
the freedom to live as you wish or go where you want (CEFR)

to fight or argue (CEFR)

Clash

Exploit
use unfairly (CEFR)

Introduction to Equality of Opportunity

Equality of opportunity is an American cultural value. This is the American dream. It started
with the Declaration of Independence, a document that was signed by the first thirteen

2
independent states on July 4, 1776. The states wanted to start a new nation called the United
States of America. Written in this document are the words:
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness."- Preamble to the Declaration of Independence (U.S., 1776).

Equality means many things to many people. In the United States, people come from many
countries, religions, languages, and races. Each individual and each group of people may have
different experiences. Everyone is free to pursue (go after) a life, liberty and happiness. This is
what equality of opportunity is all about. This means that the law protects freedom for people
of all religions, races, genders, and classes. The government provides access to free public
education for all school aged children, and requires equal access to public employment
opportunities and spaces.
Although the United States was founded on the idea that “all men are created equal,” this
referred specifically to men of European ancestry. Throughout history, different groups of
people have fought to expand that understanding to include everyone, including women,
people of different races and ethnicities, and people with disabilities.

Open Educational Resources Support Equality

This work is a derivative of “Untitled.” by Gordon Johnson used under CC0 1.0. This derivative is licensed under CC BY 4.0 by University of
Maryland Baltimore County for use in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State.

Open Education Resources (OERs) offer access to free resources and information for those who
may not be able to pay for them. For example, English classes and teaching materials are often
available only to those who have money. However, if we make and share OERs with others, we
can provide access to free resources for English teachers and students who may not otherwise
have them. This whole course is an open educational resource that can provide professional
development to English teachers. The activity on the next page is a model open educational
resource (OER) activity about a U.S. cultural value (target culture).

References (OER)
United States (1776). The Declaration of Independence. National Archives. Retrieved January 7,
2018
from https://search.archives.gov/search?query=Declaration+of+Independence&submit=&utf8=
&affiliate=national-archives (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

2
1.5.1 Activity: Famous Americans Talk
about Equality of Opportunity
Model OER Activity
The activity below is a model open educational resource (OER) activity about a U.S cultural
value (target culture) with a CCBY4.0 license. This means you can reuse, remix, and redistribute
(share) it as long as you give attribution (credit) to the source. Think about how you can use this
OER to support your students' learning, how you might adapt (modify or change) it for your
context, and how you might share it with other colleagues. You can also use this activity to
support your own learning.

Famous Americans Talk About Equality of Opportunity

Part 1: Read and/or listen to some quotes about equality from famous
Americans. What do you think they mean? You will use these quotes and their
meanings in the matching activity below. You can quiz yourself on the next
page.

"I do believe that there will be a clash [fight] between East and
West. I believe that there will be a clash between those who want
freedom, justice and equality for everyone and those who want to
continue the systems of exploitation [treating someone unfairly]. I
believe that there will be that kind of clash, but I don't think that it
will be based upon the color of the skin…."
- Malcolm X, African-American Muslim minister and human rights
activist
“Untitled.” by Deutsch is licensed under a Pixabay

License. It is free to use and share.

"There never will be complete equality until women themselves

help to make laws and elect lawmakers.”
—Susan B. Anthony, activist and leader in the women's voting
rights movement

“Susan B Anthony.” by G.E. Perine & Co.,

2
NY via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under Public
Domain.

"A good many observers have remarked that if equality could

come at once, the Negro [black person] would not be ready for it. I
submit that the white American is even more unprepared."
—Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Civil rights leader

“Untitled.” by skeeze is licensed under

a Pixabay. License. It is free to use and share

“Now, as a nation, we don't promise equal outcomes, but we were

founded on the idea everybody should have an equal opportunity
to succeed. No matter who you are, what you look like, where you
come from, you can make it. That's an essential promise of
America. Where you start should not determine where you end
up.”

“Untitled” by Pete Souza via Wikimedia Commons is

— Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States
licensed under Public Domain.

I do believe that every person has an equal opportunity to be a good

and wise judge regardless of their background or life experiences.
Read more at:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/sonia_sotomayor_454928

"I do believe that every person has an equal opportunity to be a

good and wise judge, regardless of their background or life
experiences."

“Untitled” by Deutsch is licensed under — Sonia Sotomayor, 1st Hispanic U.S. Supreme Court Justice
a Pixabay. License. It is free to use and share.

"This nation was founded by men of many nations and

backgrounds. It was founded on the principle [basic truth] that all
men are created equal, and that the rights of every man are
diminished [make smaller] when the rights of one man are
threatened."
—John F. Kennedy, 35th President of the United States

2
 “Untitled.” by Deutsch is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Part 2: Match the quote with its meaning.

Matching Activity
Please take a moment to reflect on these quotes and try to match them to their correct
meaning. When you are ready, go to the next page and quiz yourself to find the correct match.
Example:
3. "There never will be complete equality until women themselves help to make laws andelect
lawmakers.”
means
F. People need a voice in decision making in order to have equality.

Quote Meaning

1. "I do believe that there will be a clash between

East and West. I believe that there will be a clash
A. It does not matter how
between those who want freedom, justice and
and where people grow
equality for everyone and those who want to
up, they can be a leader
continue the systems of exploitation. I believe that
for justice.
there will be that kind of clash, but I don't think
that it will be based upon the color of the skin…."

2. “Now, as a nation, we don't promise equal

outcomes, but we were founded on the idea
everybody should have an equal opportunity to B. When people don’t treat one group
succeed. No matter who you are, what you look equally, other groups are in danger of not
like, where you come from, you can make it. That's being treated equally as well.
an essential promise of America. Where you start
should not determine where you end up.”

3. "There never will be complete equality until C. Anyone can work to improve their
women themselves help to make laws and elect situation and achieve success.
lawmakers.”

3
4. "This nation was founded by men of many D. For groups of people that have not
nations and backgrounds. It was founded on the experienced equality of opportunity for
principle that all men are created equal, and that diverse groups, making change and
the rights of every man are diminished when the sharing power is challenging.
rights of one man are threatened."

E. There will be a fight between people

5. "I do believe that every person has an equal who want resources for money and
opportunity to be a good and wise judge, those who want fair treatment for
regardless of their background or life experiences." people.

6. "A good many observers have remarked that if

equality could come at once, the Negro [black F. People need a voice in decision making in
person] would not be ready for it. I submit that the order to have equality.
white American is even more unprepared."

Remember, you can print these quotes and download the audio files from online to use this
activity with your students!

References (OER)
Anthony, S. B. (May 1897). [Quote]. National Archives. Retrieved December 14, 2017,
from https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/documented-rights/exhibit/section3/ (Links to
an external site.)Links to an external site.

"Equity" [definition]. Wikipedia. Retrieved December 13, 2017

from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

Kennedy, J. F. (1964). Report to the American People on Civil Rights. Retrieved December 14,
2017, from https://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Research-Aids/JFK-Speeches/Civil-Rights-
Radio-and-Television-Report_19630611.aspx (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

United States (1776). The Declaration of Independence. National Archives. Retrieved January 7,
2018
from https://search.archives.gov/search?query=Declaration+of+Independence&submit=&utf8=
&affiliate=national-archives (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

3
References (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adopted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not
Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your
personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

(CEFR), Common European Framework of Reference. English vocabulary profile free

subscription. Retrieved December 13, 2017,
from http://englishprofile.org/index.php/wordlists/free-subscription (Links to an external site.)
King, M. L. (1967). Where do we go from here: Chaos or community? New York: Harper & Row.
X, M., & Breitman, G. (1990). Malcolm X Speaks: Selected speeches and statements. New York:
Grove Weidenfeld.

3
1.5.2 Quiz: Equality of Opportunity

Quiz Instructions: Quiz yourself to see if you can match the quotes with the meanings. This quiz
is graded, and it is worth 6 points.
You must complete this quiz online.

1.6 English Attitudes Survey Review

Now that you have completed Module 1, revisit the English Language Attitudes Survey to see if
your beliefs have changed or not. Similarly to the warm-up survey, you can only take this
review once.
This survey will not count towards your grade, but is required to complete Module 1.
The survey must be completed online.

3
1.7 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey
Quiz Instructions

Cascading New Knowledge

“Casading New Knowledge icon” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use in the AE E-
Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

In education, we use the word cascade to describe sharing knowledge among professionals. For
example, after finishing this MOOC, you may want to share with your colleagues some of the
new approaches that you have learned. In other words, you would cascade new knowledge.
Please complete this graded survey on how you would design an activity using Open
Educational Resources and how you might cascade the knowledge you gained in this module.
There are three free-response questions (where you have to write a short answer) and one
multiple choice question.

This survey is graded. You will receive 4 points after you submit it.; however, you will not
receive personalized feedback from an instructor on this assignment.

Here is a sample response to each of the free response questions.

This survey must be completed online.
1. Describe an activity that you use to teach culture in your classroom.
Topic: Birthday traditions
Objectives: By the end of the activity, students will be able to talk about different ways to
celebrate birthdays all over the world.
Students’ level: Intermediate
Step 1: Students form groups of 3 and discuss how they celebrate their birthdays, sharing their
own family traditions.
Step 2: Each group receives a birthday tradition (Sweet 16, Bar Mitzvah, Quinceañera) that they
have to research and prepare a presentation about (if there is a computer lab, students can
work on it in class, or they can do it at home).
Step 3: Each group prepares a presentation using PPT, Prezi, or boards.
Step 4: Each group presents in class.
Step 5: After the presentation, students can ask questions.
3
2. Which level of culture does your activity address?
Level of culture: Source culture, target culture, international target culture.

3. How could you develop your activity into an OER (open educational resource)?
I would make sure that all the PPT presentations include the sources (preferably OERsources)
that the students used. Then I can create a PDF document from all the PPT presentations and
post it on the Creative Commons website with a CCBY 4.0 attribute.

This survey must be completed online.

3
Module 1 Check
Quiz Instructions

Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in Module 5. You
must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will count as 1 point toward
your grade.
This quiz must be completed online.

3
MODULE 2: LEARNER CENTERED INSTRUCTION,
LEARNING STRATEGIES, AND CRITICAL THINKING

Table of Contents
2.1 Introduction to Module 2................................................................................................2

2. 2 Warm-up: Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and Metacognitive Learning.......4

2.3 Lecture: Read Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences lecture...................................5

2.3.1 Optional Video: Individual Learner Differences...........................................................42

2.3.2 Learner Profile Activity

…………………………………………………………………………………………. … 51

2.4 Reading: Managing the Learner Centered Classroom.....................................................52

2.4.1 Optional webinar: Student Centered Classroom Management….................................59

2.4.2 Take the Learner-Centered Classes quiz.......................................................................60

2.5 Lecture: Read Strategies-Based Instruction. Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in

Second Language Teaching lecture.......................................................................................61

2.5.1 Reading: Language Teaching through Critical Thinking by Üstünlüoglu, 2004..........98

2.4 Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom...............................114

2.6.1 Optional discussion: Communicative Language Teaching and Culture Scenarios…...116

2.7 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey..............................................................118

Module 2 Check
……………………………………………………………………………………………. 119

© 2020 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 2: Learner Centered Instruction, Learning Strategies,
and Critical Thinking for the Online Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State
with funding provided by the U.S. government and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
2.1 Introduction to Module 2

"Puzzle Piece" by kingmaphotos is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Welcome to Module 2: Learning-Centered

Instruction, Learning Strategies, and Critical
Thinking
Please view the introduction video. You can download the transcript here.
Video Transcript:

Welcome to Module 2 of the TESOL Methodology course! We hope you learned a lot in the first
module!

In this module, you will explore different types of learners and a variety of learning styles. We
will explore learner needs, and we will reflect on our own teaching styles in order to make
better teaching decisions. You will compose a learner profile, you will also examine different
activities that will help our students build confidence and better connections to their culture.
We will also share and discuss learner-centered strategies that can be used to assist our diverse
learners to succeed in learning English.

Additionally, we will examine how teachers can help students develop metacognitive
awareness and critical thinking skills. Lastly, we will present and compare basic interpersonal
communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP), and exchange
ideas on how students can acquire the latter to develop higher order thinking skills (HOTs).

3
As you begin this module, it is important to set some learning goals. Think about what you hope
to gain from this module.
 Do you want to learn more about addressing diverse learner needs and interests?
 Do you want to learn more about how you can help students develop critical thinking?

Take a minute to write or type your goals for this module.

Wonderful! We will check in at the end of the course to see whether you have made progress
on your course goals, but also feel free to share them with a friend, a colleague, or another
person taking this course.

As always, we encourage you to engage with the material as deeply as you can.

We look forward to working with you this module!

Module 2 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Complete the warm-up activity about Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and
Metacognitive Learning (15 minutes)
2. Read Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences lecture (45 minutes)
3. Watch an optional video Individual Learner Differences (15 minutes)
4. Complete the Learner Profile activity (15 minutes)
5. Read an article by Renaud, Tannenbaum & Stantial, 2007 (30 minutes)
6. Review an optional webinar on Student Centered Classroom Management (60 minutes)
7. Take the Learner-Centered Classes quiz (15 min)
8. Read Strategies-Based Instruction. Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in Second
Language Teaching lecture (45 minutes)
9. Read an article by Üstünlüoglu, 2004 (30 minutes)
10. Read Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom (15 minutes)
11. Participate in the optional discussion on Communicative Language Teaching and Culture
Scenarios (30 minutes)
12. Reflect on the module in Cascading New Knowledge assignment (30 minutes)

The Module 2 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download
it here.
Module Requirements

 Each page of the module should be viewed and read

 All quizzes require 7 points to pass
 Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
 Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
 Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

3
2.2 Warm-up: Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and
Metacognitive Learning

We all have different styles of teaching and learning. We have also experienced classrooms that
are focused on the teacher or focused more on the learner.
Think and Write

1. Think about your experiences in different classroom environments and answer the
following questions:

 Have you taught or participated in a class that was teacher-centered? What was it like?
 Have you taught or participated in a class that was learner-centered? What was it like?
 What is the difference between a teacher-centered and a learner-centered class?
 How would your teaching strategies differ for teacher-centered and learner-centered
instruction?

2. On a piece a piece of paper or in a word doc, write some notes on your answers to these
questions. Use this opportunity to think about what you already know.

You do not have to submit this assignment. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to
activate your prior knowledge (think about what you already know). You should spend no more
than 5-10 minutes completing this.

4
2.3 Lecture: Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences

“Untitled” by Martin Polo via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external
site.). It is free to use and share.

Read more about traditional and innovative roles of the teacher and the student in language
classrooms.

Introduction
Classroom environment and student roles are often guided by teacher roles. Therefore, it is
very important for a teacher to define his or her role, so learners can know what their teacher
is supposed to do.
Teacher Roles in English Language Teaching
Teachers can play many roles. In a modern classroom teachers can be facilitators who observe,
advise and direct, rather than control and dictates the leaning process. Teacher roles are
connected to the teaching methods. These roles determine the degree to which a teacher
controls a learning process. The content of lessons and how teachers and students interact also
depends on teacher roles.

5
Traditional Role of English Teachers
Traditional classrooms are teacher-centered. A teacher directs the learning process by selecting
what and how students should learn. Students are asked to memorize, repeat, and do drills..
This approach to language teaching assumes the teacher as a source of knowledge, The
learners are receivers of knowledge and they do not control what they learn and how they
learn it.
Focus on the Learner
Changes in teaching ideas overtime lead to changes in teaching methods and in roles of
teachers and learners in the classroom. In 1960s and 1970s a number of new theories helped
change how language is taught. Among these approaches are:

 Humanistic approach to language teaching. It considers learner intellectual and emotional

development to be equally important
 Communicative language teaching (CLT) approach. It is based on teaching real
world communication skills.

Recognizing Learner Differences and Learning Styles

Effective language teachers can engage students with multiple learning styles. It can be
challenging for one teacher to work with a variety of different learning styles. Consider how
these strategies can work to help students to be more successful with these three major
learning styles:
Visual:

 Use graphic organizers to show word and concepts relationships.

 Ask students to highlight texts and color-code their notes.
 Draw pictures of new concepts and ask students to do the same.
 Provide maps and charts to teach new material.
 Have students use different fonts, colors and sizes when/if using the computer.

Auditory:

 Discuss new topics and subjects as a group and ask students to do it with partners.
 Ask students to record lectures and their own presentations and review them afterwards.
 Have students read aloud and voice concepts and ideas to them.
 Ask students to create tunes and rhythms when learning new material.

Kinesthetic:

 Use role play to act out concepts and ideas taught in your course.

6
 Encourage students to take notes while listening to lectures or reading.
 Associate each new word with a gesture or movement.
 Have students spell new words in teams using their bodies.

New Role of English Teachers in Task Based Language Teaching

Communicative language teaching provided foundations for the task based language teaching
(TBLT). TBLT is a new approach that focuses on learning by doing. The goal is for the learners to
use language for communicative activities. The role of teachers also changes. Teachers become
facilitators of students' learning. Instead of providing the knowledge, teacher guides,
motivates, advises and monitors students' progress. Teachers now recognize learner
differences and provide students with diverse communicative activities. Teachers should also
involve students in group and collaborative work, and keep them interested and motivated to
learn the language.
Conclusion
The role of teachers in modern classrooms has changed from being a controller and an
organizer to being a guide and a facilitator. Learners can now be more in control of their
learning process. It all sounds good in theory, however, it may be quite challenging to achieve
such changes in teacher and student roles. Sometimes the learning context does not allow for
these changes (e.g., educational systems may have rules and specific curricular guidance).
Additionally, students may not be culturally ready to take on these changes. Therefore,
teachers should always consider cultural norms and expectations in addition to various
teaching approaches and strategies when planning a shift from a traditional to a modern
teacher role.

Reference: (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adopted in any way, or distributed after the end of
this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public
use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.
Center for Access and Success. Tips for Educators on Accommodating Different Learning Styles.
Retrieved from the Internet. https://www.umassd.edu/dss/resources/faculty--staff/how-to-
teach-and-accommodate/how-to-accommodate-different-learning-styles/

7
 Focus on the Learner,
Learner Differences

© 2019 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences for the American English E-Teacher Program, sponsored by
the U.S. Department of State with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation we will discuss learner-
centered classrooms and explore some theories and
guidelines for learner-centered instruction.
We will also examine learner differences knowing which
will facilitate your students’ success in learner-centered
classrooms

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
• There has been a shift from
traditional teacher-centered
instruction to learner-centered
instruction.

• Teacher-centered instruction is
focused on the foundations of
instructivism, whereas learner-
a Pixabay License.

centered instructions is built on

“Untitled” by Michal Jarmoluk via Pixabay is licensed under
It is free to use and share.

the principles of constructivism.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Instructivism and
• The instructive approach assumes
teacher directed curriculum. It
teaches students how to learn. It is
teacher-centered.
• The constructive approach assumes
student based curriculum. It
encourages active learning,
participation, critical thinking, and
problem solving. It is student-
centered.
Let’s compare and contrast “Untitled” by Piotr Wytrazek via Pixabay is licensed
undera Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

instructivism and constructivism.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Instructivism and

Instructivist (Teacher-Centered) Approach Constructivist (Learner-Centered) Approach

Teacher is an instructor Teacher is a guide and a facilitator
Teacher presents knowledge Students construct knowledge
Based on behaviorism Based on cognitivism
Students work individually Students work in groups
Instructor driven curriculum choose Student driven curriculum (students can and
Sequential instruction suggest topics)
Content-based Adaptive learning
Passive Process-based
Instructor evaluates student learning Active
Students are quiet in class Students evaluate own learning, each others
learning. Instructor also evaluates.
Students are talkative and class may be noisy.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Learning Theory: Behaviorism
(Traditional vs. Modern
Behaviorist approaches to learning and teaching were popular
in 1950s-1960s.
Behaviorism studies observable behavior and it does not consider how
the mind works. A person learns by changing his or her behavior to
achieve a desirable outcome. Teachers use praise and feedback as
punishment and reward.
Instructors use frequent feedback and assess observable behavior.
Examples of behavioral strategies include choral practice, dictations,
and drill practice.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Learning Theory: Cognitivism
(Traditional vs. Modern
Cognitivism became popular in 1960s-1970s. It shifted our views on
learning and teaching from the study of behavior to the study of
the mind.
Knowledge was still believed to exist outside of the person, but
cognitivist focused on how memory works to gain knowledge and
promote learning.
According to this theory, learners actively learn by structuring their
own learning process. Examples of cognitive strategies include
problem solving, monitoring and evaluating own learning.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Learning Theory: Constructivism
(Traditional vs. Modern
Constructivism became popular in 1980s and it created a
foundation for modern learning approaches.
According to constructivism, learners create their own knowledge
based on their experiences and interactions with the world.
Learners continuously create and refine new knowledge based on
their ongoing experiences.
Examples of constructivist strategies include critical thinking,
synthesizing, and reflection strategies.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Communicative Language Teaching
• The Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT) is a popular teaching approach. It
is founded in the constructivist theory.
• CLT focuses on using language
for communication.
• Learners learn language by developing
skills to communicate and interact in
desired contexts (i.e., school, work, “Untitled” by Martin Polo via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

community).

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Communicative Language Teaching
• Communicative language teachers use
materials that focus on the language
needed to express and understand
different kinds of functions.
• Examples include asking for things,
describing people, expressing likes and
dislikes and telling time. “Untitled” by Martin Polo via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

• CLT approaches are often used in

learner-centered classrooms.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Learner-Centered
• Focuses on students' interests and goals
• Takes into account learners' skills
and strengths
• Addresses every student's needs as they
progress
• Encourages student collaboration and group
work
• Creates an active learning community “Untitled” by StockSnap via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

• Focuses on principles of constructivist theory.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Why Learner-
• Access: Learners access information and resources to
orient themselves in the world.
• Voice: Leaners express ideas and opinions with the
confidence they need to be heard.
• Action: Learners solve problems, make decisions, and
act independently.
• A Bridge to the Future: Learners prepare to be adaptable to
the world as it changes.
(Stein, 2000)
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Why Learner-
Richard & Bohlke (2011) also describe the benefits of learner-centered teaching.
• It is sensitive to individual needs and preferences.
• It encourages construction of knowledge and meaning.
• It integrates language learning with students’ life experiences.
• It creates more student participation.
• It connects in-class and out-of-class learning.
• It invites discussion of motivations, learning preferences, and styles.
• It encourages students to take more personal responsibility for their learning.
(Page 26)

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 Teacher Roles in Learner-Centered
Teachers have specific roles in learner-centered classrooms. They:
• Act as facilitators and guides
• Provide anytime, anywhere and on-demand support
• Encourage students drive their own learning
• Create real-world and authentic learning experiences
• Use technology to personalize learning
• Commit to professional and personal growth
(Schneider, 2016)
“Untitled” by Mohamed Hassan via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
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Learner Roles in Learner-
Centered
Learners have specific roles in learner-centered classrooms.
They:
• Communicate in a wide variety of ways.
• Communicate with diverse populations.
• Learn to talk and listen to each other.
• Use information to solve problems that occur in different
contexts.
• Transfer information to solve new problems.
• Use reasoning skills that require using multiple pieces “Untitled” by Mohamed Hassan via Pixabay is licensed under
of information. a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Source: Doyle, T
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Learner Autonomy in Learner-
Centered
Learner autonomy is defined as learner’s ability to be in control of
their own learning. The idea of learner autonomy supports the shift
from teacher-centered to learner-centered classrooms in foreign
language teaching.
Autonomous learners can plan their own learning because they:
• Recognize their needs, interests and abilities
• Choose what, when and how to learn based on their own needs.

Source: (Doyle, n.d.)

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Learner Autonomy in Learner-
Centered
Autonomous learners in learner centered classrooms are:
• Motivated
• Have positive perceptions about themselves
• Have knowledge of their culture and history
• Are able to make choices to further enhance their
autonomy and motivation.
• Are life long learners.
It is important to encourage learner autonomy in learner-
centered classrooms.
(Boyadzhieva, 2016)
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 Why Should we Acknowledge Learner
Differences?
Instructors need to be aware
of learner differences to
facilitate learner success and
knowledge acquisition.
Such differences include various
learning styles, personality styles,
participation styles, and other
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differences.

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Learning Differences Research
• “While many educators believe that teachers
teach the way they were taught, some refute
that claim, offering instead that teachers
often teach the way they learn”
• (Dunn & Dunn, 1979)

• Learner motivation, performance, and

achievement can increase when teachers
match their instruction with students’ diverse
learning preferences.
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

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Learning Style Types

Visual (V) - learners who learn best by

seeing and observing.
Aural/Auditory (A) - learners who learn best
when they hear.
Kinesthetic (K) – learners who learn best
when they move or do something.
Tactile (T) - learners who learn best by
touching and handling objects/materials
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

(Dunn & Dunn, 1979)

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Personality Styles (Jung, 1923)
Carl Jung’s theory of psychological type gave rise to the Myers-Briggs
Inventory that indicates the following personality preferences:
• Where you focus your attention – Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I)
• The way you take in information – Sensing (S) or Intuition (N)
• How you make decisions – Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)
• How you deal with the world – Judging (J) or Perceiving (P)
According to this inventory, people can fall into 16 personality types.
Knowing your personality type can help you understand how you best
learn and interact with others.
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 encourage them to learn.
Classroom Participation Styles
• Phantom students: Remain almost invisible,
although they generally work steadily on tasks. They
rarely initiate conversation or ask for help.
• Isolated students: Keep to themselves and rarely
interact with others. They do not participate in pair or
group activities and do poorly in group or peer
settings.
• Alienated students: React against teaching and
learning, and may be hostile and aggressive. They
often have discipline problems and hinder their peers’
learning process.
Understanding these different participation styles will
guide you on how best to interact with your learners and
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administered by FHI 360
“Untitled” by Thumprchgo via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

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administered by FHI 360
 Classroom Participation Styles
Every classroom has students with different
interaction and participation styles. Notice if your
classroom has any of these types of students.
• Task-oriented students: Complete tasks
successfully and competently. Active, cooperative
learners with minimal discipline problems.
• Social students: Complete tasks competently, but
place a higher value on personal interactions. “Untitled” by Thumprchgo via Pixabay is licensed under

Talkative and outgoing, often ask teacher for

a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

assistance if needed.
• Dependent students: Need teacher support and
guidance to complete tasks. They do well in
groups, but rely on teacher feedback and
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Reflection
Reflect on the information
contained in this presentation and
integrate it in your Learner Profile
Activity.

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Guidelines for Learner-Centered
• Present an overview of the learning
topic including purpose and
objectives.
• Explain the relevance of the
topic.
• Build on what learners already
know.
• Approach material from
the learner’s point of views.
• Encourage active and
discovery and independent
It is free to use and
share.
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Guidelines for Learner-Centered

“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.

It is free to use and

share.
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Guidelines for Learner-Centered
• Acknowledge and accommodate
student diversity (ability, age,
gender, culture, nationality).
• Encourage reflection (e.g., use of
learning journals, discussions,
etc.)
• Give timely feedback
on performance
• Constructively align objectives,
strategies and assessment
(Carlile, et. al., 2004) “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and
share.
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 References
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

• Boyadzhieva, E. (2016). Learner-centered Teaching and Learner Autonomy. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, pp. 35 – 40.
• Carlile, O., A. Jordan, and A. Stack (2004). Learning by Design: Learning Theory for the Designer of Multimedia Educational Materials.
Waterford: WIT/ BBC Online.
• Dunn, R. (2000 ). Learning styles: Theory, research, and practice . National Forum of Applied Educational Research Journal, 13 (1), 3-22.
• Dunn, R. & Dunn, (1979). Learning Styles/Teaching Styles: Can they…Should they be matched? ASCD. Retrieved
from:http://www.ascd.com/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_197901_dunn.pdf
• Doyle, T. (n.d.) The Changing Roles of Students in a Learner Centered Environment. Retrieved from the Internet
https://www.scribd.com/presentation/12695241/
• Humanmetrics.com. (2015). Personality test based on C. Jung and I. Briggs Myers type theory. [online] Available at:
http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/jtypes2.asp
• Reid, J. M.(ed.). 1995. Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
• Richards, J.C, and Bolhke, D. (2011). Developing learner-centered teaching in Creating Effective Language Lessons (pp. 25-34). Cambridge
University Press, New York, NY. Retrieved from http://prodibing.fkip.unsri.ac.id/userfiles/lesson%20planning.pdf
• Schneider, C. (2016). “7 Traits of Learner-Centered Teachers.” Retrieved fromhttp://www.gettingsmart.com/2016/04/7-traits-learner-
centered-teachers

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2.3.1 Optional Video: Individual Learner Differences

“Video Icon” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0. for use in the AE E-Teacher Program,
sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

This is an optional but highly recommended activity. Feel free to use this graphic organizer to
guide you through this exercise. You do not need to submit the graphic organizer, but you may
want to share and discuss it with another person taking this class.
Now that you have learned about the many different types of learners, you can practice
identifying learner-centered teaching. For this optional activity, please do the following:
Watch the video, Shaping the Way We Teach English: Individual Learner Differences. Watch
what the teacher and students do in the classroom and think about how this created a learner-
centered classroom.

Use graphic organizer and answer the questions below. This graphic organizer uses guiding
questions and scaffolding to help you (the learner) understand the video better. Record your
thoughts on the graphic organizer attached. Feel free to share your thoughts with a friend, co-
worker, or another person taking this course.

1. Watch Part 1 of the video (0:00-4:01) and answer the following questions. Record your
answers on your graphic organizer.

Click the link below to watch Part 1 of the video.

4
 How is the class organized?
 What activities did the students do?
 What skills did the students practice?
 How does the teacher make the class learner-centered?
 How does this teaching strategy connect to the English teaching practices discussed in this
module?

2. Watch Part 2 of the video (4:01-8:48) and answer the following questions. Record your
answers on your graphic organizer.

 Describe different parts of the project that the teacher was describing.
 What overall teaching strategy was used?

4
 How does this teaching strategy connect to the English teaching practices discussed in this
module?

3. Watch Part 3 of the video (8:48-12:52) and answer the following questions. Record your
answers on your graphic organizer.

 Describe the school’s self-access room.

 What overall teaching strategy was used?
 How does this teaching strategy connect to the English teaching practices discussed in this
module?

Alternative Assignment
If you are unable to view the video, please do the following:

1. Read the transcript for only Part 1 of the video.

2. Read what the teacher does in the classroom. What does the teacher do to create a
learner-centered classroom? How does this relate to the concepts we learned in this
module?
3. Read what the students do in the video. What activities do the students do that make this
classroom learner-centered? How does this relate to the concepts we learned in this
module?
4. Record your thoughts on the graphic organizer.

4
 Shaping the Way We Teach English: Individual Learner Differences Graphic Organizer

Watch Part 1 of the Video (0:00-4:01) and type the answers to the following questions below.

1.) How is the class organized? 1.) How does this teaching strategy connect to the
English teaching practices discussed in this module?

2.) What activities did the students do?

3.) What skills did the students practice?

4.) What overall teaching strategy was used?

Watch Part 2 of the Video (4:01-8:48) and type the answers to the following questions below.

1.) Describe different parts of the project that the 1.) How does this teaching strategy connect to the
teacher was describing. English teaching practices discussed in this module?

2.) What overall teaching strategy was used?

Watch Part 3 of the Video (8:48-12:52) and type the answers to the following questions below.

1.) Describe the school’s self-access room. 1.) How does this teaching strategy connect to the
English teaching practices discussed in this module?

2.) What overall teaching strategy was used?

1 ©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Shaping the Way We Teach English: Individual
Learner Differences Graphic Organizer A for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of
State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License,
except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360

and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Transcript
Individual Learner Differences
Narrator: Module 11: Individual Learner Differences. Learners in one classroom are both
similar, and at the same time, different. A learner-centered approach to teaching requires
teachers to understand this duality and to be aware of the different ways in which students
learn. Some differences may be easier to see or discover such as age, gender, socioeconomic
conditions and level of education. Other differences may be more difficult to identify including
overall cognitive ability or intelligence and cognitive development in younger learners; learners
language proficiency levels and their motivation for language study; learners personality traits
along with their learning strengths styles and preferences.

Module Focus: Introduction. The focus in Module 11 is on how teachers can vary teaching
approaches and techniques to help facilitate learning for a wide variety of students. They can
vary the type of language input along with the content and the medium of delivery. They can
vary learner tasks. They can teach learning strategies. They can help students take responsibility
for their own learning and they can use group work appropriately.

Number 1: Viewing points for students using different skills, Video Segment Number 1
In this classroom, the students have chosen a popular song to work on and learn. Here they are
demonstrating the results of their work. Look for how the class is organized different activities
that the students do language and other skills that students are using and an overall learning
and teaching strategy

[The first group of students performs their song to the class.]

[The next group of students reads their story in front of the class.]

Group 1: “Today, I tell about my favorite experience. I have heard my friend talk about her
boyfriend. She passed along with him for a year.”

1 ©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-
Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the
U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
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Group 2: “My group is talking about this song. This song is about a girl. She's four. She has fall in
love with one man but she can't tell him about her love. She is pray every night too and she
want him to her boyfriend.”

[The final group of students sings the song aloud to the rest of the class.]

Summary: This was a large class. Students worked in groups. Each group had a different
activity. One group wrote and acted out a music video. One wrote a personal story that was
similar to the story in the song one group drew a picture about the song and explained it, and
one group changed the words of the song. They were using listening, speaking, reading,
writing, music, drawing and drama skills. One strategy the teacher used was to make students
aware they were using the song to learn English vocabulary.

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360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Transcript
Individual Learner Differences Part 2
Narrator: Number 2: Viewing Points- Learning stations and self-access rooms. Video
segment Number 2.
Another way to meet the needs of individual learning differences is to set up learning
stations or a self-access area or room. Some reasons for a self-access area are so that
learners can have choices and they can work at their own pace; so that learners can
have access to a variety of materials and do different tasks; so that learners can work
together on projects and activities; and so that the teacher can have more time to work
with small groups or individuals.
Female Teacher: S.E.A.R stands for Student English Access Room. So this is the room
for encourage your student to come and practice more skills of English like speaking
with listening reading and writing. This is the project from all their…all the project from
material five because I teach material five and they work in groups like this.
Normally, I cannot remember the name of the students so they put their faces on this
like this. This is the Tago Herps…yes, Tago is the name of the tree that our school
focus on these type of herbs. And this is the name of them and then we plan and then
use it to run it with the student bit by bit day by day years by years and up until now.
They can produce it very, very good.
At first they need to plan. I use 10 steps from story and then let them understand. I
have four stages of using project work teaching. The first one… I just introductory by let
them understand the project work and then I use the example project for them. The first
example for me is smoking project to let them know that smoking is not good; to let
them get the information and then they can analyze, analyze the information and then
they conclude and present it to the class.
After that, I control them to make the project of smoking. After that, they will do it by my
help. According to my help they do the project one and then after that they can do it by
themselves with the interest for project two and they develop until now. They can do it
by integrated how to do how to run the project to other subjects like Tago is for the
botany and herbs is for science. So they can they can run this and get the point for me
and then they can answer another score from another again in their subjects.

1 ©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-
Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the
U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
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This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360
This is the name of the project and they have the brochure to present this is the present
for the brochure. They do it by themselves, but with my help with the language but it is a
lot of student. I teach about maybe 25 groups to do this. So it run out with a lot of time
to change, to develop the language. This is the transparency for them to get the
information and then present to the class.
When evaluation not only me, but they themselves, they can evaluate themselves and
their friends, too. And sometime I let the parents to come and have a look at their kids
project. After the third years, they can have a lot of examples to have a look. I just guide
them to have a look at the examples. Yes, and when they got the information they, they
present this to show that it is the real thing to do.

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360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Transcript
Individual Learner Differences
Narrator: Notice the different sections or areas of this self-access room and the kinds of
resources that are available. There is a schedule to help students determine when they can use
different areas of the room.
This room can be used for independent study or for group work. A similar, but smaller self-
access area, can also be created in one corner of a classroom, or even on a cart that moves
from class to class. Teachers can gradually develop areas or carts as time and the availability of
materials allow. Workstations are another way to support individual learning differences.
Students can work together, or individually, at a station. Using workstations can give the
teacher time to work with one group, while other groups are working on something else.
Workstations can also give students the opportunity to manipulate things to help them learn,
which is a different kind of learning.
Female Teacher: I see. These two are right. Did you see that? Can you show this to everybody?
See so these…
Narrator: At one station, students put together a brain puzzle as part of learning about its
parts and their functions.
Another way to learn is to use the world outside the classroom. For this project, students
counted all the different animals they saw in their neighborhoods. Then at one of their
workstations, they combined that information into a graph.
Summary: self access centers or areas and workstations give learners choices; they allow
learners to work at their own pace; they provide access to a variety of materials and
opportunities to do different tasks; they provide materials for working together on projects and
activities; and they provide time for the teacher to work with individuals or groups.
Module Focus: Summary
The focus in Module 11 has been on individual learning differences. Teachers can vary
approaches and techniques to help facilitate learning for a wide variety of learners. When they
vary the type of language input along with the content and the medium of delivery, they vary

1 ©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-
Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the
U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360
learner tasks, they teach learning strategies, when they help students take responsibility for
their own learning, and when they use group work appropriately.
See the manual for readings and more information on this and other topics related to individual
learner differences.

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360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
2.3.2 Activity: Learner Profile
LEARNER PROFILE ACTIVITY TEMPLATE

As we begin our focus on the learner, let’s take a look at the learners you currently have in
class. If you are not currently teaching, work with a colleague to obtain the profile data. This
data will be the foundation you build upon for your learner-centered, project-based topic.
(Note: you will type over the items in green; this is just a reminder of what is needed for each
category.)

Number of students

Age and grade level

Gender of students

Ethnicity of students

Language
All 4 skills
proficiency:
Language
How many years studying English
experience: (a)

Language
Type of curriculum, methods, and approaches used
experience: (b)

Motivation: (a) Kinds of topics interesting or motivating for your learners

Kinds of texts and activities interesting or motivating for your

Motivation: (b)
learners
Kinds of technologies interesting or motivating for your
Motivation: (c)
learners

We recommend that you use this template to develop your learner profile for all your classes.
Developing your learner profile can help you improve your teaching, plan learner-centered
activities, and support your classroom management. For this activity, please do the following:

5
1. Review the Module 2 lectures and readings and the Learner Profile Activity template above.
2. Select one of your current classes and fill in this template with your students’ information.
3. Copy/provide your responses by filling out this quiz.
4. To respond to quiz Question #10, write a paragraph on how you think a learner profile will
assist you in making your classes interactive and engaging in the future.

This activity is graded and it is worth 10 points. You will automatically receive points for
completing this quiz. You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this quiz. You will not
receive instructor feedback. This assignment must be completed online.

2.4 Readings: Managing the Learner-Centered Classroom

English teachers around the world have many different classroom cultures and class sizes.
Learner-centered teaching strategies might seem harder to manage with large classes. The
following article discusses approaches and strategies for working with and managing large
learner-centered classrooms.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context. You will discuss these ideas and your own connections in the Module 2 discussion.
A study guide for this article is also provided below.

Article: "Student-Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources"

5
Renaud,S. Tannebaum, E., Stantial, P. (2007). Student-Centered Teaching in Large Classes with
Limited Resources. English Teaching Forum, 45(3),12-34.
https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/english-teaching-forum-2007-volume-45-number-
3#child-837

5
 Susan Renaud, Elizabet h Tannenbaum, and Phillip Stantial
C A N A D A A N D T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S

Student-Centered
Teaching in Large
Classes with Limited
Resources
“We cannot direct the wind, but we can adjust the sails.”
(Peace Corps 1992, 11)

well be in

J
osue enters his thousands of
classroom where his schools in
secondary school hundreds of
students— all 78 of developing
them—are waiting, countries
squeezed together on throughout
sagging wooden benches. the
The small room is so crowd- Caribbean,
ed that Josue cannot move Africa, South
from the narrow space left America, and
for him between the front Asia.
wall—where the polished According to
cement has been painted Cross
black to serve as a (1992), in
blackboard—and the first some
row of benches. His situations
students have no books. “teachers
There is no electricity, it is have no
hot, and Josue has only a copying
piece of chalk and his facilities, no
imagination to help him home base,
teach his students English. no supplies
This scenario is repeated of any kind.
every day in Port-au-Prince, Under such
Haiti, but it could just as conditions,
07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:17
 much of what is written
about language teaching in journals and
books is irrelevant, even
laughable.”
We began to work with
Haitian pre- service
teachers at the State
Teacher Training College
and with groups of in-
service teachers throughout
the country in 1998. At that
time, we did not fully grasp
the realities of teaching
English, or any subject, in a
country like Haiti. We soon
realized that much of what
we were present- ing to the
teachers could not possibly
be applied in the Haitian
classroom. Many of our
techniques did indeed seem
“irrelevant and laughable,”
yet we had teachers who
wanted to teach effectively,
and they had students who
wanted to learn.
What is a large class?

Josue’s class of 78
students, described above,
is not at all unusual in Haiti.
A few teachers have
reported having classes of
up to 200 students. At a
recent TESOL (Teachers of
Eng- lish to Speakers of
Other Languages)

12 2007 N U M B E R 3 | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:17

 conference workshop, participants hetero- geneous, more proficient students can be used to
were asked how many students help lower level ones. She also states that the teacher is
would make up a “large class” in never bored and that professional development occurs
their teaching environment. The naturally as the teacher tries to find new ways of coping
most common answer was 25. with the large number of students. In addition to these
According to a study cited by Ur advantages, Ur (1996) explains that because the teacher
(1996), the average per- ception is less able to attend to every indi- vidual, the students
of a large class is around 50 must develop strategies for helping themselves and their
students; however, she suggests classmates through peer-teaching and collaboration,
that “the exact number does not thus fostering an atmosphere of cooperation.
really matter: what matters is
how you, the teacher see the class
size in your own specific
situation” (302). Baker and
Westrup (2000) echo this thought
when they say: “A large class can
be any number of students, if the
teacher feels there are too many
students for them all to make
progress” (2).
Our experience in Haiti has
shown that there is a limit to the
size of a class in which student-
centered methods can be used
with- out creating chaos. We have
observed and presented to classes
of up to 80 students where
communicative activities were
success- fully used. As one
teacher pointed out, a class with
more than 80 students becomes a
con- gregation rather than a class,
and the teacher must become a
preacher: lecturing, writing notes
on the board for students to copy,
and hoping that at least some of
the students will learn something.
Therefore, for the purposes of this
article, we are going to define a
large class as having between 50
and 80 students, and we will
discuss some successful tech-
niques for teachers who teach
large classes with limited
resources.

Advantages of large classes

Hess (2001) points out that in a
large class there are always
enough students for interac- tion,
and there is a rich variety of
human resources. The teacher is
not the only peda- gogue, and
since a large class is usually

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:17

 Challenges of large classes on what worked best.
Despite The major challenges of
these teaching large classes presented
advantages below are grouped into four
, the categories: (1) managing the
challenges classroom,
involved in (2) using pair and group work to
teaching encourage cooperative learning,
large (3) teaching with lim- ited
classes can resources, and (4) motivating
be students in heterogeneous
daunting. classes.
The ideas 1. Managing the classroom
we present
for dealing The idea of trying to manage a
with these classroom full of noisy, often
challenges hungry, teenagers who may or
have been may not be interested in learning
developed English is daunting at best. Two
over a of the most serious challenges are
period of how to maintain discipline and
several how to correct large amounts of
years and written work.
are the Maintaining discipline
result of Most discipline problems are
both our the result of boredom or
research of alienation. If students are inter-
the litera- ested in the class, many discipline
ture on problems disappear. Students
teaching who are paying attention, who
large are involved in activities that
classes and appeal to their interests and
our work needs, do not act up and often
with help control more rambunctious
Haitian classmates. Some techniques that
English can help maintain discipline are
teachers. described below.
These • Set classroom rules. At the
teach- ers beginning of the year, ask
brainstorm students to work in small
ed with us, groups to write down rules
conducted they think are reasonable
action regarding class- room
research behavior and the
while consequences for breaking
trying out the rules. Collect and write
these ideas up a summary of the ideas on
(and many a large sheet of paper. In the
others, not next class, ask students to
always consider the rules and make
successful) any suggestions for changes.
in their Ask students to vote to
classrooms, accept the rules and make a
and then final copy to be hung in the
reported classroom for the year. If the
back to us rules

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07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:17

 requ
ire
stud
come from the students, and ents
they con- sider them to be to sit
fair, they will be more willing in
to follow them. their
• Plan a variety of activities assig
that appeal to students with ned
different learning styles and seat
interests. This will usually s.)
keep the attention of the This
majority of stu- dents. Often can
the students themselves are help
effective in maintaining in
discipline. If many students lear
want to hear what the ning
teacher or their classmates stud
are saying, they will ask their ents’
neighbors to be quiet and nam
pay attention, too. es.
• Establish routines. Starting Whe
the class with the class n the
agenda on the board can teac
help students to focus and her
prepare for the day’s class. kno
Set up signals that the ws
students understand—for and
quiet, for silence, and so on uses
—using hand signals, a bell, stud
or some other method. ents’
• So as not to waste time nam
calling the roll, give the es,
students a sign-in sheet to they
pass around at the beginning feel
of the class. When it comes mor
back to the front of the room, e
draw a line under the last like
name. Any names that are indiv
written below the line are idual
those of late-comers. Another s
strategy is to have students and
make name cards to display are
on their desks (folded so that less
the teacher can see them likel
eas- ily). Collect the name y to
cards at the end of class. At act
the beginning of each up.
subsequent class, as the • Give
students enter the room, the
have them take their name mor
cards. Those cards that e
aren’t collected belong to adva
students who are absent. nced
This takes care of attendance stud
and helps the teacher learn ents
names, too. resp
• Create a seating chart (and onsi

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:18

 bility for helping others, as
group leaders, monitors, or
teaching assistants.
• Teach students to show their Correcting large amounts of
respect for others by written work
listening to what they have Large classes mean lots of
to say in group work or when written work to correct, which is
they are reporting to the often too much for a teacher who
whole class. has to plan lessons, teach classes,
and meet with many students.
Two techniques can help alleviate
the workload of correcting written
work.
• Have students work in
groups to pro- duce one
piece of writing for each
group or to complete
grammar exer- cises
together. This encourages
com- munication and also
cuts down on the number of
papers the teacher must cor-
rect. Tell students that
students within a group will
all receive the same grade so
that they will all take an
interest in producing
something good.
• For all written work, have
each student go through the
process of self-editing and
one or two rounds of peer
edit- ing before turning in
the paper. This decreases the
amount of written assess-
ment that the teacher needs
to provide. (Students need to
be trained to do peer editing
in a collaborative, uncritical
way. They may be resistant
to the idea of peer editing at
first.)
2. Using pair and group work to
encourage cooperative learning
In Haiti, where the
educational system is
traditionally based almost solely
on rote learning, and where the
classroom is a highly competitive
place, convincing students of the
necessity of working
cooperatively with their peers is
not an easy task. The tech- niques
described below suggest some
ways to get students to work
together and remain interested.
• Spend some time at the

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:18

 beginning of the school year talking about language time, plan simple activities
learning and looking at the learning process itself. If for very short periods of
you can convince students of the necessity of using time. At first, having
the language to communicate in order to learn it students ask the person next
well, they will be more will- ing to try working in to them a pre-set question
pairs or small groups.
• When you introduce pair and group work for the first

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 may be enough. The time of the pair or group work, ask students to evaluate
spent on an activity and the if they met their goal or ask group mem- bers to
complexity of activities can evaluate each other. In most cases, some use of the
gradually be increased as L1 in pair or group work might be tolerated as long
students become used to the as the students are on task and must talk about and
routines. produce something in English at the end of the
• To limit the time it takes for activity.
students to get into groups, • Teach students rules for polite com- munication
have students work with and make it clear that this is what is expected
those next to them, or imme- when students are working together in groups. One
diately behind them. Seats member of the group can be put in charge of
can be changed weekly or monitoring correct forms of
monthly in order to allow
students to work with
different classmates.
• Set up groups in advance
and have them stay together
for several class periods,
which will avoid the time-
con- suming daily
reorganization of groups.
Assign roles to group
members so that everyone in
the group feels involved in
some way. For each activity,
roles should rotate among
group members, with
different students acting as
the facilitator, secretary,
recorder, time keeper, and
so on.
• Establish quiet signals to
show students when to start
and stop activities. Stu-
dents must be trained to stop
working on a task when the
teacher gives a sig- nal by
doing something such as
raising her/his arms, ringing
a bell, or holding up a stop
sign. The teacher should
never try to out-shout 40
pairs of stu- dents who are
all speaking at once.
• Make one copy of handouts
per group or pair of
students. This obliges stu-
dents to share and to work
together, and fewer copies
are needed.
• If students are using too
much L1 during pair or
group work, ask them to set
a goal for L2 language use
dur- ing activities. At the end

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:18

 addres progress. Model the activity
s, with a student.
turn- 3. Teaching with limited resources
taking
, and Many students in developing
so on. countries do not have textbooks.
Stu- The only materials they bring to
dents class are a notebook and,
who sometimes, a pen or pencil. The
do not teacher usually has a blackboard
follow and chalk supplied by the school,
the but no access to photocopies, no
rules electricity, and often little access
can be to books. Many teach- ers do not
expell even have an English dictionary
ed or an English grammar book
from available. The suggestions that
the follow can help overcome the
group scarcity of resources.
and • Rather than always writing
made notes on the board for
to students to copy, try some
stand more interesting ways of
at the getting the necessary
back information into their
of the notebooks. For example,
room. dictate the information using
• Give a dictogloss, which is a
instru method where the students
ctions listen twice to a passage read
clearly at normal speed, taking notes
and during the second read- ing.
carefu They then work with a
l- ly, partner to try to reconstruct
and the text. When a pair thinks
check they have it, they write the
compr pas- sage on the board and
ehensi the class works together to
on make it as close to the origi-
before nal as possible. The teacher
the makes final corrections, and
pair or the students correct their
group work (Wajnryb 1990).
work • Ask students to bring an item from
home to use as a talking or
begins
writing point for the class.
. Write
This can help build
instru
community in the classroom
ctions
and encourage student
on the
responsibility and
board
participation in the activity.
so
• To save time during class,
groups
write texts or questions on
can
large sheets of newsprint or
refer
brown paper before class
to
rather than writing on the
them
board. In a very large
as
classroom, make two or
they

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:18

 three can be posted on the side or
copies back wall so everyone can
that see.

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07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:18

 read
ing
activ
• Use pictures from
- ity.
magazines, or learn to draw
Enco
simple pictures to illustrate
urag
vocabulary or to generate
e
interest in reading, speaking,
stud
or writing activities, or as a
ents
basis for discussion. (1000+
to
Pictures for Teachers To
brai
Copy by Andrew Wright is an
nsto
excellent resource.)
rm
• Bring realia—actual objects
reas
that language learners can
ons
see, hear, and touch—into
for
the classroom. A teacher can
lear
generate a great deal of
ning
interest when he or she pulls
Engl
surprising things out of a
ish
bag!
and
• Use what the students
the
themselves say as input. For
adva
example, to practice chang-
ntag
ing direct to indirect speech,
es of
a student can be asked a
bein
question, and another
g
student asked to report what
able
was said either orally or in
to
writing. This can be done in
spea
groups after a few examples
k
have been given to the whole
anot
class. Or a topic can be
her
given (for example, “Food”)
lang
and the teacher can ask a
uage
few students to make a
.
statement about it. The rest
• To
of the class then writes down
keep
the sentences in a student-
mor
generated dictation.
e
4. Motivating students in adva
heterogeneous classes nced
In a large class, it is easy for stud
students to feel alienated. If they ents
feel that the teacher does not chal-
know them or care whether or not leng
they learn, they will usually put ed,
very little effort into participating prep
actively in the learn- ing process. are
Some ways to motivate students an
of different language levels and activ
ages in a large class are ity
described below. reso
• At the beginning of the year, urce
include some information note
about the impor- tance of book
English as a world language, to
either as a listening or a keep

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:18

 in the classroom. Students
who finish activities quickly
can work on the
supplementary activi- ties • To ensure that students
while waiting for the rest of speak up loud- ly in class
the class to finish. when answering questions or
making comments, the
teacher should move away
from the student who is
speaking, rather than coming
closer to hear him or her
better. In this way, everyone
should be able to hear and
remain involved.
• Adapt the material according
to the language level, age,
and needs of stu- dents. In
multi-age, multi-level classes,
plan a variety of activities to
appeal to as many students
as possible.
• Develop sequential activities
with sev- eral steps so that
higher level students
complete more while lower
level stu- dents work at their
own pace. When preparing
worksheets, add some option-
al sections for more
advanced students.
• Use higher level students as
assistant teachers or
monitors who can help and
support the lower level
students.
• Prepare activities that allow
students to show their
different skills and interests.
• As much as possible, be
available to students before
and after class to estab- lish
personal relationships, so
that they feel that they are
individuals in the eyes of the
teacher, not merely part of
the herd.
• Make students aware of the
goals of each learning
activity. If they under- stand
why they are doing it, they
will participate more
willingly.
• Make all activities success-
oriented. Students will
participate willingly in tasks
that seem achievable. When
they have confidence in their
success, they will be

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:18

 motivated to try. of about 35 with a bright
Below are descriptions of two large classes we observed welcoming smile but a presence
in Haiti, where teachers were able to lead their students that says he is in control. The
towards specific learning outcomes while integrating students fill all of the approxi-
some student-centered activities and maintaining mately 100 desks of the
discipline and interest. classroom, which is about the
size of a U.S. living room. They
Fanfan’s class
Fanfan walks into the classroom, a tall unassuming man

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 go immediately to their assigned a group of six students in the front of the class
numbered chairs, take their seats respond to commands from another student. They have
and turn toward the cracked, just finished learning body parts and basic commands.
peeling chalkboard. There isn’t Emmanuel first worked with a group in a fast paced drill
any of the fooling around that you of “Touch your head, arm, nose, etc.,” and now he has
would expect among a group of turned over to a student the task of giving commands.
American high school students. Several groups and leaders get a chance to perform,
These students know how lucky and Emmanuel selects them as they quietly raise their
they are to be at a public lycee hands. Some call out “Me, teacher,” a great
(high school) in Cap Haitian, improvement, Emmanuel notes, from the previous cries
Haiti. Only a small percent- age of of
teenagers attend any high school,
and these students are among the
luckiest since they have gotten
one of the prize places in the
public schools, which means no
tuition pay- ment. These students
are all in their next to last year
and they will soon face the
grueling final exams that will
determine if they pass secondary
school. (Only a few do.)
Fanfan gets the students ready
to study with a short song in
English that he has taught before
and that the students love to sing.
He conducts the class, first all
together, then one half of the
room, then the other half, and
then all together again. With the
class warmed up and ready for
English, he writes on the board
five sentences using the simple
past, all with mistakes. The
students’ task is to find the
mistakes in these sentences.
There is a comfortable buzz in the
room as students work alone and
together. Then Fanfan, call- ing
on students from throughout the
room by name, has the students
tell each other the correct form.
Students then copy down the
sentences and Fanfan tells a story
using the simple past, followed by
comprehension questions and
then a written assignment. The 50
minutes pass quickly.

Emmanuel’s class
Emmanuel has squished
himself into one of the benches
already filled with five seventh
grade students. He and the
class of 50 students are watching

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 “Moi.” work as they take out their
Emmanuel copybooks to work on a group
has story they began the day before.
encourage Students turn to face the bench
d them to behind them to make groups of
use four. Emmanuel calls stu- dents
English to by name, remembering the stories
communic they have worked on before and
ate, and encouraging the shyer ones to
not just participate.
for One wall of Emmanuel’s
grammar classroom is partially open to the
exercises. courtyard of the school so noise
The from other classes comes in. In
students the middle of class, the electricity
observing goes off, but the students just
must listen continue their work in the semi-
careful- ly darkness of the concrete walled
to help room. As the bell rings for the
disqualify class to end, the stu- dents cluster
any around Emmanuel to say good-
student bye in English as he leaves to go
who on to another class and another
touches English lesson.
the wrong
body part Conclusion
based on It is obvious that, given a
the choice, all teach- ers would
command. choose to teach in a classroom
The that is bright and well equipped
student and is limited to 20 students who
who wins all have books and materials to
each round support their learning. That is not
gets a the situ- ation in many classrooms
small star in the world today, and it will
or heart probably not be the situation for
sticker years to come. In the meantime,
from as we have tried to show, there
Emmanuel’ are ways to make learn- ing
s collec- better, more fun, and easier for
tion. both the teacher and the
Unlike students. We cannot direct the
Fanfan’s wind, but we can adjust the sails!
classroom,
where References
there is no Baker, J., and H. Westrup. 2000.
possible The English language teacher’s
way for the handbook: How to teach large
classes with few resources.
teacher to London: Continuum.
move Hess, N. 2001. Teaching large
around the multilevel classes. New York:
room, Cambridge University Press.
Emmanuel Peace Corps. 1992. Teaching
can English as a foreign language to
large, multilevel classes.
squeeze Washington, DC: Peace Corps
down the Information Collection and
aisles and Exchange.
monitor http://www.peacecorps.gov/library/
students’ pdf/M0046_tefllarge.pdf.

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 6/27/07 9:47:18

 C ontinued on page 34

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 Student-Centered… Susan Renaud, Elizabeth Tannenbaum, and Phillip
Stantial
(Continued from page 17)

Ur, P. 1996. A course in language ELIZABETH TANNENBAUM teaches

teaching: Practice and theory. methodology and applied linguistics
Cambridge: Cambridge University courses in the MAT Program at the School
Press. for International Training, Brattleboro,
Wajnryb, R. 1990. Grammar Vermont. She has trained teachers in the
dictation. Oxford: Oxford United States, Asia, the South Pacific, and
University Press. Haiti.
Wright, A. 1994. 1000+ pictures for
teachers to copy.
London: Nelson.
PHILLIP STANTIAL administered an ESL
program in Florida for many years. More
SUSAN RENAUD was a Soros Foundation recently, he has been involved in teacher
English Teacher Trainer in Haiti for seven training. In addition, he has worked in
years. She has taught English and trained Peace Corps training and administration in
English teachers in the United States, Eastern Europe and Central and Southeast
Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia. She Asia.
currently works as a trainer for the School
for International Training TESOL Certificate
Program.

ANSWERS TO THE LIGHTER SIDE

FaIR FINds

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 34 2007 NUMBER 3 | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M

07-0003 ETF_30_34.indd 6/27/07 9:46:44

An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources
Article by Susan Renaud, Elizabeth Tannenbaum, and Phillip Stantial

Study Guide by Yuliya Schmaltz From English Language Teaching Forum, 2007, Volume 45, Number 3

Retrieved 5 January 2018 from: https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/07-45-3-

c.pdf

Overview

English language classrooms in many developing countries often contain up to 100 students. In addition,
teachers who teach those classes have limited access to technology or teaching resources. This article
presents successful techniques used to teach English language in large classes. For the purposes of this
article, large classes are defined as having 50-80 students.

Advantages of Large Classes

Large classes provide students opportunities to interact. They enroll students of various talents and
abilities and they allow teachers to grow and develop professionally. A teacher may not be able to
attend to everyone, therefore students are more likely to collaborate and cooperate.

Challenges of Large Classrooms

Haitian teachers teaching large classes shared with authors of this article. Teachers identified that many
challenges were connected to managing the classroom. They discussed these four challenges:

1) Managing the classroom

Some challenges are connected to maintaining discipline. However, teachers noticed that if students are
interested in the course materials, they tend to stay active and engaged with their courses. They
recommended the following strategies to set and maintain classroom rules:

 Set classroom rules and ask students to comment on them and add the rules they consider
important. Students will more willingly follow the rules if they think they are fair.
 Use activities that appeal to different learning styles. They will keep the majority of students
engaged and interested.
 Establish routines such as class agendas, hand signals for quiet, change turns, and others.
 Pass sign in sheets at the start of the class or ask students to use name tents and collect them
at the end of each day.
 Create seating charts.
 Use one handout for a group of students to save resources.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-Centered Teaching in
Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered
by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of
this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by University
of
  Assign group roles to facilitate effective group work.

Other challenges are connected to checking a large amount of written work. Teachers recommended to:

 Ask each group to produce one written text, instead of asking every student to write one. This
also encourages collaboration and peer-review.
 Ask students to self-edit and have two peers edit their work.

2) Using a pair and group work to encourage collaboration

Teachers suggested some of the following techniques to encourage collaboration and interest in the
subject matter:

 Discuss the language learning process and the need to use language to communicate.
 Limit the time students spend getting into groups. Establish group schedules.
 Plan groups in advance. Assign roles such as facilitator, recorder, time keeper, and others.
 Create signals to communicate when activities start and stop. That eliminates the need for a
teacher to address students or raise his or her voice.
 Establish goals for using L2 and ask students to evaluate each other.
 Give clear instructions and ask students to summarize them back.

3) Teaching with limited resources

In some cases classroom resources may be limited to notebooks, pencils, blackboards and chalk. It is
possible to work around the lack of resources by doing the following:

 Ask students to bring an important object from their home and describe it/use it as a
classroom resource.
 Cut pictures from magazines or draw small pictures for teaching new vocabulary.
 Use objects learners can touch, smell, and pass around (realia).
 Ask students to use their own dialogues to create direct and indirect speech sentences.

4) Motivating students in heterogeneous classes.

It is important to get to know your students to make them comfortable and connected. Teachers
mention the following techniques to motivate their students:

 Prepare supplemental resource activities for more advanced students to keep them occupied if
they finish assignments early.
 Adapt materials according to students’ proficiency levels. The same source material can be used
when enhanced or adapted.
 Prepare sequential activities to allow more advanced students to complete higher order steps.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by University
of
  Use more proficient students to monitor activities and discussions.
 Be available before and after class to establish connections and build relationships with
students.

Conclusion

It is not always possible to have access to educational resources, but teachers can use realia, creativity,
and their students to create supplemental teaching resources.

Reference (OER)

Peace Corps. 1992. Teaching English as a foreign language to large, multilevel classes. Washington DC:
Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED358702.pdf

References (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Baker, J., and H. Westrup. 2000 The English language teacher’s handbook: How to teach large classes
with few resources. London: Continuum.

Hess, N 2001. Teaching large multilevel classes. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ur, P. 1996. A
course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge University Press.

Wajnryb, R. 1990 Grammar dictation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wright, A. 1994. 1000+ pictures for teachers to copy. London: Nelson.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by University
of
2.4.1 Optional Video: Student Centered Classroom Management

OPTIONAL:

Webinar on Student-Centered Classroom Management

Student-Centered Classroom Management: Addressing Classroom Issues with 5 Adaptable Forms

Student-centered classroom management differs from teacher centered classroom management.

The overall focus of classroom management should be on encouraging good discipline and behavior to facilitate students' learning
opportunities. The following presentation discusses different classroom management techniques and it presents 5 adaptable forms that can be
used to guide activities in learner-centered classrooms. The author discusses how and when each form is best used.

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=BQ_guy2iBXk&feature=youtu.be

Reference

Thomas, C. Student-Centered Classroom Management: Addressing Classroom Issues with 5 Adaptable Forms [Webinar].

5
2.4.2 Quiz: Learner Centered Classes

Quiz Instructions

Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on learner-centered classrooms, learner differences, and communicative classroom
management, try and match concepts with their meaning. Take the quiz to test yourself!

This quiz is graded and it is worth 10 points. You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this quiz. You must earn at least 7 points to unlock
the next page. This quiz should be completed online.

6
2.5 Lecture: Strategies-Based Instruction, Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in Second Language
Teaching

“Untitled.” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay. is licensed under under a Pixabay License . It is free to use and share.

Read more about learner styles-and strategies-based instruction below.

Introduction

In order for students learn new skills and to retain, or keep, knowledge for a long time, instructors use learning strategies in the classroom.
When students engage with the course content and use strategies to help them remember it, students can communicate better in their new
language and also become better language learners overall (Dale, 1946).

An Overview of Language Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies (LLS) are specific actions and steps that learners use to help them remember information. They are important in
the learning process and should be explicitly taught by language teachers.

Learner strategies:

 allow learner to be self-directed

6
  expand the role of teachers
 are problem-oriented
 involve many aspects, not just the cognitive
 can be taught
 are flexible
 are influenced by many factors

(Oxford, 1990)

Types of Learning Strategies

There are three main types of learning strategies: metacognitive strategies (learners are thinking about the process of learning), cognitive
strategies (learners create strategies for specific tasks or assignments) and socio-affective strategies (learners work together to get
knowledge). Here are specific classroom techniques to make learners aware of their learning:

Students can use Metacognitive Strategies like these:

 Identify words they don't know, or recognize where and when they don't understand.
 Tell a peer how they solved a comprehension problem
 Practice self talk by repeating a positive statement about their learning goals at the beginning of each class.
 Students record what they learned at the end of each week in a learning log to track progress.
 Students use a checklist to ensure that they meet all requirements for an assignment.
 Teacher assigns note takers for each class. The note taker can use the same graphic organizer for each class. Keep a log of class notes
that students can go back and look at.
 Teacher assigns a course “wrapper” who summarizes the material at the end of each class.

Student can use Cognitive Strategies like these:

 Categorize new vocabulary words into a graphic organizer to help remember them.
 Imagery: Drawing a picture to symbolize the new vocabulary word in a learning log.
 Repetition: Repeating a concept over and over again to help students remember.
 Music: Building a song, music video, etc. to help students remember.
 Students write synonyms (words with the same meaning) for unknown words.
 Read a paragraph several times for different purposes (main idea, details, to ask questions, etc.)
 Use formulas and patterns to solve difficult grammar and spelling patterns.
 Use rhymes or special phrases to help remember new vocabulary.
 Use different colored pens to mark their work for different criteria.

Students can use Socio-Affective Strategies like these:

 Practice a 'Round Robin' activity where they form groups, then trade papers with other groups in the class after each question to
share multiple answers.
 Ask students to be peer models and model the correct way to perform the language.

6
  Assign certain students to teach class material to their classmates.
 In the classroom, display questions that students can ask their peers or themselves if they need help.
 Appoint student roles in the class such as leader, note-taker, time keeper, etc.

Conclusion

Learning strategies and strategies-based instruction are designed to train students how to continue their language learning beyond the
classroom. Teachers are encouraged to develop different activities that explicitly teach strategies and also take into consideration the various
styles of learners. The goal is for students to become independent learners.

Before any activity, instructors should ask themselves two questions:

1. What learning styles would be most beneficial in completing a task?

2. What learning strategies will my students need to complete this task successfully?

References (Copyrighted)

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers, Retrieved from TESL Journal, Vol. IX,
No.4 http://iteslj.org/Articles/Currie-MITheory.html (Links to an external site.)

O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, CUP.

Oxford, R. (1990a). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House.

Read more about metacognition below.

6
Introduction

Metacognition is defined as thinking about thinking. According to Anderson (2002), metacognitive learners are aware of their own thinking
process and know which learning strategies to use at different stages of their leaning process. They are able to learn more effectively because
they can self-direct their own learning. English language teachers can help students become aware of their own learning processes, which will
in turn help learners become better learners. This highlights the importance of teaching students metacognitive skills, as it gives them tools for
learning and success.

Metacognition Model

Metacognition follows the sequence of thinking and reflective processes. They are:

 Preparing and planning for learning: It is important for students to be thinking ahead about their learning process with certain
learning goals in mind. Teachers can provide students with specific and achievable learning goals. Then learners can assess their
own progress against the established learning goals and objectives. Successful students are able to select learning strategies and use
metacognitive skills based on their learning situations.
 Selecting and Using Learning Strategies: When learners can identify and use learning strategies to fit a their learning - they are
metacognitively aware. Teachers should introduce learners to a variety of strategies and techniques to choose from to do complex
tasks. Students need to be trained on how to best use these strategies, and they need to be aware than no strategy will fit all their
learning needs.
 Monitoring Strategy Use: Being able to monitor which learning strategy is used is another characteristic of metacognitive learners.
They need to do periodic self-checks to see whether the strategy they selected is still the best one for the learning task. Instructors
can help students learn to monitor their strategy use by occasionally pausing and reflecting on their learning process.
 Combining Various Strategies: Metacognitive learners can combine various matacognitive skills. Such learners are able to connect,
sequence, and coordinate multiple strategies to achieve the desired learning outcome. Teacher-facilitators can make sure that
students are aware of the multiple strategies that are available to them for specific activities.
 Evaluating Strategy Use and Learning: Part of the metacognitive learning process involves being able to assess whether the learning
is happening effectively. Teachers can facilitate such self-evaluation by asking prompting questions that will help learners connect
the dots between their intended learning goals and learning outcomes. Examples of such questions include 'What am I trying to
accomplish?', What strategies am I using?', 'How well am I using them?'. and 'What else could I do?'

Conclusion

English language teachers are important in teaching metacognitve skills. They help learners learn and practice metacognitive strategies, self-
reflect, self-assess, and become better learners (Anderson, 2002).

References (OER)

Anderson, N. (2002). The Role of Metacognition in Second Language Teaching and Learning.ERIC DIGEST EDO-FL-01-10

6
Read more about Critical Thinking and Higher Order Thinking (HOT) skills below.

Introduction

Critical thinking is defined as a process of actively conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating information and knowledge by using
observations, reason, experience and communication to create guiding principles for action. It engages students at higher levels of Bloom's
taxonomy's cognitive domains of learning. Cognitive approach to teaching and learning encourages the relationship between learner thinking
and language. Students need to use multiple thinking skills, such as problem solving, reflective and critical thinking, analyzing, synthesizing and
critiquing to learn language effectively. Language teachers can encourage students to develop critical thinking skills by engaging them in a
variety of activities that promote such skill development (Üstünloğlü, 2004).

BICS and CALP

Using higher order thinking and critical thinking skills requires a certain type of academic language proficiency which students can only develop
through focused learning. Such academic language differs greatly from the language we use for for social and every day
communication. Cummins (1994) first defined these types of language and language acquisition as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
(BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

6
BICS: Basic interpersonal interactions are normally context imbedded, which means they are happening in a specific setting. Interactions
requiring BICS almost always occur in informal social settings. They tend to not be cognitively demanding. A student can become proficient in
BICS in 6 months to 2 years after moving to the English speaking country.

Here are some examples of BICS learner-centered activities:

 Making an appointment with a doctor

 Communicating with a taxi driver
 Asking for directions
 Making restaurant reservations

Notice that all of these activities are happening in a particular context (i.e., they are context embedded). If necessary, the teacher can provide
pictures and illustrations to help learners with vocabulary and with practicing talking about these topics.

CALP: CALP implies academic learning. The range of academic skills one needs to develop to be cognitively proficient in academic English
includes reading, writing, speaking, and listening. These types of skills usually take from five to seven years to develop, as one requires time to
become proficient using English in specialty academic areas.

Academic language acquisition includes more than just understanding and being able to produce content and appropriate vocabulary. It
includes skills such as comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring. Academic language tasks are context reduced. Information
is often acquired through reading or presented by a teacher. As student get older the context for academic tasks becomes more and more
reduced.

Here are some examples of CALP learner-centered activities:

 Writing a book review

 Conducting a debate
 Taking notes of an academic lecture
 Reporting on a political event

Notice that all of these activities are centered around more abstract concepts and events. They are removed from the immediate context (i.e.,
the lecture may be on Ancient Greece, and it may describe events that happened long ago). Students need to have a relatively high language
proficiency to be able to engage in such activities.

Conclusion

It is very important that English language teachers distinguish between BICS and CALP and know what it takes to acquire these different sets of
skills (Cummins, 1994). It is also important to make a connection between CALP and helping learners develop critical thinking skills. CALP allows
learners to engage in Higher Order Thinking (HOT) activities and further develop their academic skills and abilities.

6
References (OER)

Üstünlüoglu, E. Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking and Self Awareness

(Forum) https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/04-42-3-b.pdf

Reference: (Copyrighted)

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Cummins, J. (1994). The Acquisition of English as a Second Language, in Spangenberg-Urbschat, K. and Pritchard, R. (eds) Reading Instruction for
ESL Students Delaware: International Reading Association,

6
 Learning Styles
and Strategy-Based
Instruction
©2019 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Learning Styles and Strategy-Based Instruction PPT, sponsored by the U.S Department
of State, with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation we will focus on how students can
retain, or keep, new knowledge. We will also look at
strategies which work together with students’ learning
styles to improve students’ learning experiences. We will
explore how students can change their viewpoints on
the overall learning process to have more effective
results.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
What are Learning Strategies?
• Language learning strategies are “specific actions, behaviors,
steps, or techniques, that students (often intentionally) use to
improve their progress in developing L2 skills” (Oxford, 1993, p.
18).
• These strategies help students retain, or remember, the
new language.
• The strategies are self-directed.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
The Importance of Learner Strategies

• Strategies help …
• develop students’
communication skills in the L2.
• students become better
language learners in
general.

“Untitled” by Maklay62 via Pixabay is licensed undera Pixabay License.

It is free to use and share.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Types of Learning Strategies
• Evaluating one’s own learning style and learning needs
Metacognitive • Planning for an activity/assignment

O’Malley (1985) first Strategies •

•
Monitoring progress
Evaluating the effectiveness of tools
identified language
learning strategies and • Using resources and instructional tools
• Note-taking
their general Cognitive • Repetition
characteristics. Strategies • Using imagery
• Making inferences (guesses)
• Identifying key words

Socio-affective •
•
Cooperating/sharing ideas (cooperative learning)
Clarifying information
Strategies • Self-talk for motivation
• Asking questions

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 Metacognitive Strategy Example- Think
Students answer questions aloud to the
class before, during and after reading.
• What do I know about
• Step 1: Introduce the questions this topic already?
• What do I think I will
• Step 2: Students read parts of the text. learn about this topic?
• Step 3: Students answer the questions about Example • The most important
the text or their knowledge of the topic aloud. Questions idea was…
• Step 4: Teacher facilitates discussion based on • I got confused when…
students’ answers. • This reminds me of…
• My favorite part was…
For more fun, students can choose questions
randomly from a hat!

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 Cognitive Strategy Example- Review
Students create their own review guides for
quizzes and tests based on what they learned.
• Draw a picture to help you
remember the most difficult
• Step 1: Introduce the topic for the quiz or test. vocabulary words
• Step 2: Students create a study guide independently Example
• Create example sentences for
or in groups based on teacher’s guidelines. each vocabulary word
Review • Write your notes into
• Step 3: Students submit their study guides on Guide • Create test questions based on the
test day. topic.
Components • Color code notes for key
words, dates, names,
examples, etc.
• Develop a mind map for to
For more fun, students can write example test show processes.
questions on their study guide and exchange them
with a partner. They can answer their partner’s
test questions for bonus points!
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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Socio-affective Strategy
Example- Think, Pair,
Share!
Students answer questions aloud to the • Allow students to choose which
class before, during and after reading. partner shares the information
• Group students in a creative way
(eg. group by same birthday
• Step 1: Teachers ask students to think month,
about a topic independently.
• Step 2: Students are paired
with another student.
will
have
multiple
Other
• Step 3: Students share their ideas
about a topic with their partners. opportu
nities to Ideas
share.
For more fun, students can rotate
partners in a circle for activities with
multiple questions. This way, they
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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 same favorite food, same country, etc.)
• Expand the share into whole class
discussions.
• Record responses in a mind map on the board
• Have students write responses anonymously if the
topic is sensitive.

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
What is Styles and Strategy-based Instruction?
• A learner-focused teaching approach style.
• It combines learning styles and
learning strategies with
classroom activities.
• Students are given the opportunity
to understand not only what they
learn, but also how to learn the
language more effectively and
efficiently.
• Learners are essentially learning how
to learn based on their learning
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Phases of Strategy-Based Instruction

Awareness-
Preparation Personalization
Raising Training Practice
of Strategies

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Phase 1: Preparation
• Goal: find out how much students
already know about and can use
strategies
• Teachers can’t assume that students don’t
know about strategies.
• Students have most likely developed
some strategies previously.
• The thing is that they may not use them “Untitled” by OpenClipart-Vectors via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.

systematically, and they may not use It is free to use and share.

them well.
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 Phase 2: Awareness-Raising
• Goal: alert learners about strategies they might
never have thought of or may have thought about
but had never used
• Teachers raise awareness about:
• what the learning process may consist of
• their learning style preferences or general approaches
to learning
• the kinds of strategies that they already use, as well as
those suggested by the teacher or classmates
• the amount of responsibility that they take for their
learning “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under
share.
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and

• approaches that can be used to evaluate the

students’
strategy use

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
• These strategies are always explicitly (directly)
taught by instructors.

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 Phase 3: Training
• Goal: explicitly teach how, when,
and why certain strategies can be
used to learn language
• Teachers…
• describe, model, and give examples
of possibly useful strategies.
• ask for additional examples from
students based on the students’ own
learning experiences.
• lead small-group or whole-class
discussions about strategies (why they are
used; planning an approach; evaluating the “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed a Pixabay License. It is free to
effectiveness, etc.). under
use and share.

• encourage their students to

experiment with a broad range of
strategies.
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with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and
 Phase 4: Practice • reflect on their use of strategies.

• Goal: students experiment with a broad

range of strategies
• Learners need many opportunities to
try strategies of a variety of tasks
• Teachers should create “strategy-friendly”
activities that…
• reinforce strategies that have already been
dealt with.
• allow students time to practice the strategies at
the same time they are learning the course
content.
• include explicit reminders of strategies being
used while completing the task.
• During the activity, students should…
• plan the strategies that they will use.
• pay attention to particular strategies while they
are being used.
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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 Phase 5: Personalization of Strategies
• Goal: students create their own versions of • insert strategies randomly into the
strategies learned, evaluate to see how they lessons when
are using the strategies, and then think about appropriate.
how to use these strategies in other
situations.
• To make sure that learners continue to use
the strategies, teachers can…
• use the course material they already have and
then
determine which strategies might be inserted.
• start with a set of strategies that they wish to
focus on and design activities around them.
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with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

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with
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In order for students to reconsider
their ways of learning and learn new
strategies to fit their learning styles,
they need to learn to think about
“Untitled” by Arek Socha via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

their thinking and understand the way they learn.

Now, let’s look at metacognition, a process that explains how students

can become aware of their thinking and learning strategies.

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administered by FHI 360
Metacognition – Some
“Metacognitive strategies enable learners to play an active role in
the process of learning, to manage and direct their own learning…”
(Chari et al, as cited in Rahimi & Katal, 2011)

“…developing students’ critical thinking skills is facilitated through

metacognition.” (Magno, 2010)

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Metacognit
• Metacognitive strategies help or read.
students understand the way
they learn.
• They help students “think” about
their thinking and make their thinking
process visible to themselves and
others.
• This helps them learn problem
solving skills.
• An example might be when
students notice which words they
don’t
understand, or when they stopped
understanding something they heard
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 Metacognit

“Untitled” by OpenClipart-Vectors via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
=-

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Metacognit
Students use metacognition when they
are aware of their own learning
strategies and mental processes.
For example:
• A student consciously uses the skills
of predicting and inferring when they
read a story.
• A student is aware of her kinesthetic
learning style and chooses to tap a
rhythm with her finger when
learning new material.
• A student circles unfamiliar words in .
the text and decides how to figure “Untitled” by OpenClipart-Vectors via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share

out their meaning.

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Primary Components of
As teachers, we can help learners develop the following strategies:
• Preparing and planning for learning.
• Selecting and using learning strategies.
• Monitoring strategy use.
• Organizing various strategies.
• Evaluating strategy use and learning.
It is important for L2 learners to become self-directed learners in order for
them to be able to handle the language demands they will experience
outside the language classroom in real life academic, social, and professional
contexts. (Anderson, 2002)

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Using Metacognitive
Successful learners know how to:

Plan and Organize

Monitor their Own Work
Self-Reflect
Direct their Own Learning

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Metacognitive Strategies
The following reading strategies involve learners taking an active role in
their own learning process.

1. Relate the text to oneself

2. Relate the text to the world
3. Think aloud to interact with the text
Strategies
4. Make inferences from the text
5. Create mental images of what was read
6. Guess the meaning of new words in context
7. Identify main ideas in a text
8. Monitor text comprehension
9. Summarize and synthesizing texts
1 Predict what happens neThxis tis a program of the U.S. Department of
State, with
Metacognitive Strategy
Think Aloud and Self-Reflect
Technique
• Think-aloud requires readers to
stop and reflect on what they
do and don’t understand when
listening or reading.
• Teachers model think aloud
strategies to make their
own thinking and “Untitled” by Mohamed via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

comprehension process
visible.
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with
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Metacognitive Strategy
Teachers can model their thinking process using the Think
Aloud strategy, such as:
Teacher reads: ‘’We had to vacate the house.’’
Teacher says: “When I see the word vacate, I think of
vacation, which means to go away somewhere. So maybe
vacate means they had to go away or leave the house.”

Students are taught to respond using prompts such as:

“This reminds me of . . . ,”
“I wonder if. . . ,”
“I got stuck on the word . . .” “Untitled” by Mohamed via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

They can also reflect in writing by responding to the

following
prompts:
“What I learned…”
“I would like to learn more about….”
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Ways to Teach Metacognitive
Strategies
• Incorporate metacognitive strategies into lessons.
• Model and explain the usefulness of strategies, so students will
agree to the added effort that strategies require in the learning
process.
• Continue training students to monitor their own use of
metacognitive strategies using lesson exit slips and self-checklists.

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 Critical Thinking
Learners can use metacognitive
strategies to develop critical thinking skills.

Critical thinking is the ability to

think clearly and rationally about
what to do or what to believe. “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

(Lau & Chan, 2019)

It is important to think critically to be successful in learning and in life.

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administered by FHI 360
 Critical Thinking
Some examples of critical thinking skills
include the following :
• Understand the logical connections between ideas
• Identify, construct and evaluate arguments
• Detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning
• Solve problems systematically
• Identify the relevance and importance of “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

ideas
• Reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values (Lau & Chan, 2019)
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Foundations for Critical
• The Bloom’s taxonomy of require the most critical
learning presents 6 levels of thinking: creating and
thinking by which teachers can evaluating.
categorize student learning
experiences.
• It starts at the bottom with basic
skills like remembering facts,
which have a low level of critical
thinking.
• Understanding the topic and
applying it requires more
complex thinking.
• At the top are the activities that
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 Foundations for Critical
“Bloom’s Taxonomy” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use
in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
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Foundations for Critical

• By providing a hierarchy of levels,

this taxonomy can assist teachers Insert image if Danae is able to create one.
in designing learning tasks, drafting
questions and assignments, and
providing feedback on student
work that increases their thinking
and problem solving skills.
• Consider the activities used in
your class. Are students using “Bloom’s Taxonomy” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use

higher order thinking skills in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

(HOTS)?
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The following academic language functions fall under the levels of
Bloom’s taxonomy:
[lowest] Remembering: Recalling information, listing, describing,
naming, Understanding: Explaining ideas, summarizing,
interpreting, classifying.
Applying: Using information in another familiar
situation. Analyzing: Breaking information into parts and
exploring relationships between parts.
Evaluating: Justifying decision, critiquing, judging,
[highest] Creating: Designing, planning, producing, inventing.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Higher Order Thinking Tasks
• Research shows that most levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.
classroom instruction and
assessment only activates the two
lower levels of cognition,
understanding and remembering.
• To develop critical thinking and
problem solving skills, students need
to practice self-reflection and
employ metacognitive strategies at
the analysis, synthesis and
evaluation
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and
“Untitled” by Junah Rosales via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and
Higher Order Thinking (HOT)Tasks
To develop critical thinking, students need repeated
exposure to Higher Order Thinking (HOT) tasks,
assignments and assessments.
Tasks designed at the higher levels (analysis, synthesis
and evaluation) use some of the following action
verbs:
Analyzing: Analyze, examine, investigate, explain,
categorize.
Evaluating: Judge, decide, argue, debate,
recommend, criticize.
Creating: Create, invent, predict, plan, imagine,
“Untitled” by Junah Rosales via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
propose, formulate.
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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
HOT Strategy
“Untitled” by AxxLC via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Think about the type of writing prompts you create and ensure they are
written to engage students’ higher order thinking skills.
Examples:
Essay prompt written an the remembering level of Bloom’s taxonomy:
Write an essay to describe your last shopping trip. Provide as many details as
possible.
Essay prompt written an the analyzing level of Bloom’s taxonomy:
Write an essay to recommend ways to shop in your local supermarket that
would save someone time and money.
Essay prompt written an the creating level of Bloom’s taxonomy:
Write an essay to critique consumer shopping habits and suggest ways they
can improve them.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Helpful
When developing small group tasks or
whole group questions that elicit higher
order thinking and involve problem
solving, provide sufficient wait time.
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Language learners need time to think and

to process both the ideas and the
language.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Conclusion
• Strategies-based instruction is designed to…
• raise awareness about strategies
• train students in strategy use
• give them opportunities to practice strategy use
• encourage them to personalize these strategies for themselves.
• Metacognitive strategies help students understand the way they learn
and help students “think” about their thinking.
• Critical thinking skills allow learners to think clearly and rationally and
to better understand and function in the world around them.
• Metacognitive strategies and critical thinking skills can be taught
via strategies-based instruction.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and
Reflection
How can you adjust your
everyday teaching methods to
include learning strategies and to
foster metacognition and
critical thinking skills?

“Untitled” by Mohamed Hassan via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is

free to use and share.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
References (Copyright)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and
therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.
• Cohen, A. D., & Dörnyei, Z. (2002). Focus on the language learner: Motivation, styles, and strategies. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), An introduction to
applied linguistics (pp. 170-190). London: Arnold.
• Lau, J., & Chau, J. (2014-2019). What is Critical Thinking? Retrieved from: https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/critical/ct.php
• Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers, Retrieved from TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No.4
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Currie-MITheory.html.
• Mango, C. (2010). The Role of Metacognitive Skills in Developing Critical Thinking. Metacognition Learning , 5, 137-156
• O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, CUP
• Oxford, R. (1993). Language learning strategies in a nutshell: Update and ESL suggestions, TESOL Journal, 2(2), 18-22.
• Oxford, R. L. (2013). Language learning styles and strategies. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (4th ed).
Boston: Heinle & Heinle/Thompson International.
• O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, CUP.
• Rahimi, M. & Katal, N. (2011) Metacognitive strategies awareness and success in learning English as a foreign language: an overview. Procedia -
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 2012, 73-81.

References (OER)
• Anderson, N.J. (2002). The role of metacognition in second language teaching and learning, Eric Digest, April. Retrieved from:
https://eric.ed.gov/?
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
2.5.1 Reading: Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking
Read this article published by American English. A study guide is provided below.

Article 1. Teaching Language through Critical Thinking and Self-Awareness

Find a study guide of the Üstünlüoglu', article below.
The cognitive approach to teaching and learning encourages the relationship between learner
thinking and language. Students need to use multiple thinking skills, such as problem-solving,
reflective thinking, analyzing, and critical thinking to learn language effectively. Critical thinking
is defined as a process of actively conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating
information and knowledge by using observations, reason, experience and communication to
create guiding principles for action. This article presents ideas that language teachers can use to
encourage students to raise self-awareness and develop critical thinking skills.
Reading Link:
Üstünlüoglu, E. (2004). Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking and Self Awareness.English
Teaching Forum, 42(3),2-8. https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/english-teaching-
forum-2004-volume-42-number-3 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

98
Evrim Üstünlüo
g˘ l u

Language
T U R K E Y

Teachi
throu
ng
Critical
Thinking
and Self-

IAwareness
N RECENT YEARS LANGUAGE TEACHERS HAVE FOCUSED ON THE ROLE OF
THE

learner as an active participant in the teaching-learning

process. Focusing on the learner is a natural outgrowth of a

change in orientation from behaviorist to cog- nitive

theories of learning. That change has highlighted what the

 learner does and how the learner processes information

during the lesson rather than focus- ing on what the

teacher does.

The outgrowth of the cognitive approach has been

perceived in language teaching together with reflections

about the relationship between thinking and language.

Teachers who want to promote thinking should try to

observe how students produce knowledge rather than how

they merely reproduce knowledge. Producing knowledge

requires the use of a number of thinking skills such as ana-

lytical, lateral, problem solving, critical, creative, and

reflective thinking (Rose and Nicholl 1997).

2 J U L Y 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
 Although thinking skills can be Language classes are ence, irrational fears,
learned by practicing, like playing particularly appropriate for acquired hostility, and
tennis and swimming, they teaching critical thinking inflexible ideas into the
require more effort than many owing to the richness of classroom so their
teachers realize. To emphasize material and the interactive learning is limited to the
thinking skills, a teacher must approaches used. surface (Paul and Elder
organize course objectives well Of the many concepts related 2002; Kurland 2000).
and must be aware of his or her to acquisition and improvement Language teachers can
own values, perceptions, of critical thinking, self- activate critical thinking
assumptions, and judgments as awareness is one of the most in the classroom by
well as those of the learners as important. Through critical highlighting self-
these are closely related to thinking and self-awareness, awareness; that is, they
thinking (Heuer 1999). one can understand the can help the learners
Various definitions of critical relationship between thoughts have and show
thinking exist. All include many of and emotions. Although it is understanding of
the same concepts. Scriven and assumed that they are themselves and their
Paul (1996) define critical independent, the truth is that surroundings. By means
thinking as “the intellectually feel- ings are based on some of interac- tive
disciplined process of actively and level of thought, and thoughts approaches and
skillfully conceptualizing, generate from some level of materials, teachers can
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, feeling. Emotions play an help students be aware
and evaluating information gath- important part in learning of their perceptions,
ered from, or generated by, because learners may bring assumptions, prejudices,
observation, experi- ence, learned indiffer- and values and can help
reflection, reasoning, or students break old habits
communication, as a guide to to construct a new point
belief and action.” of view. It will take
This article covers the rationale effort, but stu- dents will
for critical thinking followed by enjoy discovering
sample activities for developing themselves as they learn
thinking skills. Critical thinking is a language.
one of the thinking skills that
Perceptions
should be high- lighted in
designing and improving We hear, see, taste, or
language curriculum because the feel stimuli by means of
world we live in is get- ting more our senses. This process
complicated to understand, and occurs so spontaneously
how we process information has that we tend to think of
per- ception as a passive
become more important than
process. However,
specific facts. Taking this idea
percep- tion is an active
into consideration, we language
rather than a passive
teachers can encourage our
process. It enables us to
students to go beyond surface
construct, interpret, and
meaning and to discover the
make conclusions about
deeper meaning instead of merely
information we receive,
using basic literacy skills (Van
rather than simply to
Duzer and Florez 1999).
record “reality.” Percep-
How critical thinking can be improved tion is a process of
in language classes making inferences.
Through inferences we
Critical thinking skills are not
construct our own
likely to develop spontaneously.
version of reality.
On the contrary, teach- ers must
However, our version of
take a directive role in initiating
reality may be distorted
and guiding critical thinking.
by our past experi- ences,
education, cultural values, and role PICTURE C
requirements (Heuer 1999).
To help the learner become aware
of his or her own perceptions and
how they may differ from those of
others, language teachers can use
optical illusions in class. Activity 1
will teach students different ways of
seeing and help them realize that
people can perceive the same things
in different ways.
Activity 1
Begin by showing the pictures
(right) one by one to your students
and asking them what they see. Most
of them will say that they see a
picture of a woman (Picture A), some
figures (Picture B), and an old man
on a boat (Picture C). Be patient and ACTIVITY 1 • ILLUSTRATIONS
wait for some students to perceive
the pictures in a different way (verti-
cally or upside down); give them PICTURE A
time to dis- cuss their perceptions
with the other students. After a
while, ask students what else they
per- ceive. In all likelihood, some will PICTURE B
say they see:
• The word Liar in Picture A
(viewed diag- onally).

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M J U L Y 2 0 0 4 3
 • The word LIFE in Picture B aware of their
(seen by focusing on the white assumptions.
spaces between the black ACTIVITY 2
spaces). One hot
• A large bird with a man in its summer
mouth in Picture C (when afternoon, a
looking at the picture upside deliveryman
down). drove up to a
This activity will help students house, got out
appreciate that images can be of his truck,
perceived differently, not only in and started up
language class but in real life as the walk when
well. Students enjoy the lesson, he noticed a
and they get an opportunity to little girl
discuss what they have seen, to sitting on the
learn vocabulary, and to practice steps. “Is your
structures such as present mother
continuous tense (e.g., “What is home?” he
the man in the boat doing?”). asked her. The
little girl
Assumptions nodded and
Assumptions are ideas that a said, “Yes.” So
speaker or a writer takes for the
granted, like axioms in math- deliveryman
ematics. Ideas that ought to be went back to
examined are assumed to be true, his truck, slid
so it is possible to build an out a large
argument that seems completely carton
logical. How- ever, if an initial containing a
premise is false, the result will be mattress and
wrong. By focusing on critical box spring,
thinking skills, language teachers and carried
can help students identify their the heavy
assumptions, consider whether carton up the
those assumptions are justifiable, steps to the
and under- stand how they shape front door.
students’ point of view. Since Red-faced and
associating personal interest with sweating, he
collec- tive interest (assuming pushed the
that what is good for you is good door- bell and
for everyone) is a common trend, waited. No
clarifying assumptions is one of one came to
the basic steps of critical thinking the door. He
(Heuer 1999).
There are many techniques for
revealing
assumptions. One is to have
students read a story and then
explain their assumptions and
give their rationale for those
assumptions. The teacher must be
careful not to label responses as
right or wrong, or students will be
reluctant to speak. The following
joke can help make students
smiled at the little girl and rang the bell again. Still, no Each of the letters raises certain
one answered. He waited and rang the bell a third ques- tions:
time, and when there was still no sign of anyone in the • A (Assumptions): What have I
house, he said to the girl, “I thought you said your assumed? What have I taken
mother was home.” “She is,” the girl replied, “but I for granted? Do I need more
don’t live information? What are the
here.” (Boostrom 1994, 201) facts?
After reading the joke, ask your students the • F (For): What is the evidence
following questions: for my opinion? Is it good
• What made the deliveryman assume that the evidence? Is it a fact or
house belonged to the little girl? belief? What are the reasons
• Would you make the same assumption if you were for my belief?
that deliveryman? • A (Against): What are the
• What would you do to ascertain that the house is alternatives to my point of
the girl’s house or that anyone is at home? view? Can I see this another
• Have you made any wrong assumptions lately? way? What if my starting
What were they? What was wrong with your assumption is wrong?
assumptions? • N (Now what?): This is a
question posed to lead to a
Discuss with your students how difficult it is to
better assessment of the argu-
avoid making assumptions, and how important it is,
ment, one that may produce a
when thinking critically, to consider the assumptions
better final decision.
we make. Only by doing so can we determine if an
idea makes sense. Teachers can use the “AFAN” The AFAN formula can be
formula (Rose and Nicholl 1997) to help students ana- easily applied to most
lyze their assumptions. AFAN stands for: assumptions. Try the AFAN
A=assumptions, F=For, A=Against, N=Now what? questions with the deliveryman
joke above.

4 J U L Y 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
Prejudices or written may depend on whether they share the values of
A major obstacle to critical the speaker or author.
thinking is preju- dice. Everyone ACTIVITY 4
has some prejudices because we Have students write or discuss their five most important
all have ideas about what is true, values, and have them rank those values from most important
false, right, or wrong. Our to least important. First, act as a model for your stu- dents by
prejudices related to patriotism, stating what you value. Here are examples of some things
race, religion, class, ethnicity, or you might say:
gender affect the way we think. To • I value family, friends, money, educa- tion, and career.
be a critical thinker does not
• Family is most valuable to me because my family has
mean that one has no opinions;
supported me throughout my life.
rather, it means that one is alert to
ideas that may change his or her
opinions. We language teachers
should be alert to data,
information, and evidence used in
our classes to question our
prejudices (Boostrom 1994).
Activity 3 provides a way to do
this.
ACTIVITY 3
This activity can be structured
or less for- mal, depending on the
level of the students. To make
students aware of their
prejudices, give them concepts or
certain words to con- sider or
open-ended sentences to
complete. For example, ask your
students what feelings, ideas, or
opinions occur to them when they
hear the following words or
phrases:
School or School is a place
where I
.
Women or Women should .
Teachers or
Teachers are always .
Marriage or
Marriage is never .
Education or Education is .
Students can be made aware of
their preju- dices and those of
their classmates by dis- cussing
their responses.

Values
Critical thinkers are thinkers
who are aware of the values on
which they base their judg- ments.
Learners should be shown ways to
iden- tify their values because
how students judge what is said
•M uable to me because it
y enables me to live
fri comfortably.
en • Education is important to me
ds because it excites me and
ar makes me a more inter- esting
e person.
val • My career is valuable to me
ua because peo- ple respect me
bl for what I do.
e
to Ask your students to state what
me they value in order of importance.
be Make sure they give their
ca reasons. This activity will help
us make stu- dents aware of their
e, values and why they have certain
thr ones. The exercise also gives
ou them practice in speaking and
gh listening to English.
th Breaking habits
em
, I Habits can be quite useful,
ca especially habits that we repeat
n regularly, such as when we eat
sh our meals and how we go to
ar school each day. Without habits
e we could spend much of our time
my deciding what to do next. On the
ha other hand, when we need to
pp think imaginatively or critically,
in we have to break habits. A good
es thinker does not get stuck in a
s, rut. Good thinkers are
un imaginative; when one method
ha does not work, they try a new
ppi one. Instead of seeing things only
ne one way, they see many pos-
ss, sibilities. When good thinkers
an make plans, they are also willing
d to break them to follow a better
ot idea. They create “versions”
he instead of only one way (Boostrom
r 1994, 123).
im To practice creating new
po thought patterns, have your
rta students do the following
nt activities. They may help students
ma break habits of nega- tive
tte thinking.
rs. ACTIVITY 5
•M Ask students to keep an
on appreciation jour- nal in which
ey they write about everything they
is appreciate about themselves,
val their lessons, or even their
teache the following sentences to
rs. If complete:
they • I like English lessons because .
look
• I appreciate my family because .
puzzle
d, • I love the way my friend
direct speaks with me because .
them • I enjoy school because .
by It could be an interesting
giving experience to find at least one
them positive sentence even from stu-

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M J U L Y 2 0 0 4 5
dents who say they hate school or weaknesses of
learning a foreign language. those points of
ACTIVITY 6 view, and
Shifting perspective is another strive to be
way to break habitual negative fair-minded in
thinking. The following activity evaluating all
requires students to use language points of view
that describes what they want. (Paul and
For example, instead of saying “I Elder 2002).
don’t want to be sick anymore,” Activity 7 can
they can say “I want to be be
healthy.” (Note that the former used to
practice a new
focuses on sickness, while the
point of view.
latter focuses on health.)
ACTIVITY 7
Likewise, “I don’t want to fail in
English class” may be changed to “I 1. Divide your
want to succeed in English class.” class into 3
Ask your students to write or groups (If
say as many sentences as they your class is
can that shift their negative large, you
opinions to positive ones. Also ask can have
them to state why they want to more than 3
transform negative habits into groups.)
positive ones. As a follow-up activ- 2. Give each
ity, discuss the benefits that group Form
students receive from positive A, Form B,
thinking. or Form C,
each of
A new point of view
which
We think that the way we see represents
things is exactly the way things a
are because of the influ- ence of philosophy.
egocentricity. Egocentricity is Instruct the
the inability or unwillingness to group
consider other points of view. It members to
results in a refusal to accept new communi-
ideas, views, or facts. Trying to cate with
see a new point of view—or at each other
least being open to seeing as if they
something differently—is an believe in
important strate- gy for critical the
thinking (Boostrom 1994, 39). philosophy
Considering a variety of possible represented
view- points or perspectives, on their
remaining open to alternative form.
interpretations, accepting a new
explanation, coming to a
conclusion, and cre- ating a new
point of view are goals that can
be achieved in language classes
to activate critical thinking.
Carefully chosen activities will
help students identify their
points of view, seek other points
of view and identify strengths and
 • Form A: You believe that human beings are Then ask each group leader to
fundamentally bad and brutal, have animal-like pre- sent the group’s verdict to
instincts, and always look for pleasure. The best the entire class.
way to control human beings is to threaten and 5. After each group gives its
punish them. verdict, ask the group members
• Form B: You believe that human beings are how they felt having to support
fundamentally good and can realize their a view they don’t believe in or
potential if they are not prevented from doing so. lis- ten to a point of view they
There is no need to con- trol human beings. The don’t share.
only thing to do is to show them love and 6. End the activity by asking the
understanding. students which philosophy
• Form C: You believe that human beings are actually appeals to them and
neither good nor bad. Society and the why.
environment they live in determine whether they
will be good or bad. The way to control human Evaluation
beings is to per- suade and reward them. Evaluation is an important
3. Each group of students is a jury that will decide on element of criti- cal thinking.
a punishment for a suspect who is 25 years old, has Critical thinkers use evaluation to:
lost his wife and his job, and has sole responsibility • become aware of their values
for the care of his 10-year-old son. Explain that the and to understand why they
sus- pect was caught stealing food that costs are values.
$40. Each group must judge the man’s actions and • consider different points of view.
decide his punishment accord- ing to the • recognize the difference
philosophy assigned to them (even if they do not between evi- dence and
believe that philoso- phy). They should not show interpretation when exploring
their form to other groups. assumptions.
4. Give the students 10 to 15 minutes for dis- cussion. • check the limits of their knowledge.

6 J U L Y 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
 • distinguish between prejudice native people have been working for foreign bosses and have
and fact. been selling products to for- eign markets, rather than to
Because evaluation is an traditional local markets. Companies that have been advertis-
important part of critical thinking, ing rain forest products have been selling products such as
teachers should focus their hair conditioner and skin creams. Consumers are eager to
assessment efforts on important support prod- ucts that can benefit native people without
learning goals, not just those that harming the forest, and they are happy to hear that some
are easily measurable. Evaluation profits return to the rain forest countries.
should be related to valid, However, some native peoples are cautious. They feel that
reliable, useful information reliance on foreign markets
(Gersten 1996).
During the process of
evaluation, the num- ber of
questions to ask is limitless, but
you can select questions
according to the level of thinking
you want your students to follow.
Thorpe (1992) categorizes
questions into four types:
summary and definition, analysis,
hypothesis, and evaluation. To
promote criti- cal thinking,
teachers should ask their students
analysis, hypothesis, and
evaluative questions instead of
summary and definition questions.
In reading lessons especially,
teachers have the opportunity to
apply these categories. Activity 8
describes some possibilities.
ACTIVITY 8
Read the following narrative to
your stu- dents:
Rain Forests
In the rain forests of the
tropics, native peoples have been
losing their land rapidly to
development. Companies that
invest in the rain forest have been
taking over large areas of land for
logging, agriculture, cattle
raising, and mining. When the
forest disappears, so does the
indigenous way of life.
Foreign investment has been
increasing the demand for forest
products, but it hasn’t brought
the land itself back under native
con- trol. Corporations from
industrialized nations have been
inviting tribes to participate in the
rain forest harvest, to gather nuts
or copaiba oil. This cooperation
with outside companies has been
changing the native culture. More
weake protection of the rain forest and
ns preservation of their tra- ditional
their lifestyle (adapted from Corry
indepe 1993).
ndenc
Make sure that all students
e.
understand the reading, including
They
key vocabulary. As a follow up
ask
activity, ask such questions as the
why
following:
they
need Analysis Questions:
the • Why have native people been
foreig losing their land?
n • What are the reasons for
compa companies to invest in the
nies rain forests?
and • What are the reasons for
what some native peoples to be
benefit cautious?
s come • What is the main concern
from related to the foreign
foreig companies that have invested
n in rain forests?
marke Hypothesis Questions:
ts. • What would happen if the
They foreign com- panies hadn’t
have invested in rain forests?
been
• What will happen if foreign
selling
companies continue to invest
divers
in rain forests?
e
forest Evaluation Questions:
produc • Is it logical or illogical for
ts in native people to work for
their foreign bosses?
own • Do the foreign companies
local make the for- est and native
marke ways of life disappear?
ts for • What is your solution to the conflict?
years • What are the advantages or
and disadvan- tages for native
have people working for for- eign
been companies?
conser The questions above motivate
ving students to think critically more
the than summary and defi- nition
forest questions, such as:
at the
same • Who has been losing the land
time. rapidly to development?
Native • What are the big foreign
people companies doing on large
have areas of land in the rain
been forests?
asking • Who is concerned about the
for investment of foreign
 co forests?
m Classroom climate contributes
pa to critical thinking. In an open
ni and democratic class- room,
es students feel free to express their
in opin- ions and feel confident doing
ra so. In such class-
in ➪ 15

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M J U L Y 2 0 0 4 7
 Gersten, R. 1996. The double demands of teaching
Languag e Teaching… | Üstünlüo
English g˘ lu learners. Educational Leader-
language
ship, 53 (5):18–22.
continued from page 7 Heuer, J. R. 1999. Psychology of intelligence analy- sis.
activate and develop critical CIA: Center for Study of Intelligence. http:
//www.cia.gov/csi/books/19104/index.html
thinking in their students,
language teachers need to set up
tasks and activities and adjust
their teaching programs and
materials to promote such
thinking. Teaching language
through critical thinking enables
learners to recognize a wide
range of subjective analyses, to
develop self- awareness, and to
see linkages and complexi- ties
they might otherwise miss.

References
Boostrom, R. 1994. Developing
creative and critical thinking.
Lincolnwood, Illinois: National
Text- book Company.
Corry, S. 1993. The rain forest
harvest: Who reaps the benefits?
The Ecologist, 23 (4):48–153.
 Defining critical thinking: A draft
statement for the National Council
for Excellence in Critical Thinking.
http://www.criticalthinking.org/university/
univclass/Defining.html
Kurland, D. 2000. Thorpe, J. 1992. Methods of inquiry programme.
How the Toronto: Ryerson Polytechnic Institute.
language really Van Duzer, C. and M. C. Florez. 1999.
works: The Critical lit- eracy for adult English
fundamentals of language learners. Wash- ington,
critical reading DC: National Center for ESL
and writ- ing. Literacy Education. ERIC Digest
http://www.critic EDOLE9907.
al-reading.com/
Paul, R. and L.
EVRIM Ü STÜNLÜOG˘ LU is an assistant profes-
Elder. 2002. The
sor at the Faculty of Education, Educational
elements of criti-
Sciences Department at Balikesir
cal thinking.
http://www.critic University, Turkey.
althinking.org/
university/helps.h
tml
Rose, C. and M. J.
Nicholl. 1997.
Accelerated learn-
ing for the 21st
century. New York:
Dell Publishing.
Scriven, M. and R.
Paul. 1996.
2.6 Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom

CULTURE SPOTLIGHT

Critical Thinking Skills in American Classrooms

Overview
There has been a continuous emphasis on teaching critical thinking (i.e., higher order thinking
skills - HOTs) in U.S. classrooms. Critical thinking standards and objectives are now part of state
and national curricula. U.S. teachers are specifically focusing on teaching critical thinking
strategies across disciplines. As part of this overall emphasis, English language (ESL/ESOL)
teachers play an important role in helping students develop critical thinking through exposure
to extensive English language practice.
Directions: Read this section about learner-centered practices that encourage critical thinking.
This section also contains examples of actual strategies English teachers can use to encourage
higher order thinking skills. There is an optional discussion board following this reading where
you can on HOT skills and strategies you use as part of your classroom.
Way to Encourage Critical Thinking Skills
The general shift to learner-centered American classrooms promotes acquisition of critical
thinking skills in the following ways:

 Teachers act as facilitators and engage in problem solving with students, instead of offering
solutions that students can use.
 Teachers emphasize the importance of 'how' over 'what'. In other words, they emphasize
the importance of knowing how to get the right answers or how to construct a response
based on own knowledge and experience over knowing the right answer.
 Students are not expected to memorize facts, but they are encouraged to think about how
they can connect to big ideas and apply their existing knowledge to new situations.
 Teachers emphasize that mistakes are a normal part of the learning process. We can learn
from our mistakes if we have the right attitude.

11
 We distinguish between feedback and grades. Feedback provides constructive suggestions
on how the work can be improved; grades assign a specific value for the work done.
 Class participation is expected and it is often a part of the course grade.
 Final projects are often group centered to allow learners an opportunity to engage and
display their knowledge and apply their skills collectively.
 Assignments often require research and problem solving.
 Tasks and assignments that require HOTs often presume no right answer, but they
encourage students to justify their responses.

Examples of Teaching Strategies that Encourage Critical Thinking Skills

Here are some specific examples of teaching strategies that encourage critical thinking skill
development:

 Start lessons and activities with a question: Phrase the questions to elicit open ended
responses that encourage students to draw on their experiences, make inferences, and
connect to prior knowledge.
 Brainstorm prior to teaching new material: Ask students to think about what they are
about to learn before they engage with an activity. Ask many questions; allow students to
explore and connect ideas.
 Compare and contrast: Allow students an opportunity to examine the topic closely and
consider its components by comparing it with other topics. Students can compare and
contrast everything they learn about (i.e., today’s topic and yesterday’s topic, main
character they are reading about to another character, objects they interact with to other
objects at school or at home).
 Classify and categorize: Students will practice understanding and applying rules while
engaging in classifying activities. You can ask them to sort objects, words, and definitions
into different categories based on common characteristics. Students think and reason whith
themselves while classifying.
 Make connections: Students can be continuously making connections between what they
read and learn about and real life situations. They practice critical thinking by identifying
patterns between objects, concepts, and events.
 Assign group work: Team work promotes discussion, debates, negotiations and healthy
arguments. Learners will practice these critical thinking skills while collaborating with each
other on common projects.
 Use role playing: Role playing requires students to step into someone else's shoes and
consider different points of view. They may need to assume opinions and perspectives they
disagree with, and, therefore, they will be asked to consider those. This can help learners be
creative and analytical.

How might you include strategies like this in your classroom?

11
2.6.1 Optional Discussion: Communicative Language Teaching and
Cultural Scenarios

Communicative Language Teaching and Culture

Think about your own educational and cultural context. Consider communicative language
teaching and task-based learning, as well as the cultural behaviors and norms that are expected
in your teaching and learning content. Read the following scenarios from different perspectives,
and consider how you would respond.

Communicative Language Teaching Scenarios

Scenario 1: The teacher
Natalya has been asked to teach English to a class of intermediate students. She would like
students to speak a lot in class, so she designed a lot of communicative activities. One of the
activities was a debate. When she started the activity, the students just quietly sat in their seats
and no one wanted to talk. Why might this happen? What could she do?

Scenario 2: The student

Oscar uses a lot of communicative activities in his classroom. He regularly puts students in pairs
and groups to practice. A student and his parents came to see him after class to complain that
the students were not getting direct instruction from the teacher, and were spending time
talking to their friends in class. The parents want to know why other students are "teaching"
their children instead of the teacher. What might Oscar say to the parents to explain his
approach?

Scenario 3: The administrator

Asma started using role play and interviews in her classroom and they were a huge success.
Students love working with each other and participating in the authentic activities. Because you
have a large class, these activities can be noisy at times. One day the director of her school
walked into her classroom because he heard a lot of noise. Most of the other classes were very
quiet. The director asked her to come to see them and explain why her classroom was so chaotic
and loud. What can Asma say to support her approaches to language teaching?
Directions:

1. Choose at least one scenario to write about. (You may choose more if you wish.)

11
2. Write a brief (150-250 word) reflection on the challenge that arises in the scenario and
what advice you might give to the teacher. Include any cultural norms that are important to
consider in your own teaching context.
3. Read at least one of your colleague's posts and respond with a question, suggestion, or
meaningful comment.
OPTIONAL: Read and respond to as many peers as you like.

This discussion is not graded. However, please see this self-assessment rubric for scoring on
how well you address each part of the assignment. This assignment should be complete online.

11
2.7 Cascading New

Strategy for Teaching Diverse Learners

Now that you are familiar with learner-centered instruction, learner differences and critical
thinking, it is time to reflect on the module! Some of the questions in this graded survey
are open-ended, meaning that they require a full answer, drawing on your own knowledge or
feelings. You are encouraged to draft your answers somewhere else, so that you can save them
and revisit your thoughts later. Then, you can copy/paste or type in your responses to the
survey. This will give you a chance to take some time to reflect on the answers.Remember, the
purpose of this survey is for you reflect on your own. You will NOT receive instructor feedback
on this activity.

This survey is graded. It contains five questions and you can earn a maximum of 10 points. You
are allowed multiple attempts to complete this activity. You will not be given instructor
feedback for this activity. This activity should be completed online.

11
Module 2

Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in Module 2. You
must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will count as 1 point toward
your grade. This activity should be completed online.

11
MODULE 3: LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS FOR A
NEW MILLENIUM, BACKWARD DESIGN
Table of Contents
3.1 Introduction to Module 3...............................................................................................2
3.2 Warm Up Discussion: How I Learned, How I Teach.........................................................4
3.3 Lecture: Overview of Language Teaching Methods and Approaches.............................5
3.3.1 Optional Activity: Methodology Videos........................................................................21
3.4 Reading: Methodology in the New Millennium...............................................................53
3.4.1 Quiz: Methods and Approaches....................................................................................70
3.5 Lecture: Language Teaching Principles............................................................................70
3.5.1 Activity: Applying Language Teaching Principles..........................................................76
3.6 Culture Spotlight: Cross-Cultural Differences in Teaching Methods...............................80
3.7 Lecture: Backward Design and Lesson Planning..............................................................82
3.7.1 Optional Reading: A Ten Step Process for Developing Teaching Units........................92
3.7.2 Quiz: Using Backward Design.......................................................................................110
3.8 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge............................................................................110
Module 3 Check......................................................................................................................111

1
© 2020 by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 3: Language Teaching Methods for a New Millennium,
Backward Design for the Online Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State with funding
provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 3.1 Introduction to Modules

Welcome to Module 3: Language Teaching

Methods for a New Millennium and Backward
Design
Please view the introduction video. You can download the transcript here.

Video Transcript:

Hello Everyone and welcome to Module 3. This module is packed with a lot of fun activities, and we hope
that you will enjoy working through each one of them.

In this module we will present different methods and approaches we can take to teach English. We will
discuss various activities and tasks associated with these different teaching methods. We will also take a
closer look at communicative language teaching (CLT) and task-based learning (TBL). Additionally, we will
review teacher-centered and student-centered classrooms and how we can further move towards using
student-centered approaches. In our "Communicative Language Teaching and Culture Scenarios," we will
take a closer look at some norms and behaviors practiced in American classrooms and you will have an
opportunity to examine different classroom scenarios in one of the optional discussion activities. We
encourage you that if you have time, participate in as many of these optional discussions as you can. They
2
will give you a great opportunity to “meet” your colleagues from all over the world. It will also give you a
great opportunity to learn from each other as much as you can.

The second half of the module focuses on the concept of backward-design lesson planning. I am sure
that many of you are familiar with lesson plans. Take a moment and think of how you design a lesson.
Before we begin the module, take a minute to reflect on your own learning English as a foreign language
and think of some of the goals you set out for yourself for this week.
 Do you want to explore different old and new methods of teaching English?
 Can you remember the greatest challenges you had with the methods used when you
were learning English?
 Are those methods still in use in your country? Are they effective?

Great! We hope that you will find this module informative and, we are very excited to keep working with
you in this course. Let's get started.

Module 3 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Reflect on your learning and teaching in the Warm-up: How I Learned, How I Teach (15
minutes)
2. Read our first Lecture: Overview of Language Teaching Methods and Approaches (45
minutes)
3. Watch the Methodology Videos in this optional activity (60 minutes)
4. Read an article about Methodology in the New Millennium (45 minutes)
5. Take the Quiz: Methods and Approaches (15 minutes)
6. Read our second Lecture: Language Teaching Principles (30 minutes)
7. Complete the Activity: Applying Language Teaching Principles (15 minutes)
8. Read Culture Spotlight: Cross-Cultural Differences in Teaching Methods (25 minutes)
9. Read our third Lecture: Backward Design and Lesson Planning (45 minutes)
10. Read the optional A Ten-Step Process for Developing Teaching Units (45 minutes)
11. Take the Quiz: Using Backward Design (15 minutes)
12. Complete the Cascading New Knowledge Survey (30 minutes).

The Module 3 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download it here .

Module Requirements

 Each page of the module should be viewed and read

 All quizzes require 7 points to pass
 Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
 Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
 Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

3
3.2 Warm-up: How I Learned, How I Teach

We all have different styles of teaching. We have also experienced classrooms that are focused
on the teacher or focused more on the learner.

Think, Reflect, and Write

1. Think about your experiences learning and teaching English, and what methods or techniques
were used. Answer the following questions:

 How did you learn English?

 How did you learn to teach it?
 What are some types or kinds of activities that are helpful or effective?

2. Think about your experience planning lessons and answer the following questions:

 When you plan a lesson, how do you decide what to teach?

 How do you decide how to teach it?
 What might you include from the course modules in your future planning?
 How will you know if the students understand and can use what they've learned?

3. On a piece a piece of paper or in a word doc, write some notes on your answers to these
questions. Use this opportunity to think about what you already know.
You do not have to submit this assignment. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to
activate your prior knowledge (think about what you already know). You should spend no more
than 10-15 minutes completing this.

4
3.3 Lecture: Overview of Language Teaching Methods
and Approaches

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After reading through the PowerPoint, please study this chart on the following page that
summarizes the language teaching methods mentioned in the presentation.

References (copyright):

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy.

White Plains, NY: Longman.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York, N.Y.,
USA: Oxford University Press.

1
 Grammar-Translation Direct Method Audiolingual Silent Way Suggestopedia TPR Communicative
Language Teaching
Goals Read in L2 Communication Communication Self-expression of Ss need to overcome Help Ss develop Communication in social
Learn grammar, vocabulary, Think in L2 Ss and psychological barrier listening fluency context
culture Direct association in L2 independence to learning
without translation from T
Role of teacher/student Traditional T-centered T-centered T is a facilitator Ss trust and respect T Director Facilitator
T is the authority and Ss T is the L2 model for and resource as authority T provides model of Encourages
learn from the T imitation provider Ss adopt child-like L2 for imitation communication among Ss
roles
Teaching/learning Translation Use L2 only New grammar and Ss are guided to Relaxingatmosphere Comprehension Ss learn to communicate
process Explain grammar rules Grammar is taught vocabulary through discover L2 Use of songs, music, before production by using real-life
Memorize vocabulary through examples and dialogues Initial focus on and games to T models then Ss situations in the
application correct activate the whole perform classroom
pronunciation brain
Student/teacher T to S Both T and S T directed T active but T/S and S/S T speaks and Ss T arranges task for
interaction Some S to S S/S in drills mostly silent interaction respond non-verbally communication
S/S interaction Later Ss verbalize
Language skills Vocabulary/grammar Vocabulary over grammar Structure is important Pronunciation and Vocabulary Grammar and Function over form
Reading/writing Focus on communication (sound system and intonation Minimal grammar vocabulary
grammar patterns) Oral before
Order of skills is written
listening-speaking-
reading-writing
Role of L1 L1 in classroom Not used L1 habits sometimes Used to form L1 used to translate Not used Generally, not used
Two-way translation interfere with L2 sounds in L2 dialogues
Used for feedback L1 is gradually
reduced
Evaluation Written translations Communicative Tests where each Continuous In-class performance By observation Communicative tests
Application of grammar (interview) question focuses on observation Fluency and accuracy
rules only one point of the Ss develop their
language own criteria
Error correction T gives correct answers Self-correction Avoid errors by Self and peer No open correction Unnoticeable No error correction
overlearning correction correction unless errors interfere
with communication

Sample Activities Translation Reading aloud Repetitive drills with Color charts to Songs Command drills Pair work
Drills Fill in the blank focus on pronunciation teach Games Role plays of Interviews
Dictation pronunciation everyday activities Debates
Conversation practice Rods to teach Information-gap activities
Paragraph writing grammar
structures

©2019 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Summary for Language Teaching Methods for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State, with funding provided by the U.S.
government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org /licenses/by/4.0/
Below you can view videos and lesson plans for some of the methods discussed in the
presentation. You can also read the transcripts that are following the videos.

3.3.1 Optional activity: Methodology Videos

Methodology Videos
OPTIONAL: Watch the videos for each method. (If you cannot stream the video, there is a
transcript you can read for each video.) Look for evidence of the following in each video:

 The role of the teacher

 The role of the student
 The role of the native language
 The role of the target language
 Types of language learning activities
 How errors are addressed

Suggestopedia

Audiolingual Method

2
Silent Way

TPR (Total Physical Response)

Communicative Approach

Additional OER Resource

Larsen-Freeman, D. (1990). Language Teaching Methods. U.S. Information Agency. Retrieved
from: https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/language-teaching-methods#child-
1423 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

2
 Transcript
Learn English through drama – Course Explained Fast Learning School

Narrator: Suggestopedia is one of the few methodologies by UNESCO as a most innovative

and effective learning method. The students learn a language up to 6 times faster and they
learn through games, art, music, and drama.

Nicole (teacher): It’s very much a speaking based course. They’re involved in lots of
vocabulary, exercises to learn new words, new idioms, new expressions and then to put those
to use and to integrate them into their vocabulary smoothly through improvisation, role-play,
and drama, and writing.

Clips of students learning.

Daniela (founder of Fast Learning School): We use art to create a pleasant atmosphere in
order to make the students understand and memorize faster. Art is the best vehicle for
spontaneous memorization because it helps the students to relax and overcome their learning
barriers and has high motivational power, as well.

Students performing:
Agnieszka: I was working in Covent Garden and saw a crown of enthusiastic people
surrounding…a young juggler!

Student 2: So, the best solution was to kill Mr. Hyde…

Student 3: Using the new technology I solved this case very quickly…

Nicole: So, they basically do lots of speaking, learning new words, writing, acting…performing.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Transcript for Learn English through drama – Course
Explained Fast Learning School for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and
administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted.
To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Giovanni (Student): I’m like a farmer put in London…like a mouse in the jungle. Oh, Oh! My
Face?

Student 3: A selfie, yeah!

Nicole: They have become more confident at speaking, they have become more natural with
the language, I think quite a lot in a short period of time. So, it’s quite intense, as well.

Students describing the course:

Agnieszka: The teachers are very, very well prepared.

Catalina (Student): Really nice and friendly atmosphere.

Giovanni: To learn English, acting…I think it’s a really good way,

Agnieszka: I’m more open for speaking.

Stefano (Student): Just more self-confident.

Nicole: So there’s all kinds of students attending this course. There are students, there are
professionals, there are people who live in London already and there are others who have
come from abroad.

Daniela: We use drama as a way to improve the English skills, to gain confidence in
speaking English. We make the students work hard in order to develop their skills, but at the
same time we have fun.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Transcript
Language Teaching Methods: Audio-Lingual Method Video

Dian Larson-Freeman: Hello, my name is Diane Larson Freeman. I’m a teacher

educator at the School for International Training. It’s common I language teaching
education programs to survey current language teaching methodologies. At SIT, we do
this by giving our teacher trainees a direct experience with each method. The purpose
of this video tape series is to provide you with a similar, but vicarious experience
involving six common methods: the Audio-Lingual Method, Community Language
Learning, the Comprehension Approach, Suggestopedia, Silent Wat and the
Communicative Approach. Intermediate level lessons you will observe were taped at
the Television Studios of the USIA in Washington DC and it is through the courtesy of
the USIA that this program is being made available to you. The students were all
volunteers who were studying English at the time.
The instructors are experienced language teachers and teacher educators from SIT,
who have each taught students in various parts of the world using methods they
demonstrate for you here. For the sake of coherence, the instructors have designed
their lessons around a common theme, namely that of a house. What you will see are
somewhat condensed versions of the original lessons. All the steps of the lessons have
been preserved, but some of the participation has been trimmed in the interest of time.
The instructors have tried to faithfully depict each method, but of course, each
instructor is also putting the principles into practice based upon his or her interpretation
and experience.
First, I will introduce each method. Next, you will observe the method and practice.
Afterwards, I will point out the salient techniques and principles associated with each
method. The lessons are meant only to introduce you to these methods. All of the
methods have a richer repertoire of principles and techniques than can be fully
portrayed here. If you wish to learn more, you may choose to consult my book
Techniques and Principles and Language Teaching published by Oxford University
Press.
As you view the tape, try to remain open to what you see. You may be missing out on
something valuable if you reject and of the things you observe in these lessons
because you don’t see how they could apply to your own situation. For example, there
are about 25 students participating in these lessons. Your own classes may be much
larger than these. Rather than thinking “this will never work with a large class,” think
instead “is

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Language Teaching Methods: Audio-Lingual Method
for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
there anything worthwhile for me in this technique,” and if the answer is affirmative, next
ask yourself “how then can I adapt this technique to my own circumstances” or “what
other way can I put this principle into practice?” Let your imagination create the
possibilities for you.
The first method we will observe is the Audio-Lingual Method or ALM. It’s a method with
which many of you may already be familiar. My colleague Michael Gerald will now
demonstrate the ALM. Watch carefully what the teacher is doing and what he is asking
the students to do.

Michael Gerald: Good morning, class.

Class: Good morning. How are you?
Michael: Fine, thanks. How are you?
Class: Fine, thanks.
Michael: Good, I'm happy to hear that. Today, today's lesson is going to be about two
people: about a salesman, a special kind of a salesman. Now you know what a
salesman is. That's a person who sells something to somebody else. A salesman.
Today the salesman is a vacuum cleaner salesman and the other person – here's the
vacuum cleaner salesman and let me write that – the other person is a woman or we
could call her a housewife. So now I want you to just listen and watch what I do. Listen
carefully, watch what I do, and try to understand. Okay? Now, I'm the salesman now,
okay? I'm going to be both people. I'm going to play two roles. I'm going to be the
salesman and the woman. Okay. Ring ring ring ring, ring ring ring ring. Now, the
woman. Hello? Hello madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town? Yes,
of course I would. Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner. No, I
don't. What? Why not? Because my husband does the cleaning in our house. Oh.
Okay, now listen and I'll do it one more time. You just listen and and don't talk this time.
Listen again, I'll do it one more time. Salesman. Rings the bell. Woman. Good morning.
Good morning, madam, would you like to have the cleanest house in town? Yes, of
course I would. Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner. The
woman says, “No, I don't.” Salesman says, “What, why not?” And the woman says,
“Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.” And the salesman says, “Oh.”
Alright now, we're going to learn this together now. I'm going to help you learn how to
say this whole dialogue, okay? So, please repeat the first line, the woman says, “Good
morning.”
Class: Good morning.
Michael: Good morning.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
Class: Good morning.
Michael: The salesman says, “Good morning. Would you like to have the cleanest
house in town?”
Class: Good morning. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Okay, house in town. Just say that much.
Class: House in town.
Michael: The cleanest house in town.
Class: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: Okay, now just Group D here. The cleanest house in town.
Group D: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: A, the cleanest house in town.
Group A: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: The cleanest house in town.
Group A: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: Okay, now just you. The cleanest house in town.
Student 1: The cleanest house in
town. Student 2: The cleanest house
in town. Michael: The cleanest house
in town.
Student 3: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: Cleanest.
Student 3: Cleanest.
Michael: The cleanest house in town.
Student 3: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: Good. Very good. Okay. This group, the cleanest house in town.
Group B: The cleanest house in
town. Michael: The cleanest house in
town. Group B: The cleanest house
in town.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
Michael: Ah, no, just right now, just this group, okay? That’s good. In a minute, in a
minute. The cleanest house in town.
Student 4: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: You there.
Student 5: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: The cleanest house in town. Good. Everybody, the cleanest house in town.
Class: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Okay, would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Student 6: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Good. Okay, you.
Student 7: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: The. The cleanest house in town.
Student 7: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Good. Okay, from the beginning now. The woman says, “Good morning.”
Everybody, good morning.
Class: Good morning.
Michael: The salesman says, “Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the
cleanest house in town?”
Class: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Okay, good. Now, the woman says, “Yes, of course I would.”
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Class: Yes, of course I would.

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Michael: Alright, this half of the class. Yes, of course I would.
Half of class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: This half. Yes, of course I would.
Other half of class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: You, please. Yes, of course I would.
Student 8: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Student 8: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Yes, you have to say it with feeling, right? Yes, of course I would.
Student 8: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Good, thank you. You, sir.
Student 9: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Student 9: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Okay, everybody, yes, of course I would.
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Salesman says, “Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum
cleaner.”
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Vacuum cleaner.
Class: Vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: The amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: The amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.

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Michael: Okay, this group. Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum
cleaner.
Group: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Alright, you. Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Student 10: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Good, very good. Very good. Alright, you try it. Then, madam, you need the
amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Student 11: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Vacuum cleaner. Very good. Everybody, then, madam, you need the
amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: Now you remember that we don't write down these dialogues as were saying
them because at the end of the class I will give you a copy so you can read it. Right
now concentrate on memorizing it just from the sounds, okay. And later you'll be able to
see it in writing. So, from the beginning the woman says, “Good morning.”
Class: Good morning.
Michael: The man says, “Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest
house in town?”
Class: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: No, I don’t.
Class: No, I don’t.
Michael: What? Why not?
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: What? Why not?
Class: What? Why not?

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Student 12: What? Why not?
Michael: Yeah. What? Why not?
Group: What? Why not?
Michael: Okay, use the gesture, see. What? Why not?
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: Try it with your hands. Use your hands.
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: Yeah, what? Why not? And your shoulders, see my shoulder. What? Why
not?
Class: What? Why not?
Michale: Okay, everybody together. What? Why not?
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: Okay, and the woman says, “Because my husband does the cleaning in our
house.”
Class: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: In our house.
Class: In our house.
Michael: The cleaning in our house.
Class: The cleaning in our house.
Michael: My husband does the cleaning in our house.
Class: My husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Class: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: This group here, please. Just this group. Because my husband does the
cleaning in our house.
Group: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: Okay, listen to me. Because my husband does the cleaning in our house. Now
wait, wait. Just you, please. You try it.

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Student 13: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: Does.
Student 13: Does.
Michael: Does the cleaning.
Student 13: Does the cleaning.
Michael: Now again. Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Student 13: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michale: Good, very good. Everybody. Because my husband does the cleaning in our
house.
Class: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: And then the salesman says, “Oh.”
Class: Oh.
Michael: He’s sad. Oh.
Class: Oh.
Michael: I will be the salesman, and you – all of you – will be the woman, okay? I'm the
salesman. So, I ring the bell. Ring ring ring ring.
Class: Good morning.
Michael: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: No, I don’t.
Michael: What? Why not?
Class: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Michael: Oh. Okay, now we’ll change and you will be the salesman and I will be the
woman. Okay. Ring the bell, ring the bell.
Class: Ring ring ring ring.
Michael: Good morning.

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Class: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: The cleanest house in town.
Class: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: The amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner? No, I don’t.
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: Why not? Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Class: Oh.
Michael: Alright, can we have two volunteers? Two volunteers. Come up, please. And
how about a woman now. Hassan, you can be the salesman and we need a woman.
Sonia, please. Oh just, you begin. Ring the bell.
Sonia: Good morning.
Hassan: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Sonia: Of course, I would.
Hassan: Then I got the Hoover, amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: That you need.
Hassan: You need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Sonia: Oh no, I don't.
Michael: What? Why not?
Hassan: What? Why not?
Sonia: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Hassan: Oh.
Michael: I'm sorry. I'm sorry you didn't sell it.
Hassan: Maybe the next one.

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Michael: The next one. Can we have two more people, please? Two more people to do
this. Two more volunteers. Two more brave, courageous volunteers. Here’s one. Maria.
You want to be the salesman? Saleswoman. Okay. And come on, yes. Yes, you're the
housewife.
Maria: Ring.
Housewife: Good morning.
Maria: Good morning, madam. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Housewife: Yes, I do.
Michael: Of course I would.
Housewife: Of course I would.
Maria: Then you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Housewife: Oh, I don't.
Maria: What? Why not?
Housewife: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Maria: Oh.
Michael: Now, we're going to do a little grammar practice. Grammar practice, okay?
Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Prettiest house.
Class: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Michael: Good. Would you like to have the prettiest house in
town? Class: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Michael: Greenest lawn.
Class: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Michael: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Class: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Michael: Good. Okay, now, again. This time individual people. Okay, we'll do it again.
Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?

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Student 14: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Cleanest.
Student 14: Cleanest.
Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Student 14: Would you like to have the cleanest house in
town? Michael: In town.
Student 14: In town.
Michael: Okay, good. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Student 14: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Would. Would you like.
Student 14: Would you like to clean house...
Michael: Okay, wait. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Student 15: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Student 16: Would you like to have the cleanest house in
town? Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in
town?
Student 17: Would you like to have the cleanest house in
town? Student 18: Would you like to have the cleanest house
in town? Student 19: Would you like to have the cleanest
house in town? Michael: The cleanest house in town.
Student 19: The cleanest house in town.
Michael: Okay, everybody. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Okay, now you try again, please.
Student 14: Would you like to clean...
Michael: To have.

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Student 14: to have the clean...
Michael: The cleanest house in town.
Student 14: House in town.
Michael: Okay, everybody. Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: The prettiest house.
Class: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Michael: Good. The biggest car.
Class: Would you like to have the biggest car in town?
Michael: Greenest lawn.
Class: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Michael: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Class: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Michael: Very good, very good. Now, I will ask the question: would you like to have the
cleanest house in town? You answer: yes, of course I would. Yes, of course I would.
Okay, I ask the question, you give the answer. Would you like to have the cleanest
house in town?
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Would you like to have the biggest car in town?
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Would you like to have the greenest lawn in town?
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Now you ask me the questions. Cleanest house. Ask me the question.

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Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would. Prettiest house.
Class: Would you like to have the prettiest house in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would. Biggest car.
Class: Would you like to have the biggest car in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would. The greenest
lawn. Class: Would you like to have the greenest in
town? Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Diane Larson-Freeman: It’s only now at the end of grammar drilling that the
students see the printed word.
Michael: Okay, now this time I’ll read it and then you repeat after me. Read it,
then repeat, okay? Good morning.
Class: Good morning.
Michael: Good morning, madam.
Class: Good morning, madam.
Michael: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Class: Would you like to have the cleanest house in town?
Michael: Yes, of course I would.
Class: Yes, of course I would.
Michael: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Class: Then, madam, you need the amazing Hoover vacuum cleaner.
Michael: No, I don't.
Class: No, I don’t.
Michael: What? Why not?
Class: What? Why not?
Michael: Because, you see, my husband does the cleaning in our house.
Class: Because, you see, my husband does the cleaning in our house.

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Michael: Oh.
Class: Oh.
Michael: Alright now, for your homework for tomorrow, I want you to memorize this.
Memorize it and tomorrow, in class tomorrow I'm going to ask you to say this perfectly
with no mistakes without the paper. You understand?
Class: Yes.
Michael: So your homework tonight is to memorize this perfectly. Okay and then the
other thing you have to do – you have two things for homework – you have to sell this
vacuum cleaner to someone, okay? Sell this vacuum cleaner to someone for
homework, okay? That's all for today. Thank you for coming. See you tomorrow.
Goodbye.
Diane Larson-Freeman: As the lesson began we saw the teacher presenting a dialogue to the class. The
students just listen to the teacher at first. One of the ALM teacher’s major roles is that of a model of the
target language. It’s the student’s job to repeat as accurately as they can the teacher’s model. Language
learning is seen to be a process of habit formation. The more often the students repeat something the
stronger the habit and the greater the learning. We saw how the students stumbled over one of the
lines of the dialogue they were repeating. When this happened, the teacher used a backward build up
drill with a troublesome line. He started at the end of the sentence and had the students repeat the
final phrase. To this he added each phrase in turn until the students were able to say the whole
sentence smoothly. The teacher corrected the students’ errors in other ways, as well. For example, by
quickly saying the phrase for the students to her and repeat.

It’s important to prevent learners for making errors since errors lead to the formation of bac habits.
Later in a lesson the teacher used grammar drills, a single slot substitution drill, and a question-and-
answer drill. These drills help students to learn, or even better, to overlearn the sentence patterns of the
target language. The overlearning leads to automaticity. You may have noticed that the teacher often
said “good” or “very good”. In this way, he positively reinforced to students’ work. Such reinforcement
helps the students develop correct habits. It wasn’t until the end of the lesson that the students got to
see the written version of the dialogue which they were learning. This is consistent with the ALM
principle that speech is our basic to language in the written form.

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 Transcript
Silent Way: rods (part 1 of 3)

Caleb Gattegno was another methodologist who believed that language learning could occur at
a much faster rate than normally transpires. What often happens, however, is that teaching
interferes with learning. To prevent this from occurring, the central principle of Gattengno’s
Silent Way is that “teaching should be subordinated to learning.” This means, in part, that the
teacher bases his lesson on what the students are learning at the moment, not what he wants
to teach them. Watch how this principle is put into practice in the demonstration of the Silent
way which follow, taught by my colleague, Donald Freeman.

After the teacher greets the students, we skip to where the teacher is reviewing some of the
words the students will use that day by pointing to them on a “Fidel” (a color-coded chart on
which each English sound is assigned a distinctive color). He focuses on the differences in
pronunciation between thee and the.

By beginning the less with the Fidel Chart, something with which the students are familiar, the
teacher can build from the known to the unknown. The teacher next constructs a floor plan with
Cuisenaire rods. He elicits from the students the relevant vocabulary. He has the basic
structure in mind, but he lets the students take responsibility for guiding the construction of the
floor plan. The teacher respects the intelligence of his students and gives only what help is
necessary.

Gattegno believed that language is not learned by repeating after a model. Students need to
develop their own “inner criteria” for correctness – no trust and to be responsible for their own
production in the target language. In fact, he was fond of saying, “The teacher works with the
students while the students work on the language.”

You may have noticed that the teacher spent a lot of time working with the students’ errors.
Errors are important and necessary to learning. They show the teacher how the students
understand what he is teaching and specifically where things are unclear. The teacher used a
variety of tools (hand gestures, charts, the blackboard, and other students) to get the students
to self-correct.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Transcript for Silent Way: rods (part 1 of 3) for the AE
E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360

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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
If the students are given answers, rather than being allowed to find the corrections themselves,
they won’t retain them. However, at the beginning, the teacher expects students to progress,
not perform perfectly.

The teacher was silent in that he did not model the language, but rather, directed the students in
using it. It is the students who should be practicing the language, not the teacher. Because the
teacher does not supply a model, the students learn to give their full attention to the teacher’s
cues. They are also encouraged to learn from one another. Indeed, we saw that the students
standing in the back were learning from those seated at the table.

By listening to the sentences, the students wrote towards the end of the lesson, the teacher can
verify what particular students have learned that day. This same sort of information was
obtained when the teacher asked the students directly what they had learned. Both sources of
student feedback help to inform the teacher about what to work on next. Students, in turn, learn
to accept responsibility for their own learning.

All Students: Yellow rod. A yellow rod. blue rod. A blue Rod.
Students one at a time: A blue rod. A blue rod.

Donald Freeman pointing to Students individually: A blue rod.

Students all together: A blue rod.

Donald Freeman pointing to Individual Students: A blue rod.

Donald Freeman: Very Chicago.

Student: (Laugh)

Donald Freeman: Say it

Students all together: A blue rob.

Donald Freeman pointing to Individual Students: A blue rod.

Students together: A blue. A green rod. A black rod, a blue rod, green rod Students
begin to speak the colors of the rod as the teacher raises them up. (Colors are Blue,
Green, Brown, Black, Red, Yellow) A light green rod.

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Male Student: Two rods
All Students: Two rods.

Male Student: Three rods,

All Students: Three rods. Four Rods.

All Students: A blue rod. Two blue Rods.

Female Student 1: Two rods, two rods.

Freeman asks student the word for rod in their native language.

Female Student 2: A blue rod and a brown rod.

All students: A blue rod and a brown rod.
Male student: a blue rod and then a brown rod. Brown rod. A blue rod and brown rod.
A blue rod and A brown rod.

Freeman: This is your job from now on. Your job, listening. Okay,

All students: A blue rod and a brown rod.

Female student 3: A blue rod and a brown rod.
Female student 4: A blue rod and a brown rod.
Female student 5: A blue rod and a brown rod.
Female student 6: A blue rod and a brown rod.

Freeman: Chicken
(All students laugh)
Female student 7: A yellow rod, a blue rod, and uh yellow rod and a yellow rod, and a
blue rod and a brown rod.

Female student 8: A brown rod and a blue rod, a blue rod and a yellow rod, a yellow
rod and a brown rod and a blue rod and a blue rod. and a red rod.

Male student 2: Yellow rod and a red rod and a yellow rod and a blue rod and a brown
rod and a blue rod and a brown rod and a red rod.

Freeman: Bonus

(All students laugh)

Male student 2: A red rod and a brown, and a green rod. A red rod and green rod a
yellow rod and a blue rod brown rod and a light green rod and a black rod.

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Students clapping

Female Student 4: Red rod and a green rod and a yellow rod and a blue rod and a
brown rod and a light green rod and a black rod.

Freeman: What color is this? Purple.

Students: Purple
Female student: Light red? Purple?

Freeman: I don't know?

Female student: Light red?

Teacher points to purple on diagram.

All students: Purple

Students repeat color name.

All students: pur...pur..pur..purple.

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 Transcript
Language Teaching Methods: Comprehension Approach/TPR Video

Diane Larsen-Freemen: Learners’ feelings are also given importance in the next method we
will see demonstrated. Psychologist James Asher’s method, Total Physical Response, is being
offered as an example of a general approach called the Comprehension Approach. The
Comprehension Approach, as the name suggests, places value on students’ understanding the
target language, and thus emphasizes the listening skill. Other examples of this approach are
Krashen and Terrell’s Natural Approach and Winitz’ materials, The Learnables.
Asher bases his method on the observation that a baby spends many months listening to the
people around it long before it ever says a word. The child has the time to try and make sense
out of the sounds it hears. No one tells the baby it must speak. The child chooses to speak
when it is ready. Moreover, according to Asher, much of the linguistic input directed to the child
contains commands. Look for how Asher’s observations about child language acquisition have
influenced his approach to second language learning. My colleague, Kathleen Graves, will
present Total Physical Response.
Kathleen: Today we're going to learn about cleaning the house. Something I'm sure that
everybody loves to do, we all we all need to clean the house maybe not everybody loves to do it
but it is something we need to do. And in order to clean the house we need a brush, yep we
need a brush, we need a sponge okay we need a dust cloth, we need a vacuum cleaner right
and we need a broom. Okay, could I have someone come up here to the front and be a
volunteer? Thank you very much Hassan. Okay Hassan I'd like you to point to the vacuum
cleaner. Okay, could you point to the sponge? Okay, could you point to the brush? Okay, could
you point to the broom? That's right, could you point to the dust cloth? Okay, could you point to
the broom? Okay point to the vacuum cleaner? Okay, point to the sponge. Point to the brush.
Point to the vacuum cleaner. Point to the broom. Point to the dust cloth okay. Good. Thank
you, could you sit down? Okay, so I'd like the whole class to do that point to the desk cloth.
Okay, point to the brush. Okay point to the desk cloth. Okay, don't point to the brush. Okay,
could you point to the vacuum cleaner, the broom and then the desk cloth. Okay, could you
point to the sponge. the vacuum cleaner and then the brush. Okay, very good. Now, we’re
going to use the sponge to wipe the counter. Okay, now we visited a house the other day, do
you remember?
And we saw here was the sink, this is the sink, and here was, this area was the counter. Okay,
and we use the sponge to wipe the counter. Okay, so let's try this together. Watch me I'm you
I'm sweeping the floor, I'm vacuuming the rug, okay, I'm scrubbing the sink, I'm wiping the
counter, and I'm dusting the bookshelves. Okay, so let's just try the actions okay could someone
come up here and do the actions with me? Okay, Gideon thank you.. Okay, we don't need to
use these we can just pretend. Okay, we're going to sweep the kitchen floor, sweep. All right,
okay, and then what will we do next we'll wipe off the counter. Okay, and then we're going to
scrub the kitchen sink. Okay, and then we're going to go into the living room and we're going to

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Transcript for Language Teaching Methods: Comprehension
Approach/TPR for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this

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license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
vacuum the rug, and then we're going to dust the bookshelves. Okay, so I'm just going to say
something we'll do it together dust the bookshelves. Okay, vacuum the rug. Okay, sweep the
floor. Scrub the sink. Wipe the counter. Okay, and did we forget one dust the bookshelves
again. Okay, thank you very much could you sit down. Okay now, let's everyone we'll do it
together how about if everybody stands up. Okay, so let's first vacuum the rug. Okay, dust the
bookshelves. Okay, wipe the counter. Scrub the sink. Okay, and sweep the floor. Okay, good
now sweep the floor then vacuum the rug. That's right so we sweep the floor and then we
vacuumed the rug. Okay, dust the bookshelf then wipe the counter. Okay, so we dusted the
bookshelf and then we wiped the counter. Okay, scrub at the sink and then wipe the counter.
Okay, so we scrub the sink and we wipe the counter. Okay, let's go into the living room and
we'll…yeah thank you dust the bookshelves and vacuum in the rug. Oh, good. You're very good
house cleaners that's great! Okay, why don't we sit down. Now let's have let's see Enda tell
Gideon to scrub the sink.
Edna to Gideon: Scrub the sink.
Kathleen: Okay thank you Gideon tell hey Jesus to vacuum the rug.
Gideon to Jesus: Vacuum the rug.
Kathleen: Okay, Jesus tell Alphonse to wipe the counter.
Jesus to Alphonse: Wipe the counter.
Kathleen: Alphonse tell Abdullah to vacuum the rug.
Alphonse to Abdullah: Vacuum the rug.
Kathleen: Now the next thing we have to do is I'm going to ask you to scrub the sink. Okay,
now we're going to scrub the sink quickly. Okay, now scrub the sink carefully, carefully,
carefully. Okay, wipe the counter quickly. Okay, wipe the counter carefully. Okay, sweep the
floor carefully. Now sweep it quickly. Okay, vacuum the rug quickly. Now vacuum it carefully,
carefully. Okay, let's see scrub the sink quickly and then vacuum the floor carefully. Oh, good
okay, now dust the bookshelves carefully and then vacuum the floor quickly. Okay, vacuum the
rug carefully, dust the bookshelf quickly, and then run into the kitchen and sweep the floor
quickly. Oh, some, some people are dusting the floor, some people are dusting the bookshelf
carefully and some are dusting it quickly. Vacuum the rug carefully and then dust the bookshelf
quickly. Okay, good job. Thank you. Okay let's no, no, no, wait don't sit down. Let's go into the
kitchen now and scrub the sink quickly, wipe the counter carefully, and then sweep the floor
carefully. Good job. Thank you very much please sit down. Sonia wipe the counter carefully
keep wiping. Deep, while Sonia is wiping the counter sweep the floor carefully and scrub the
sink quickly. Okay, now tell Sonia to stop wiping the counter.
Deep to Sonia: Stop wiping.
Kathleen: Okay, good let's see, Anna Greta tell Seetie to dust the bookshelves quickly.
Anna Greta to Seetie: Dust the bookshelves quickly.

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Kathleen: Edwin while Seetie is dusting the bookshelves, vacuum the rug carefully. Okay Said,
tell Edwin to stop vacuuming the rug.
Said to Edwin: Stop vacuuming the rug.
Kathleen: Okay tell Seetie to stop dusting the bookshelves.
Edwin to Seetie. Stop dusting the bookshelves.
Kathleen: Uhm, let's ask some questions. Who, who likes to clean the house raise your hand.
A-ha Hassan likes to clean the house, Maria likes to clean the house. Only two people. Okay,
Maria and Hassan like to clean the house. Okay point, who doesn't like to clean the house?
okay who doesn't like to clean the house raise your hand. Okay you don't like to clean the
house, you don't like to clean the house, you don't like to clean the house, you don't like to
clean it, you don't like to clean the house. Okay I like to clean the house, it's relaxing you know.
Okay I like to clean the house. who likes to clean the house raise your hand? Maria or you like
to clean. is it like to clean the house? Like? Like. You D? Jesus, Horacio, Hasaan, Maria, and,
we all like to clean the house. Okay, good so point to someone who likes to clean the house.
Right. Okay, point to someone point to someone who doesn't like to clean the house. So, this is
some of the vocabulary that we learned today scrub the sink with a brush, let, we’ll stay in the
kitchen.
Wipe, wipe the counter with a sponge. Okay, do you have any questions about any of these
words? No? dust cloth, yeah this is a dust cloth.
Student: Instead of instead of a toilet. Oh uh, like a small toilet.
Kathleen: Okay a dust cloth. Okay we also have a duster something, something that looks with
feathers. Okay we have a duster but it's very hard to find dusters now. It's very difficult to find
dusters so usually we just, we just use a dust cloth okay? Yeah? Okay, then here's your
homework. Now I have all of the all of the vocabulary we learned today on these sheets of
paper and I would like you to study it and then in our next lesson we will practice giving each
other the commands. Okay, telling each other to do these things okay so we'll pass the
homework out you take it and you it. Okay, thank you very much.
Diane Larsen-Freeman: As we have seen, imperatives can be useful linguistic devices
because meaning in the target language can often be conveyed through actions. In addition,
retention is thought to be enhanced when learners respond physically. The teacher’s
commands do increase in complexity but it’s important that she not move too quickly. Students
should feel successful as feelings of success and low anxiety facilitate learning. Also, when the
students do make an error, correction should be carried out in a non-threatening manner,
perhaps by just repeating the command, and giving students an opportunity to self-correct.
From time to time, the teacher changes the order in which she issues the commands so
students do not memorize fixed routines. She also gives commands which combine previous
imperatives in unexpected ways as students need to understand more than the commands
used in the training. Besides, novelty is also motivating and can be fun. Language learning is
more effective when it’s fun.

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In the lesson we saw, the students did not do much speaking. They will later, however, when
they are ready to do so. They, too, will being by giving commands. Students are expected to
make errors when they first begin speaking. Teachers should be tolerant of them. Work on the
fine details of the language should be postponed until students have become somewhat
proficient.

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 Transcript
Language Teaching Methods: Communicative Approach Video

Diane Larsen-Freeman: You may have noticed that originators of the materials demonstrated
on these videotapes take as their primary goal, students communicating in the target language.
Many of these same methodologies emphasize the acquisition of linguistic structures or
vocabulary. In the last method we will observe, the Communicative Approach, it is
acknowledged that structures and vocabulary are important. However, adherents of the
Communicative Approach feel that students must master the functions or purposes to which it is
put before they will be able to truly use the language. Watch how this view of language
influences the way the teacher designs the lesson. The Communicative Approach will be
demonstrated by my colleague, Alex Silverman.

Alex: Anyway, today we're going to start a brand-new unit, and this unit will be focusing on a
new function persuasion. How do you convince people to believe in your point of view? Okay I
think this will be a useful skill for you to have both in your academic work and as you function in
the larger world in everyday life. And the topic that we'll be using to work on this art or skill of
persuasion will be the best place to live. We're going to talk about different kinds of living
situations. Okay, now it so happens that my family is facing an important decision on this topic,
the best place to live and I'll tell you the reason why. Like many American families, maybe some
that you know, my family we all started out together. I grew up in New York City and of course
everyone was together and then as the children grew up we spread out all over the country and
now we live hundreds or thousands of miles from each other. Why do you think can you guess
maybe why the children move to different places?
Alex and Students: Because work got interesting, studies, they got married and they moved
away. Yes.
Alex: Vacation?
Alex: Yeah, well my parents went on vacation to Florida once, and they liked it and they
decided to move there. Okay, so now the situation is this my parents, Bill and Sarah, live in
South Florida. I live in Western Massachusetts in the country, with beautiful hills and streams
and fields all around. My brother Charlie moved to a big city, Philadelphia. How many people
have been to Philadelphia? Just a few okay it's not too far from Washington. And my sister went
to Wisconsin, to Madison which is a small city for her studies and she liked it and she stayed
there. Now here is the problem. My parents are tired of living so far from the children they would
like to get back together, at least for a while, with one of the children. The question is which
place to go to since they love each of the children equally, their decision is going to be based
on which is the best place to live. A big city, the country, or a small city or town. Right? And we
are

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having a family meeting, a family council we call it to make that decision. And you're going to
decide which is the best place as if you are my family. And I'll be very interested to see what
your decision is. Okay? Now we're going to do a little bit of work before the role play on the
structure of persuasion. And to start that off I'd like to talk with you a little bit about where you
live and what you like about where you live. How many people here live in a big city at home in
your own country? Ah, most of you. How many live in is what we would call a small city town?
Just two or three. And how many live in the country? Just one in the country? Okay. All right
well let's talk about the big city then, since so many of you are from a big city what are the
reasons that you like living in a big city? What are some of the advantages that you find in big
city life?
Student: Better jobs.
Alex: Better jobs, okay.
Diane Larsen-Freeman: After the students give all their reasons, the teacher gives an example
of how one might make a case for living in a big city.
Alex: Finally, there's a wider variety of people that you can meet in a big city. Now what I just
did was structure my persuasion in a certain way that we like to do in English. And one term
you can use for this structure is making a case. Ok and if we look at this structure it's what I just
did, we open citing one reason and we say something like to begin with or first of all, and then
we strengthen or build the argument. We cite additional reasons and we use some of these
expressions to make a transition one from one reason to another; besides that, in addition,
moreover, furthermore. And the third part of the argument we're making the case, is perhaps a
summary of the main reason or a final reason. Right. Now who can work working with this
structure, who can make a case for, let's say, South Florida. Many of you know about Florida.
How many people have been to Florida?

Students raise hands.

Alex: A few of you but you've all heard of it. Who can make a case for living in Florida? Using
that kind of a formula? Who can start off? Martha?
Martha: Well okay I should try to convince…in short, I think that the place convenient for you
and it has a very good weather - all year round.
Alex: Absolutely go there I'm ready to go! Goodbye! Yes, (jokingly) who's going to teach you?
Okay, well that's very good. That's the idea and that's that the type of argument you can make
in a written form or when you're for example at a business meeting and you're trying to present
your point of view, you might use this kind of structure. Okay now we're going to go to the role
play that I mentioned before and you're each going to get a chance to practice making a case.
Okay? Now here is what we're going to do in the role play first of all you're going to divide into of
four and you will each receive a card. On the card is your identity for the role play. Each of you

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will be one of the children; me, Alex, Charlie who lives in Philadelphia, where my sister Lynn
who lives in Madison, small city in Wisconsin. The fourth person in the group will be one of my
parents and it will say this on the card Bill or Sarah. Here is how it's going to work when you get
the card you will see information about your home; Madison or Philadelphia or Massachusetts.
These will give you hints about how to make a case for your place. Okay? What you will do is
first take a couple of minutes to study the card, see the information, think up additional reasons
besides the one the card the ones on the card for living in your place. Okay you are free to ask
me any questions you may have about any of these places because I've been to all of them. I
know them all pretty well. Okay, then once those two minutes are up and you've prepared your
case the Family Council will start. And what you will do is try to convince Bill or Sarah, the
parents, that your place is best. So you make a case in front of Bill or Sarah about your place
and everyone else will listen. Okay follow the formula for making a case. Once each of the three
children has made his or her case the parents in the group, the person playing my father or
mother Bill or Sarah, will decide which is the most convincing argument and will state the
reasons why. Okay so each child makes the case, Bill or Sarah listens thinks about the
arguments and decides which is the best one the, most convincing one. Then after that we’ll
come back in the large group and I'll ask the Bills and Sarah's to report on what they decided.
Okay any questions about the procedure? Okay could you move into groups of four and I will
give you your cards.
Group 1: What is the Grayson board and our diversity ask…
Group 2: Your own room and save you some money for one of your children you have to live
with the other one. Yes, Otis yes, yes, remains same thing on the log a same situation and the
two of our children and help the oldest entertaining her parents that's no problem.
Group 3: Next tickets on to my country you can come you can…
Alex: Remember to ask me if you have any questions about any of the places.
Group 4 in discussion with Alex: I think it's not very poor yet no the air is clean
Alex: Yes, I don't know you're not sure they're telling the truth?
Student and Alex: Yeah, the big city might be more polluted. Yeah maybe that's a reason for
the country. Yeah, the parents are retired. Yes, work a mother to say no it's a very nice room
Alex: Okay you have your reasons
Alex: Yeah, can I get your attention the parents in the group need to decide now. So please
decide and tell everyone your reasons right now. It's time to decide the leaks who was a parent
here Victor, what did you decide?
Victor: Yes, a I listen carefully a what Lane, Charlie and Alice said about Wisconsin,
Philadelphia, Massachusetts. I think that I was confused and at first but a I think that Charlie
have to have the reason and I decided to go to Philadelphia because they said this city yay how
a V8 has some good technologies. Technology and library and I like to share official to research
also…

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Alex: So, libraries are important to you?
Victor: and I like to swim in the sea…
Alex: uh-huh the sea isn't too far?
Victor: Yes, but it has his own boat
Alex: Oh, it has his own boat
Victor: yes
Alex: Oh, that's great okay great. So, we have one vote for Philadelphia okay, one vote for
Philadelphia. Okay parent Ibrahim?
Ibrahim: Another athlete I decided to join Alex in Massachusetts.
Alex: oh yeah thank you
Ibrahim: First of all, I have an opportunity to do my job correctly in town who which are not
which is not full yet polluted. Yeah in addition I have to opportunity to visit Boston which is a
good city yeah, and it's not too fast
Alex: Not too far it's a couple of hours yeah
Ibrahim: So finally, I think for the fan and for the job and for all our activities I decided to join for
Alex.
Alex: Okay so we have one vote for the country, in western Mass. Great. Who else was a
parent?
Female Student: Three family the first of all I think I like all of my children. Besides that is a we
are retired we have lots of time to go to out to look around. Its a good Fall for our house so I
finally I decided to go to the three family so this year I will go to the Philadelphia, next year we
go to the Western.
Alex: That's a clever solution so one family each year.
Female Student: I studied.
Alex: Now how do I count that kind of vote? I think I'll give one to everyone yes and it'll make
Lin feel good because she doesn't have any votes yet.
Male Student: My wife and I have a lot of problem because I let see my first son and Lin is my
wife Lhasa daughter...
Alex: Yes
Male Student: And she likes to live before in and I like to live with me for my first daughter this
is your problem
Alex: So, what did you decide?

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Male Student: So, I'm tired I have 19 years old and when I die Alex can be take my place
and then take care of her, his brothers and sister so we decided to live with Alex and when
we die Alex can be take care of his brother and sisters.
Alex: Another very creative solution. Well I can't wait to call my parents and tell them. So, we
have another vote for Western Mass, the country. Let's count up the votes four the country,
three for the big city and only one for the small city. So, I am the winner. Thank you for helping
me decide that ok I will see you tomorrow. For homework, I'd like you to write a one-page
composition in which you follow this formula and make a case for your own place where you
live in your own country. Ok, one page, see you tomorrow have a good day.
Diane Larsen-Freemen: The lesson we just observed, we saw the students learning to make a
case. The vehicle the teacher used to have students practice making their cases was a role
play. This gives the language they are to use a social context, a characteristic of all
communicative events. It also gives the communication a purpose. Moreover, the role play
gives the students an opportunity to practice using language forms that are not only linguistically
accurate, but sociolinguistically appropriate as well, appropriate to the settings, topics and
participants.

By working in small groups, communicative interaction and cooperative relationships are

encouraged. Such occasions give students an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning or
trying to make themselves understood. They thus learn to communicate by communicating. As
the students’ role play, the teacher moves from group to group acting as an advisor or facilitator,
instead of as a director.

During the last activity, the “parents” are given the opportunity to report their decision. Students
are thus given an opportunity to express their opinions and to share their ideas on a regular
basis. When they do so, errors of form are tolerated by the teacher and are seen as a natural
outcome of the development of communication skills. The teacher may choose to draw
attention to common errors in subsequent lessons, but for now the focus is on fluency and
reinforcing the message that communication is primary.

This concludes the second tape of this two-tape video series on language teaching
methodologies. You may wish to spend a few minutes reflecting on what you have seen. Try to
identify techniques or principles which you find helpful and think about ow you might adapt them
to your own teaching situation. Of course, even those techniques or principles which you did not
find useful will help you clarify your own beliefs about the teaching/learning process. For
instance, what does your rejection of them tell you about our own teaching practice?

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Being clear about why you do what you do will give you a firm foundation from which to sift
through the methods demonstrated here. We have presented some options; now it is your own
responsibility to hold them up to the filter of your own beliefs, experience, and the needs of
your students. I wish you well.

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3.4 Reading: Methodology in the New Millennium
Read this article published by American English Links to an external site. A study guide is
provided.

"Methodology in the New Millennium"

See the study guide for this article on the next page.
Rodgers discusses what directions English language teaching might take in the new millennium.
His ten paths are: (a) student-teacher matching, (b) combination of popular methods, (c) the
reimagining of curricular development, (d) a more basic content-based teaching approach, (e)
use of the multiple intelligences model, (f) a return to function and genre, (g) learner strategy
training, (h) lexical chunks, (i) the expansion of definitions of language, and (j) adoption of a
fuller understanding of communication.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context.
Rogers, T. (2003). Methodology in the New Millenium. English Teaching Forum, 41(4), 2-
13. https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/03-41-4-a.pdf (Links to an
external site.)Links to an external site.

53
 D
iscussing the future of anything is always challenging,

especially the future of language teaching. The conservative

temptation is to assume that things will carry on much as they

have in the past and that the future will be recognizable from

clues in the present. After all, classrooms have maintained

their familiar organization

for a thousand years. Why then should methodology alter radically if the classroom

stays the same? The alternative is to predict a science-fiction future in which,

given one’s ecological or technological bias, the future is nothing like the present.

My own predictions, then, will address both temptations. Some of the predictions

assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends; others appear more like

science fiction in their vision.

The recent past these practices

The 20th century has seen an immense might be
amount of activity in language teaching (Freeman 1992).
methodology. Grammar Translation, the
Direct Method, Audio-Lingualism—all
preceded what some have called the
Age of Methods, comprising most of the
final decades of the last century (Richards
and Rodgers 1986). During this period a
number of new methods clamored for
attention and vied for adherents.
Inevitably a reaction set in to what
some saw as scatter-fire approaches to
language teaching, leading to an “anti-
methods” view of language teaching
methodology. Long (1989) stated that
“methods don’t matter because they
don’t exist”; Nunan (1991) supported
criticisms of the profession and its
preoccupation with methods; Brown
(1994a) opined that “The era of methods is
over”; and Woodward (1996) noted that
the profession is now in a period of “post-
method thinking.”
Several alternatives were offered to
the view that methods were at the
heart of methodology. Brown (1994a)
argued that methodology should comprise
putting into practice certain general
principles of good language teaching
derived from research or observation.
Another view was that meth- odology
should build on conscious modeling by less
experienced teachers of the practices of
expert or experienced teachers, whatever
 Next phases in language teaching methodology The methodogical predictions are
In assembling my methodological predictions, I have as follows:
borrowed ideas from other commentators and have created 1. Teacher/Learner Collaboration: Using
some scenarios of my own. Some of these predictions are matchmaking techniques to link learners
based on experience of the last century. Others are and teachers who have similar styles
somewhat idiosyncratic but draw on material already existing and approaches to language learning
outside the immediate purview of language teaching. I propose 2. Method Synergistics: Crossbreeding
ten scenarios which may, individually and collectively, shape elements of various methods to find those
the teaching of second languages in the next decades of this new practices which best support effective
millennium. These speculations are presented in several brief learning
outline sketches. I have given the millennial candidates 3.Curriculum Developmentalism: Viewing
identifying labels in a somewhat tongue-in-cheek style, perhaps methodology as an integrated component
reminiscent of yesteryear’s method labels. in a larger view of instructional design

2 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
 4. Content-Basics: Assuming that
METHODS AND LEARNER ROLES
language learning is a by-product of a focus Learner Roles
on meaning, on acquiring some specific Method
topical content Situational Language Teaching (SLT)Imitator Memorizer
5. Multi-intelligencia: Basing instruction Audio-lingualism (AL)Pattern Practicer Accuracy Enthusiast
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Improvisor
on a “multiple-intelligences” view, in Negotiator
which different approaches play to different Total Physical Response (TPR)Order Taker Performer
The Silent Way (SW)Inventor Problem Solver
learner talents Community Language Learning (CLL)Collaborator
6. Total Functional Response: Recon- Whole Person
structing the Notional/Functional idea with The Natural Approach (NA)Guesser Immerser
Suggestopedia (S)Relaxer
some new systemic twists True Believer
7. Strategopedia: Teaching learners
the strategies they need so that they can
learn on their own
8. Lexical Phraseology: Recrafting both
the nature and substance of language
learning (LL) to focus on lexical phrases
and collocations
9. O-zone Whole Language: Engaging all
aspects of language study—literature, METHODS AND TEACHER ROLES
language history, linguistic analysis, and so Teacher Roles
Method
forth—in support of second language learning
Situational Language Teaching (SLT)Context Setter
10. Full-frontal Communicativity: Error Corrector
Engaging all aspects of human Audio-lingualism (AL)Language Modeler Drill Leader
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Needs Analyst
communicative capacities—expression, Task Designer
gesture, tone, and so forth—in support of Total Physical Response (TPR)Commander Action Monitor
second language learning The Silent Way (SW)Pantomimist Neutral Observer
Community Language Learning (CLL)Counselor
Paraphraser
Teacher/learner collaborates The Natural Approach (NA)Actor Props User
The classification of learning styles Suggestopedia (S)Autohypnotist

(e.g., Kolb 1984 and Willing 1998) and

teaching styles (e.g., McCarthy 1984) has
received considerable attention in recent
years; however, relatively little attention
has been paid to how to match learner and
teacher styles, either theoretically or
practically. My first prediction is that this
kind of “matchmaking” will occupy
considerably more attention in instructional Shorthand identification of learner roles
planning in the future. As an example of how and teacher roles were created as shown in
this might work, I have borrowed some the two charts above. In application,
material on method analysis from Richards teachers were encouraged to characterize
and Rodgers (1986). In a paper on learner their own teaching style (or a teaching style
and teacher styles and strategies in methods to which they aspired) and to characterize
(Rodgers 1979), I synopsized the the learning style(s) they found
characterizations of learner roles and predominant among their students. With
teacher roles for each of the eight methods this information, they then matched styles
analyzed in the text. I then suggested a to learner roles and teacher roles in the
matchmaking procedure by which charts. Close matches led to a discussion of
individual teachers might consider the how teachers and students might be
appropriateness of recommended methods matched and to an examination of
depending on how they characterized procedures associated with the methods
themselves and their students. In other suggested as a result of the learner and
words, I tried to suggest how teachers might teacher matches. Such procedures were
identify “good-fit” methods to adopt or assumed to be likely nominees for
adapt for use in their own teaching/ individual teacher adoption or adaptation.
learning situations. (For those
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 3
unfamiliar with the major features of these particular insights. Although the search for
methods, I refer you to Richards and commonalties across methods has been
Rodgers [1986] or to Nunan’s [1988] one- discouraged, such commonalties do exist. For
page outline of the text.) example, one sub class of methods
If such matchmaking becomes proposes that a prolonged listening period
theoretically viable, a major challenge for should precede production, and the
the future will be how to put such other, that production should be a first
information into practice in ELT classes. target. One set of methods regards L2
This problem challenges other notions of learning as similar to L1 learning, and the
how individual differences in learning and other set views L2 learning as significantly
teaching can be analyzed and unlike L1 learning. However, these
accommodated (e.g., Strategopedia supraordinate commonalties are too
and Multi-intelligencia below). abstract to help a language
educator searching for insights into the
Method synergistics
language learning process or for
Methods have been criticized for suggestions for improving classroom
claiming universality of application teaching.
as well as uniqueness in their individual In several earlier papers (Rodgers
properties and 1989, 1990), I examined method
statements and

Classroom external
Birth—Native intelligence and aptitude
Bloom—Optimal biological period(s) for language learning
Background—Home and community past experience Bath
—Immersion in a second language situation Badge—High
status of second language in the community Bridge—
Desire of the learner to join a new culture Bedroom—
Language acquired from love partners Bread—Financial
rewards for language learning Bullets—Physical threat for
not learning a new language
By-product—Language learning in association with other important learning

Classroom internal
(Refer to methods and learner roles on the previous page for method abbreviations)
Brains—Requiring use of problem-solving, thinking capacities in connection with LL (SLT, CLT, SW, NA)
Breezy—Experiencing LL in a minimum stress, low affective filter environment (SW, TPR, CLL, NA, S)
Buddies—Undertaking LL with practice and support of partners (CLT, CLL)
Belonging—Being part of a supportive LL community (SW, CLL)
Biography—Building LL around personal details and interests of the learners (CLT, CLL) Bugling
—Providing attention calls and surprises to keep learners alert and interested (TPR, NA) Body—
Involving physical as well as mental self (SW, TPR)
Bargaining—Creating situations in which language is used to negotiate meaning (CLT) Baskets—
Providing mental categories for sorting and remembering language learned (TPR, CLL, S) Belief—
Convincing learners of their LL success (CLL, NA, S)
Bluff—Creating opportunities for learners to demonstrate more language competence than they actually
have (TPR, CLL, S)
Bounds—Setting LL goals which are clear, useful, and obtainable (CLT, NA)
Beyond—Demonstrating out-of-class payoffs for LL (CLT, CLL) Beat—
Orchestrating language presentation and practice with rhythm (S)
4 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
practices in an attempt to extract those Learner Considerations: Learner
assumptions about language learning that considera- tions involve the ages, proficiency
were critical to learner success. The result levels, and developmental stages of the
of these analyses of the general literature learner or learners. Considerations include
are summarized in the “Big B’s” chart on societal expectations and learners’ self-
the previous page. perceptions, prior learning experiences and
The chart identifies features that positively preferred learning styles, strategies,
influence the learning of second languages. environments, and groupings.
Features at the top of the chart are outside
Administrative Considerations: Admin-
the context of the classroom and the control
istrative considerations comprise the choice
of the teacher. These are labeled
of instructional models and the scale, pace,
“classroom external” features. The more
and style of educational delivery. Plans for
relevant claims are in the second half of the
and execution of teacher and learner
chart, which shows those positive features
selection, evaluation, and promotion, as
that are within the context of the classroom
well as environmental development and
and the control of the teacher. These are
institutional image, are also administrative
called “classroom internal” influences.
considerations.
We know that teacher beliefs
significantly affect teaching success. Successful educational program design
Teachers with a strong belief in the positive and delivery demands successful
influence of one or more of these factors integration of all four sets of considerations
will then look to the methods that support rather than a dominance by any one set.
these factors as sources of ideas for their It is important to note that what has been
classroom. called Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT) has, in fact, reflected preoccupation
Curriculum developmentalism with different kinds of considerations at
A curriculum development model that various points in its brief history. The
has been used quite extensively in project changing nature of CLT has made
design in the institution where I was associate definition and description of CLT often
director is called the KILA Model. It is difficult to formulate and confusing to
diagrammed below. Educational design follow (e.g., Yalden 1983). In its first
comprises four kinds of considerations, phase, the “Wilkins Period,” CLT
which we have called Knowledge, concerned itself with attempts to redefine
Instructional, Learner, and Administrative the knowledge base, principally by defining
considerations. Successful educational language organization in terms of notions
design is achieved only in the area in and functions rather than in terms of
which all considerations are in grammatical structures. In the second
congruence and synchrony. phase, the “Munby Period,” CLT
The components of t he model are briefly focused on determining learner needs
explained below (for more complete through various mechanisms proposed for
discussion of the model see Rogers 1989). needs assessment. In its third phase, the
“Prabhu” Period, CLT
Knowledge Considerations: In language
education, knowledge considerations
involve the input/output assumptions about
what language is, as well as specification of
the content—the topical range—of the
instruc- tional language examples or texts
presented and the student responses
anticipated.
Instructional Considerations: Instructional
considerations reflect the input of teachers
and other staff involved with instruction.
They also include methods, materials,
programs, technologies, and educational
environments, as well as time and
scheduling techniques and plans for
reporting on learning progress to all
stakeholders.
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 5
was defined by the kind of instructional about something, what is the
techniques employed—group work, task “about something” that we are supposed
accomplishment, meaning negotiation, to teach? In most academic situations,
caring and sharing, and so forth. So, CLT language teachers are neither invited nor
focused on knowledge considerations— equipped to use a second language to
notions and functions (Wilkins teach mathematics, science, history,
1976)—in Phase 1; learner physical education, or other traditional
considerations—learner needs academic content areas. Some teach, in a
specification (Munby 1979)—in Phase 2; second language, content, such as
and instructional considerations—task- astrology that does not compete with the
based instruction (Prabhu 1987)—in Phase academic curriculum. This brings its own
3. CLT is still seeking an integrated set of problems. If content is
realization of these considerations. inherent in language use, and if
As the diagram suggests, methodology content-based approaches to language
or methods represents only a small subset learning and teaching seem to promise
of those considerations in the area I more effective routes to second language
have labeled “Instructional.” The view mastery, then we must ask ourselves
proposed in this section is that we now what content is best for the language
require a methodology designed in class. The natural content for language
consonance with other instructional people is language itself and
considerations, just as these instructional literature. We are beginning to see
considerations need to be in consonance a resurgence of interest in literature and in
with the other three elements of the KILA the topic of language as “the basic
Model. human technology,” as sources of content
Despite some early proposals in respect in language teaching. More such attention
to the curriculum developmental view will develop in the future.
for language education (e.g., Richards The second question is “How
1984) and some more recent texts on much content?” As in other ELT
this topic (e.g., Johnson 1989; Brown matters, there is often a polar, all-or-
1996), the curriculum development nothing approach to content-based
perspective in language education, approaches. Often there is a hidden
particularly in methodology, has been assumption that language learning gains
rarely mentioned and is unformed in are only appreciable when content blocks
conceptualization. comprise entire courses or blocks of
courses, as in immersion or sheltered
Content-Basics
immersion teaching. However, much
The Content-Basics perspective assumes shorter blocks of interesting, meaning-
that language learning is a by-product of structured units are also highly productive
a focus on meaning—on acquiring in language learning.
some specific topical content. This view Samuel Johnson (1755), in the
has supporters who hold that to teach discussion of his plan for the famous Johnson
language as if it were a set of patterns dictionary, provides persuasive support for
or rules or interactions apart from the use of individual sentences as
content is not only misguided, but content blocks. A major feature of the
impossible (Crandall 1997). Johnson dictionary was the set of sentence
Content-based instruction has not quotations accompanying each word
adequately addressed two key questions, entry. These provided “special
which future ELT teachers must address. precedents” drawn from great
These questions are “What content?” writers. Johnson considered these
and “How much content?” sentences as necessary and
A late 20th century maxim of sufficient contexts to exemplify the
language teaching was “Don’t teach about best use of word entries in speech and
language, teach language.” Content-based writing. Johnson’s practice of using
instruction proponents say, “Don’t sentence citations to show word
teach a second language, teach meaning became standard for most of the
content in a second language.” But major English dictionaries. So sentences, as
language appears to be the natural content Johnson proved, can be interesting, useful,
for language teachers to teach. If we are and content-rich.
not to teach about language (e.g., The centrality of L2 input as the
grammar), but are to teach content driving force in language development is a
 product of

6 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
the comprehensibility, interest, authenticity, with follow-up inquiry by language educators
and relevance of the input to the learner. (see, e.g., Christison 1998). Gardner claims
Sentences and longer texts can be judged his view of intelligence (or intelligences) is
against these criteria. Consider the following culture-free and avoids the conceptual
sentences of somewhat parallel narrowness usually associated with models of
grammatical structure in terms of these intelligence (e.g., the Intelligence Quotient,
criterial attributes. IQ testing model). The chart below shows
Gardner’s eight native intelligences and
suggests classroom activities that parallel
each of these particular intelligences.
However, most teachers cannot create
eight learning centers in their classes to
accommodate the diversity of talents in
their students. If the only intent of such
The first sentence is comprehensible but schema is to raise teacher awareness of
not authentic, interesting, or relevant. learner diversity and interest and to
Sentence two is comprehensible and encourage teachers to plan instructional
authentic. Sentence three is diversity in keeping with this awareness,
comprehensible, authentic, and interesting this goal is reasonable. But is it enough?
(at least to me). As noted, the Multiple Intelligences
My point is that the relationship between Model is one of a number of models of
content sized words, sentences, texts, student learning styles. The challenge for
courses, programs, and degrees of language the future consists of determining the
learning are still unknown. Until the data validity of these models for LL, developing
are clearer, we might well follow the tenet, sensitive yet practical means for assessing
“Every bit of content helps.” That is, every individual learning styles, and finding
use of meaningful, relevant input realistic ways in which such information
contributes to language development. This can provide more effective LL experiences
means that when educators choose or to the full range of learners within the
create any materials for language teaching constraints that define most of the world’s
practice, these materials need to be ELT classes.
interestingly content-rich.
Total functional response
Multi-intelligencia
I offer this somewhat tongue-in-cheek
The framework here is borrowed from designation for a reemerging interest in
Howard Gardner (1983), who proposed a functional foci in LT methodology.
view of natural human talents that is Wilkins’s (1976) earlier Notional/Functional
labeled the Multiple Intelligences Model. proposals met with a number of
This model is one of a variety of learning criticisms (e.g., Widdowson 1979, Long
style models that have been proposed in and Crookes 1993).
general education

Intelligence Type Appropriate Educational Activities

Linguistic: lectures, worksheets, word games, journals,
debates Logical: mathematical: puzzles, estimations, problem
solving Spatial: charts, graphic organizers, drawing, films
Bodily: “hands-on,” mime, craft, demonstrations
Musical: singing, poetry, Jazz Chants, mood
music Interpersonal: group work, peer tutoring, class projects
Intrapersonal: reflection, interest centers, personal values tasks
Naturalist: field trips, show and tell, plant/animal projects
(Adapted from Christison, personal communication, 1998)
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 7
However, new leads in discourse and genre universal than grammar patterns, and thus
analysis, schema theory, pragmatics, and some positive transfer can be expected
Hallidayan systemic/functional grammar between L1 and L2 text structure. Most
anticipate a return to the foreground of influential, however, seems to be the link
functionally based approaches to language between form and function at the text level.
teaching. The general relationship between Knowing the form of a sentence will not tell
language functions and text genres can be a person much about its meaning. Knowing
sampled in my adaptation of a model of the form of a text will tell the reader
language functions proposed by Roman considerable about the kind of meaningful
Jakobson (1960) (See below). Jakobson material likely and not likely to be included
claims that there are six elements involved in the text. Thus, I anticipate increased
in any communication act and that attention to language functions, genre, and
associated with each element there is a text types in both L1 and L2 instruction.
focus function. For example, if the focus in
communication of any message is Strategopedia
predominantly on the message sender, the One of the objections noted to methods
function is likely to be an emotive function as a focus of methodology is that methods
(how I feel about this). are seen as too top-down and too
One pedagogical proposal has led to a insensitive to learner interests and needs.
widespread recasting of the first and second The most clearly learner-centered approach
language program in Australian schools sees the learner as the initiator of the act of
built around text genre. Students are taught learning. To prepare learners to assume this
both reading and writing within the new role, a school of practice has
framework of five basic text genres developed with the purpose of equipping
identified as report, procedure, learners with appropriate learning strategies
explanation, exposition, and recount. to take on responsibility for self- direction
This increased interest in pedagogical and a teaching approach directed to this goal
treatment of functional text types is, in part, called learner training (LT). The claim for
due to increased attention to top- down Strategopedia to be a new force in LT
processing in reading and listening. If methodology is clearly framed by Holec
students are aware of the type of text they (1995:265), who maintains that “to teach
are reading or listening to, they are better the learner to learn, that is to enable him to
able to predict text sequence and text carry out the various steps which make
content. It also appears that text types up the
may be more
8 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
learning process, is considered the best theme of the future.
way of ensuring that learning takes
place.”
A number of taxonomies of learner
strategies have been proposed, most of
which have considerable overlap, one
with the other. Oxford’s categorization was
one of the first proposed and is
arguably the best known. Oxford (1990)
posits the six kinds of strategies as shown
in the diagram.
Such strategies include, at the most
basic level, memory tricks, and at higher
levels, cognitive and metacognitive
strategies for learning, thinking,
planning, and self- monitoring. Research
findings suggest that strategies can indeed
be taught to language learners, that
learners will apply these strategies in
language learning tasks, and that such
application does produce significant
gains in language learning (see, e.g.,
O’Malley and Chamot 1990).
For example, the researched and
highly successful Keyword Technique is a
memory strategy that supports the learning
of L2-L1 vocabulary pairs through visual
imagery. Consider this L2-L1 pair: pato
(Sp.) = duck (Eng.). A verbal link might be
made between the Spanish L2 item pato
and the English sound-alike pot. Then a
visual image is created that links pot with
the English L1 meaning duck, in this case
a duck wearing a pot for a helmet or a duck
crying while being cooked in a pot.
Through the keyword link pot learners
quickly associate pato = duck. Such
methods tested in some 600 published
studies have often proved three to four
times as efficient as alternative
techniques for storing and retrieving L2-L1
as well as L1-L2 vocabulary pairs.
However, this and other strategies
contradict the long-held axioms of
language learning which hold that
vocabulary should be learned in context
and that memory tricks will interfere with
fluency and ultimately with ability to
acquire advanced competence in L2. Some
of language teaching’s most favored
commandments will quietly
disappear in the near future in order to
support institutionally sanctioned training
of learner strategies, such as the
Keyword Technique. More generally,
increasing emphasis on learning training
in course books, curriculum design, and
teacher training suggests that Learning
Training will be a major methodology
 have never produced or heard previously. In
contrast, the lexical phraseology view
holds that only “a minority of spoken
clauses are entirely novel creations” and
that “memorized clauses and clause-
sequences form a high proportion of the
fluent stretches of speech heard in every
day conversation…. The number of

Lexical phraseology
Lexical
phraseolo
gy is memorized complete clauses and
based on sentences known to the mature English
an speaker probably amounts, at least,
alternative to several hundreds of thousands”
view to the (Pawley and Syder 1983).
Chomskian The large-scale computer studies
premise of language corpora, such as the Cobuild
that study at Birmingham University, have
sentence examined such patterns of phrase
creation is and clause sequences as they appear
largely in samples of various kinds of texts,
innovative, including spoken samples. The Cobuild
and any corpus comprises over 200 million words
model of online. Studies of lexical collocation
language based on these corpora have provided
must hard data to support the speculative
account for inquiries into lexical phraseology
the of researchers such as Pawley and
capacity of Syder (1983). For language teachers, the
every results of such inquiries have led to
human conclusions like those of James Nattinger
being to (1980:341):
create and “Perhaps we should base our teaching
interpret on the assumption that, for a great deal of
sentences the time anyway, language production
that they consists of piecing together the ready-
made units

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 9
 appropriate for a particular situation and this search will be one of the major LT
that comprehension relies on knowing enterprises of the coming decades.
which of these patterns to predict in these
situations. Our teaching, therefore, would O-zone Whole Language
center on these patterns and the ways they Whole Language has been a major
can be pieced together, along with the ways theme of language arts (L1) instruction in
they vary and the situations in which they United States schools for the past two
occur.” decades, and more recently has been of
If, indeed, the mature English speaker some interest to ELT educators (Rigg 1991)
knows “several hundreds of thousands” of and the subject of considerable discussion.
such ready-made expressions, what should Whole Language advocates appear to share
the language teacher and learner do in the view that language education should
response to this knowledge? Is massive consider language in its broadest, most
memorization possible or recommended? Is varied sense and should incorporate literary
prolonged immersion in an L2 environment study, process writing, authentic content,
the only answer? and learner collaboration in language
The practical implications for language teaching. They feel that such foci make
teaching of these observations on the conscious attention to specific skill
repetitive habits of native speakers in their development undesirable and unnecessary.
speech and writing have only begun to be An alternative view of this phenomenon
explored. One author proposes an “L1/L2 is incorporated in the chart, “The Seven
contrastive approach” to the study of lexical A’s.” My claim here is that a more
collocations, suggesting that “the teaching of comprehensive view of language assists the
lexical collocations in EFL should language learner in grasping what language
concentrate on items for which there is no is and what the broadest goals of language
direct translational equivalence in English learning are, thereby helping the learner
and in the learners’ respective mother attain these goals. Fuller development of
tongues” (Bahns 1993). these ideas is found in Rodgers (1979).
Some ideas for grouping and sequencing Renewed interest in some type of “focus
lexical phrases and clauses for L2 study on form” has been a major theme in second
have been offered (e.g., Willis 1990; language acquisition (SLA) research in the
Hunston, Francis, and Manning 1997; last decade. Variously labeled as
Lewis 1993). However, these are consciousness-raising, noticing, attending,
preliminary proposals and do not adequately enhancing input, and so forth, it asserts that
address the enormity of the learning task students will not learn what they are not
that earlier-quoted commentaries suggest. aware of. One approach is to bring more
Lexical phraseology is an approach in search language focus to bear on literary texts
of a methodology, and through the use of parallel texts or
comparative translations. Comparative study

ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION (THE SEVEN A’s)

AspectInstructional focus
Language as abilitiesTool skills: reading, writing, listening, speaking

Language as art Literature, creative writing

Language as artifact Structure of English History of English

Language as analysis Problem solving, critical linguistics

Language as acculturation Interpersonal/intercultural Understanding/communication

Language as affect Intrapersonal understanding Humanistic, self-awareness

Language as activation Communication competence Persuasion to action

of two English translations of the same

short story is an example of parallel texts.
 Study of the two translations highlights contrasts in the linguistic partner might act as presenter/interpreter of
choices made by the translators and the responses made to these the other. A short example follows:
choices by the student as reader. Ultimately, students might Parallel Texts: Opening sentences from two
compose one or more texts of their own, which would parallel in translations of a Korean short story.
some way the texts examined. In pairs, one student might act as
1a. “Cranes” by Hwang Sun-Won
presenter/interpreter of one of the two short story translations, and a
(translated by Kevin O’Rourke)

10 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
 “The village on the northern side of “We communicate so
the 38th Parallel frontier was ever so
quiet and desolate beneath the high, clear
autumn sky. White gourds leaned on white
gourds as they swayed in the yard of an
empty house.”
1b. “The Crane” by Hwang Sun-Won
(translated by Kim Se-young)
“The northern village at the border of
the 38th Parallel was ever so snug under
the bright high autumn sky. In the space
between the two main rooms of the empty
farm house, a white empty gourd was
lying against another white empty
gourd.”
Examples of student activities based on
parallel texts.
Think of the village as described in 1a
and 1b as two different villages. Which
one would you choose to live in? Why?
Write an opening sentence of a short
story in which you briefly introduce the
village of 1a as it might appear in winter
rather than autumn.
Sentences A and B draw pictures of
the positions of the white gourds in the
text. What language influenced the
positioning of the gourds?

Full-frontal communicativity
A number of commentators have
reminded us that what linguists concern
themselves with represents only a very
small part of human communication. John
Lotz, an early director of the Center for
Applied Linguistics, often quoted “the
fact” that language constituted only 1
percent of the information in human
speech. Lotz (1963) identified rhythm,
speed, pitch, intonation, timbre, and
hesitation phenomena as the more
important meaning-bearers in speech. One
study done in the United States showed
that in the communication of attitudes, 93
percent of the message was transmitted by
the tone of the voice and by facial
expression, whereas only 7 percent of
the speaker’s attitude was transmitted by
words (Mehrabian and Ferris 1967).
Another researcher noted that “teachers
find it hard to believe that the average
American speaks for only 10–11 minutes a
day, and that more than 65% of the social
meaning of a typical two-person exchange
is carried by nonverbal cues” (Birdwhistle
1974).
Recent commentators in
language teaching have echoed these
earlier messages. Brown reminds us that
much ground of human communication. The
informati contexts for this consideration are framed
on non- in a diagram entitled “Communication
verbally Circles” that comprises a set of ten
in concentric circles with increasingly larger
conversatio circles representing increasingly more
ns that comprehensive views of communication
often the phenomena.
verbal Within each circle are phenomena
aspect of with assigned communicative
the intent. To understand the role of the
conversati phenomena in the inner rings in
on is communication, and particularly how
negligible these might be organized for second
” (Brown language instruction, we need all the
1994a). help we can get. Several 20th
Despite century methodologists have begun to
these explore the relationship between language
cautions, and some of these other
language communicative aspects. A major
teaching challenge will be finding the teaching
has techniques and instructional time for
traditionally
integrating such insights into the LT
chosen to
restrict its
attention to
the
linguistic
component
of human
intercourse,
even when
the
approach is
labeled classroom.
“Communi
cative.”
In
reflecting
on the Language = Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, etc.
future of Speech = Tone, Hesitation, Speed, etc.
Face-to-Face Communication = Expression, Gesture, Distance, etc.
LT
Language-Based Communication = Writing, Codes, Deaf Sign Language, etc.
methodolog Human Communication Systems = Hula, Indian Sign Language, etc.
y, I have Human Communication = Film, Music, Painting, etc.
attempted Communication = Animal Communication, Extraterrestrial Communication, etc.
to survey Behavior = Motion, Eating, Reproducing, etc.
this wider Natural Phenomena = Storms, Eclipses, Droughts, etc.
Supernatural Phenomena = Ghosts, Levitation, Mesmerism, etc.

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 11
Conclusion Long, M., and G. Crookes. 1993. Three
In this article, I have provided an approach- es to task-based syllabus design.
overview of ten potential paths that ELT TESOL Quar- terly, 26, pp. 27–55.
teachers might find themselves traveling in Lotz, J. 1963. On speech. Word, 21, 2.
McCarthy, 1984. The 4Mat learning/teaching
the opening years of the new millennium. I styles system. New York: Learning Press.
know that teachers will be blazing many Mehrabian, A., and S. Ferris. 1967. Inference of
new trails of their own, and I encourage you attitudes from nonverbal communication in two
all to share your experiences with your channels. Journal of Consulting Psychology,
colleagues. 31, pp. 248–252.
Munby, J. 1979. Communicative syllabus design.
References Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nattinger, J. 1980. A lexical phrase grammar for
Bahns, J. 1993. Lexical collocations: A contrastive ESL. TESOL Quarterly, 14, pp. 337–344.
view. ELT Journal, 7, 1, pp. 56–63. Nunan, D. 1988. Syllabus design. Oxford: Oxford
Birdwhistle, R. 1974. The language of the body:
University Press.
The natural environment of words. In Human
——. 1991. Language teaching methodology: A
communication: Theoretical explorations. Ed.
A. Silverstein. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. textbook for teachers. New York: Prentice Hall.
Boorstin, D. 1992. The creators: A history of heroes O’Malley, J., and Chamot, A. 1990. Learning
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Brown, H. 1994a. Principles of language learning bridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Hall Regents. What every teacher should know. New York:
——. 1994b. Teaching by principles: Newbury House/Harper Row.
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Christison, M. 1998. Applying multiple intelli- Schmidt. London: Longman.
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Freeman, D. 1992. Language teacher education, emerg- Rigg, P. 1991. Whole language in TESOL. TESOL
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Grammar and vocabulary: Showing the connec- ——. 1990. After methods, what? In Language
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12 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
Note: Technologists have been predicting the This article was originally published in the
disappearance of the textbook for almost a April 2000 issue.
century. In 1912, Thomas Edison boasted,
“I am spending more than my income
[on] getting up a set of 6,000 films to teach
the 19 million children in the schools of the
United States to do away entirely with
books.” Maybe in the next hundred years it
will come to pass.

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 3 13
 A Study Guide for: Methodology in the New

Millennium Article by Ted Rodgers

Study Guide by Keneisha Murrell

From English Language Teaching Forum, 2003, Volume 41, Number 4 Retrieved 5 January 2018 from:

https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/03-41-4-a.pdf (Links to an external site.)Links

to an external site.

Glossary

 Collaboration: the action of working together to create something.

 Synergy: different things working together to create something greater.
 Curriculum: all the courses of study in a school or college.
 Functional: having a useful purpose.
 Strategy: a plan of action designed to achieve a goal.
 Lexical: relating to the words or vocabulary of a language.
 Phraseology: choice of words or phrase.
 Comparative: comparing two or more subjects.
 Communicative: relating to the exchange of information.

Overview

During the 20th century, many new teaching methods were suggested by researchers and educators.
Then, toward the end of the century there was a shift away from focusing on methods that some
describe as a period of “post-method thinking” (Woodward, 1996). As we try to predict future trends in
second language teaching methods, here are ten possible areas that educators may focus on.

What will language teaching methods look like in the future?

Rodgers’ Ten Predictions:

1. Teacher/Learner Collaboration (Match-making):

As teachers plan instruction they will consider the role of the learner and the role of the
teacher that is seen in each method (see chart on p. 3). Then, they can simply choose the
methods that match their own teaching style and the learning styles of their students.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). A Study Guide for: Methodology in the
1 New Millennium for the AE-E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and
administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License,
except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
2. Method Synergistics:
Though different, the various teaching methods do share ideas in common. The second part of
the Big B’s of Language chart (p. 4) shows beliefs that influence the classroom. First, teachers
will choose a belief they value. Then they can join together the different methods associated
with that belief for better language learning instruction.
(e.g. Biography  sharing personal stories and interests  CLT, CLL)

3. Curriculum Developmentalism:
To develop an educational curriculum all the elements of the KILA model will be considered.
K – Knowledge Points about what language is, details about the chosen content and topics, and
the expected answers students will give.
I – Instructional Points that include ideas from teachers and staff, methods, materials, programs,
scheduling, and plans for reporting progress.
L – Learner Points that include the age and proficiency level of learners in addition to their prior
learning experiences, learning styles, and other factors.
A – Administrative Points are related to the choice of models for instruction, selecting teachers
and learners, reviewing teacher performance, etc.

4. Content-Basics:
If language is learned as a result of focusing on the content or meaning of a given topic, future
teachers will have to ask the questions “What content should we focus on?” and “How much
content should we use?” More attention will be given to using literature and language as
sources of content. Even small bits of content like sentences can be useful if they are
interesting and understandable.

5. Multi-Intelligencia:
The Multiple Intelligences Model (Gardner, 1983) helps to raise teacher sensitivity of the
differences in student learning styles and to encourage the use of various instructional activities.
Future teachers will have to make decisions about the usefulness of learning style models and
how they can be used to provide improved language learning experiences.

6. Total Functional Response:

There will be an increase in attention to the function, or purpose of the language text used in
reading and listening. There are six elements of communication and each element has a function
(see chart on p.8). For example, the function of the sender element is to express emotion (e.g.
love notes). The function of the composition element is to express creativity (e.g. poems). This is
important because:
 If students are aware of the function of text they are reading or listening to, they
are better able to predict its content and meaning.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
  Languages may have very different grammar patterns, but usually have similar types of
text functions (letters, recipes, stories). This similarity in function can lead to positive
knowledge transfer from L1 to L2.

7. Strategopedia:
There will be a greater focus on preparing students to take a leading role in their own learning
experience by equipping them with learning strategies. The teacher’s role becomes to teach the
learner how to learn (learner training (LT)). The Keyword Technique is an example of a memory
strategy that can be used to connect L2-L1 vocabulary pairs.

8. Lexical Phraseology:
This view says that very few clauses spoken by language learners are new, but are memorized
clauses they have learned from L2 conversation. Teaching should center on these ready-made
clauses or patterns of word use and how they can be put together in new ways for different
situations. Teachers of the future will find ways to create a method from this view.

9. O-zone Whole Language:

Whole language describes the belief that language education should consider a wider
understanding of language that includes the study of literature, process writing, and using real-
life content. This wider view of language helps learners to understand what language is and
what the greater goals of language learning are, so they can achieve them. However, those who
support a “focus on form” approach believe that students will not learn forms if they do not
know they exist. Activities such as comparative translation will help teachers to bring together a
focus on literature and language form.

10. Full-frontal Communicativity:

John Lotz (1963) believed that only 1 percent of human speech is made up of language.
Rhythm, speed, tone of voice, and other elements also communicate meaning. Many teachers
are surprised to learn that in American speech, 65% of the meaning in a two-person
conversation is shared without words (Birdwhistle, 1974). A challenge for the teachers of the
future will be to find the teaching strategies and the class time to consider these other
elements of communication.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
References

Birdwhistle, R. 1974. The language of the body: The natural environment of words. In Human
communication: Theoretical explorations. Ed. A. Silverstein. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books Inc.

Lotz, J. 1963. On speech. Word, 21, 2.

Woodward, T. 1996. Paradigm shift and the language teaching profession. In Challenge and change in
language teaching. Eds. J. Willis and D. Willis. Oxford: Heinemann English Language Teaching, pp. 4–9.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
3.4.1 Quiz: Methods and Approaches
Now that you have had a chance to learn more about language teaching methods, test your
knowledge on this self-quiz. The quiz will focus on the Lecture and the Reading from this
module.
This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want to. Your highest score will
count. Please note that you will need to earn at least 7 points to move on in the Module.
This quiz must be completed online.

3.5 Lecture: Language Teaching Principles

English Language Teaching in the Post-Method Era
Approaches Replace Methods
In the past, teachers used different methods to teach their students (see previous lecture under
3.3). Now teachers use different approaches that are based on their own judgement or
experience. Here are some principles that Brown identifies.

Brown’s Teaching Principles

70
© 2019 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. TESOL Methodology MOOC, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Cognitive principles focus on the way we think. Some of the things we need to consider are
 automaticity - students become fluent if they don't overanalyze language forms
 intrinsic motivation - students also need to be motivated from inside and not just outside
(reward)
 anticipation of reward - students are better motivated if is there is a reward (good grade,
teacher compliment, etc.)
 meaningful learning - students learn new information better if it is related to previous
knowledge
 strategic investment - students need to invest time and language learning strategies in the
language learning process in order to be successful

Affective principles focus on our emotions. Some of these emotions are our
 language ego - the new language can create some confusion in some learners
 risk taking - students need to take risks and experiment with the language slightly "beyond" what
is certain to promote language growth
 language-culture connection - students need to understand cross-cultural differences
 self-confidence - students need to be confident with the new language

Linguistic principles focus on the language. Some of these ideas include

 native language effect - students’ native language can help them learn the new language better,
but it can also slow down the learning process
 interlanguage - students go through a systematic developmental process as they become more
competent in the target language
 communicative competence - students need to be able to use the language to communicate
with other people

Brown’s Advice for Language Teaching

Based on these principles, here are some things every teacher needs to consider before starting
to teach a new group of students.
Diagnosis - What are the characteristics and needs of the teaching context?

 Country of the learning institution

 Socioeconomic and educational background of the learners
 Purpose for learning English (social, political, institutional)
 Motivation for learning English

Treatment - What learning techniques will help students meet their language goals?

 controlled practice - drills

 semi controlled practice - information gap activities
 free practice - role plays, interviews
 group work - whole group, small group, pair work

7
Assessment - How will we know what students know and can do? What evidence and
assessments will tell us this?

 performance-based assessments - measure students' ability to apply the skills and knowledge they
have learned from a unit
 formative assessments - obtain a picture of learning that allows for pedagogical changes during an
instructional unit
 summative assessments - evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit

Find a more detailed handout on Brown's Principles on the following page.

Reference:
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your
personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, H. D. (2002). English language teaching in the “post-methods” era: Toward better diagnosis, treatment, and
assessment. In J.C. Richards & W. A. Renanyda (Eds.), Methods in Language Teaching. (pp. 9-18). New York, NY:
Cambridge.

7
 English Language Teaching in the Post-Method Era

Approach Replacing Method

Throughout the 20th century, teachers used different methods (such as grammar translation,
direct, audiolingual, etc.) to teach L2 to students. Method is the overall presentation of
language material based on the different language theories. Brown makes frequent references
to the death of methods - “we lay to rest . . . methods” (p. 11), “recently interred methods” (p.
14), “requiem for methods” (p. 17), suggesting that we are now in a Post-Method era where he
puts the emphasis on approach. The important thing that we need to keep in mind is that this
approach does not have to be the same for every teacher. Teachers need to be flexible in their
approach and adapt to learners’ needs. They also need to be able to use these approaches
flexibly and creatively based on their own judgement and experience. Brown identifies 12
principles that we need to keep in mind when teaching languages.

Brown’s Teaching Principles

The cognitive principles focus on mental and intellectual functions. For example, the idea of
meaningful learning is that students learn new information that is related to previous
knowledge. In other words, when a new topic is introduced, teachers can help the students to
associate this topic with what they already know. Teachers can appeal to students’ interests,
academic goals, and career goals. Humans are motivated to act, behave, and work better if

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). English Language Teaching in the Post-Method Era
for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
there is an anticipation of reward. According to Brown, immediate rewards in a classroom
from the teacher (compliments, supportive actions, grades) can be very effective. On the other
hand, language learners need to have intrinsic motivation that comes from inside of an
individual/student rather than outside rewards. The idea is that students will perform tasks
because they are fun, useful, or challenging, and not because they anticipate some reward
from the teacher.

The affective principles focus on emotional involvement. When students learn a second
language, they also develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and possibly acting – almost like a
second identity. Brown calls this principle language ego. This new ego (self) can create
confusion in some learners. That is why it is very important for students to have self-
confidence, so that they can succeed in the new language. Whenever you as a teacher teach a
new language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of
thinking, feeling, and acting. Brown calls this principle the language-culture connection. One
aspect of this principle is to discuss crosscultural differences with the students and to
emphasize the importance of understanding these cultural differences. Another aspect is to see
how the students will be affected by acculturation (a process through which a person or group
from one culture comes to adopt practices and values of another culture, while still retaining
their own distinct culture). How much students adapt to the new culture will affect the success
of their language learning process.

The linguistic principles focus on language itself and how students deal with complex linguistic
systems. Students’ native language (L1) has a strong influence on learning the target language
(L2). This is the native language effect. Students’ native language can help or hinder the
learning process. The most significant disadvantage of L1 is that many beginner students think
that L2 operates like L1 and they will produce errors because of this. Brown’s final principle is
communicative competence, which states that it is very important to give equal attention to
organizational (grammar and discourse), pragmatic (functional and sociolinguistic), strategic
(recognize and repair communication breakdowns), and psychomotor competencies. In other
words, teachers should always try and combine these competencies for successful classroom
instruction.

Brown’s Prescription for Language Teaching

Based on these principles, here are some things every teacher needs to consider before
starting to teach a new group of students.

Diagnosis - assess the “situational” needs or context of teaching

• Country of the learning institution

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
 • Socioeconomic and educational background of the learners
• Purpose for learning English (social, political, institutional)
• Motivation for learning English
Treatment - select learning techniques to achieve learning aims
• controlled practice - drills
• semi controlled practice - information gap activities
• free practice - role plays, interviews
• group work - whole group, small group, pair work

Assessment - develop formative assessments to obtain a picture of learning that allows for
pedagogical changes mid-course
• performance-based assessment
• summative assessment

Reference:

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course
ends.

Brown, H. D. (2002). English language teaching in the “post-methods” era: Toward better
diagnosis, treatment, and assessment. In J.C. Richards & W. A. Renanyda (Eds.), Methods in
language Teaching. (pp. 9-18). New York, NY: Cambridge.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
3.5.1 Activity: Applying Language Teaching Principles

Test your knowledge on this self-quiz about different teaching methods and
assessments. The quiz will focus on the Lecture about Brown's Principles.
This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want to. Your highest
score will count. Please note that you will need to earn at least 7 points to move on in
the Module.
This activity must be completed online.

3.6 Culture Spotlight: Cross-Cultural Differences in Teaching

Methods

In this culture spotlight, we will focus on different norms and behaviors in American
classrooms.

American Classroom Norms and Behaviors

Directions: There are many cultural differences in both teaching and learning English. In the
United States, students might do things differently than in your own culture. Read the following
examples of cultural norms that are typical of classrooms in the United States. As you read
them, think of some of the methods discussed in this module that would be challenging to use
in other cultures (maybe even in yours). There is an optional discussion board following this
reading where you will reflect on culture and teaching methods.
80
© 2019 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. TESOL Methodology MOOC, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Calling teacher by their name instead of "teacher"
Students commonly call the teacher by their prefix and their last name (e.g., Mr. Smith, Ms.
Gold) or their title (Dr. Smith, Professor Gold). It is viewed as impersonal to call them simply
"Teacher" or "Miss/Sir."

Facilitating the learning environment

Teachers are not always the only deliverers of knowledge in American classrooms. Students are
encouraged to share their own knowledge and experience and contribute to discussions.
Teachers often facilitate students in solving problems in small groups and pairs as a way to
move them toward independence.

Being comfortable in a mixed gender groups

Pair and group work is commonly used during classroom instruction. When creating these
groups, teachers often create mixed gender groups as students commonly interact with their
peers across gender. Teachers don't usually have to consider student comfort level related to
mixed gender groups, except when working with adolescents (teenagers developing into
adults).

Making mistakes
It is generally culturally acceptable to make mistakes, and students are encouraged to use them
as a learning opportunity. There is even a saying that "We all learn from our mistakes."

Making eye contact

In general, making eye contact is a sign of respect and it shows that the person is paying
attention to the speaker. Teachers and parents may say, "Look at me when I'm talking to you."
This may vary among some cultural groups within the U.S., so being culturally sensitive to
student behaviors is important.

8
Asking questions
Students are encouraged to ask questions in the classroom not only when they don't
understand something but also to expand their learning. It's OK if the teacher doesn't know the
answer; they can find out together.

Engaging in debates/discussions
In the US, students are usually encouraged to share their opinion, even if it is different from the
others'. Classroom teachers value critical thinking, and want students to be independent
thinkers and problem solvers. They may be asked to support these opinions with evidence, and
be willing to take some risks in sharing what they think, even if it is not "correct." Other
students may offer additional thoughts that help them further develop their opinion. Students
are also encouraged to debate and critique situations in order to find the best solution.

3.7 Lecture: Backward Design and Lesson Planning

“Backwards Design” by Tiera Day licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. for use in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the US Department of State

Lesson Planning
A lesson plan is a written outline for one class period that contains objectives for what the
students will know and be able to do at the end of a lesson. It also describes how students will
be evaluated on what was learned in the class period. The plan describes how learning will be
organized. In a successful lesson all the elements (i.e., objectives, language standards, learning
outcomes, and assessment components) are connected.
There are many reasons for planning lessons. They include:

8
“Reasons for Planning Your Lessons" by University of the Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Links to an external site.for use in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

In our lecture above we looked at several elements of a good lesson plan and discussed that
good lesson plans should include. Lesson planning should start with identifying desired
outcomes. Good lesson plans should include measurable objectives, tasks/activities and
methods, and assessments/evaluations.
Remember - it is important to make sure that your objectives are SMART objectives!
To make sure that happens, answer the following questions for each objective:

 What do you want to accomplish?

 How are you going to accomplish it?
 What steps and activities will you take to accomplish your objective?
 How will you facilitate students' learning?
 How you will measure your objective(s)?
 What evidence will you have to demonstrate that learning has taken place?


o

Next, let's discuss your lesson evaluation or how to make sure your lesson's objectives were
achieved and that your lesson was successful.

Lesson Evaluation
It is important to evaluate your lesson and reflect on it to make sure that your lesson:

8
 Your lesson reached its objectives
 Your students gained desired outcomes
 Your tasks and activities were relevant and appropriate.

To successfully evaluate your lesson, consider asking yourself what, when, why, and how to
evaluate your lesson.

What to evaluate?

Why evaluate your lesson?

8
When should you evaluate the lesson?

How to evaluate your lesson?

1) You can evaluate your lesson by asking yourself some of the following questions:

Reflect on your Lesson Plan Reflect on your Lesson Reflect on your Students' Gains

Did most of the students reach your

Were you able to follow your lesson Which tasks/activities worked well
lesson's objectives? Did they learn
plan? and which did not?
what you planned for them to learn?

Did the teaching methods and

Did students have challenges with
Did you have to make unplanned strategies you used work well (e.g.,
learning? If so, what were they? Why
changes? pair/group work, fluency circles,
did they have those challenges?
etc.)?

Were the parts of your lesson (i.e., What tools did you use to assess your
Were most of your students
objectives, tasks/activities, students? Were those tools effective?
engaged? If not, then why?
assessments) well aligned? Were they outcome driven?

Would you use the similar tools to

How would you plan your lesson better Was the lesson well paced? Did you
assess students in the future or will
next time? have enough time for everything?
you revise them?

2) You can also evaluate your lesson by asking your students to reflect on your lesson. To do
that, you can end the lesson with specific questions for students:

 What was today’s lesson about?

 What part was easy?

8
 What part was difficult?
 What changes would you suggest to make learning better?

Train students to tell you what they learned in class today. It will give your feedback and
information on how your lesson went, it will give your students opportunities to think and
reflect, and it will also further help your students develop their cognitive and metacognitive
skills/
Remember:
"The success with which a teacher conducts a lesson is often thought to depend on
the effectiveness with which the lesson was planned.” (Richards, 1998)

Additional Resources:
Visit the American English Teaching Corner for additional information on "Backwards Design
and the Alignment of Assessments"
You will find the summary of this article and its full version on the following pages.

References (Copyright):

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Richards, J.C. (1998). Beyond training. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Pesce. C. (n.d.). ESL Teachers Ask: How Can I Evaluate if my Lesson was a Success? Retrieved
from Busy Teacher https://busyteacher.org/20364-successful-lesson-how-to-evaluate-esl-
teachers-ask.html (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

8
 BACKWARD DESIGN AND ALIGNMENT OF ASSESSMENTS

Great teachers spend a lot of time preparing for class. We examine our curriculum and plan our lessons,
being sure to incorporate activities that will engage our students and motivate them to learn. We gather
materials and even think about the exact words we will say in front of our class. We spend a lot of time
thinking about how a lesson will unfold, how to make the content relatable to our students, and who will
be doing what tasks in our classrooms. All of these things help us stay organized and keep learners on
task, but they do nothing to answer our most important question as educators: Are my students learning
what I am teaching?

PLANNING WITH THE END IN MIND

As educators, we have to know where we are taking our students, and we have to be sure we keep them
on track to get there. In order to really set a purpose for a lesson, we have to work backwards. When we
start planning, our first step must be to think about what our students should be able to do at the end of a
class, a lesson, or a unit. What will they be able to do after we have finished teaching? What skill should
they be able to demonstrate? What content should they prove that they retained?

The task or activity we use to measure this final goal is called a summative assessment. Summative
assessments are given after a set time period of instruction and aim to determine students’ mastery of
content (Cabral et al. 2007, 202). Setting a final, overarching goal and measuring it with a specific
assignment or task helps us be sure the activities we include along the way will help students meet that
goal. It also gives us a way to collect data that we can use to determine if our teaching was effective and if
our students learned what they were supposed to learn during a unit of study.

Let’s examine the following scenario. You are teaching your primary school students about the water
cycle in an English medium science class. At the end of the unit, you want your students to demonstrate
understanding of the five steps of the water cycle. How will you know for sure that your students have
learned this content?

Lesson planning that aims to collect data and prove that students have mastered content starts with a
plan for summative assessment. For more information about effective lesson planning, view the Shaping
the Way We Teach English Webinar Lesson Planning 101: Mapping Activities for a Clear Path to Learning.

americanenglish.state.gov
 ALIGNING SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS WITH LESSON GOALS

What will your students do at the end of this unit to show that they have, indeed, learned the five steps of
the water cycle and know what happens during each one? Let’s take a look at some possible ways of
assessing what they learned. As you read these, remember the goal and decide which summative
assessment does the best job of measuring whether students have met the goal.

● A. Draw an example of part of the water cycle you see in your own life. Write a few sentences to
tell what is happening and which part of the cycle it is.
● B. Label the steps of the water cycle on a worksheet with illustrations.
● C. Write a paragraph about why the water cycle is important and at least five different ways you
use water in your life.
● D. Arrange illustrations of each step of the water cycle correctly on a poster and label all of them.
Write a paragraph to explain the cycle, telling what happens in each step.

If we look back at the goal, “Demonstrate understanding of the five steps of the water cycle,” we can
analyze each of these potential assessment activities to see if they really measure what students were
supposed to learn. If we examine the wording of the goal, we can determine that the word demonstrate
means that students should produce or do something. The word understanding implies that they must do
more than simply remember the steps; they instead must show that they know what happens during each
of the five steps.

While activity A encourages students to recognize the water cycle in the context of their own lives, it does
not ask them to recall five steps or show that they know what happens during each one. The labeling
exercise in activity B only measures whether students remember vocabulary, not what takes place in the
steps of the water cycle. Activity C asks students to list ways they use water and why the cycle is
important, which does not show that they know the steps or how the cycle works. Activity D requires
students to correctly arrange the cycle, label it with vocabulary and then explain, in writing, what happens
in the cycle. If students can successfully complete activity D, it will prove that they have learned the
material and understand what happens in the five steps of the water cycle. Because it is aligned with the
goal, activity D is the best summative assessment task to determine whether students have learned the
content.

americanenglish.state.gov
This is one example of a summative assessment activity that fits with a particular scenario. Many school
districts, curriculum publishers, or education departments also create summative assessments, which are
often tests. While tests can certainly provide valuable numerical data about student learning or areas for
improvement, there are some more authentic tasks that also allow students to demonstrate their
knowledge. Next week, we will take a look at some more ideas for summative assignment tasks, using
rubrics to score them, and aligning the remainder of your lesson activities with your lesson goals.

Reference
Cabral, Robin, Socorro G. Herrera, and Kevin G. Murry. Assessment Accommodations for Classroom
Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students. First ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007.

americanenglish.state.gov
Summary of Backwards Design and Alignment of Assessments and Lesson Planning 101

Source: https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/teachers-corner-collecting-and-using-data#child-
1997

Study Guide by Yuliya Schmaltz

Overview. The most important thing in teaching is to make sure that students are learning what
teachers are teaching them. In other words, we need to always make sure that students are meeting the
lesson objectives that teachers set for them. This short article examines lesson assessments and the
importance of connecting these assessments to lesson goals.

Planning with the End in Mind. Teachers are responsible to taking students through instructional
process, keeping them on track, and assessing what they learned. What and how students learn is
determined by the objectives of the lesson or a unit. Objectives define what the students will know by
the end of learning, or they define desired outcomes. Therefore, it is important to start planning a
lesson with the end goal in mind or with first considering the outcomes. To do that, ask yourself the
following questions:

 What will my students be able to do after we have finished teaching?

 What skill should they be able to demonstrate?
 What content should they prove that they retained?

We use summative assessments to measure our lesson, unit or course outcomes. Summative
assessments are used after students were able to spend some time studying the lesson material. Such
assessments determine if students learned or mastered the concepts and skills taught in a lesson.
Several in between (or formative) assessments can be used prior to the final or summative assessments.
Such formative assessments help us gain information on how our students are doing and what
improvements can be done our lessons and lesson planning.

The authors offer this learning scenario to demonstrate how summative assessments can be set up with
lesson goals in mind.

The lesson involves elementary school students in a science class that is taught in English. The topic is
water cycle. The teacher’s learning goal for students is to demonstrate understanding of five steps if the
water cycle. How can the teacher make sure students have learned what he or she taught them?

1 ©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-
Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the
U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI
360
Aligning Summative Assessments with Lesson Goals

Here are some possible ways to ensure that the students have learned what their teacher taught them.
Teachers can ask students to:

 Draw a diagram of the water cycle they experience in their own or daily lives. Students can
also write what happens in each stage of this water cycle.
 Provide students with a worksheet which contains a diagram of the water cycle. Ask students
to label steps of the water cycle.
 Ask students to write a paragraph about the importance of the water cycle. As part of
the paragraph, ask them to list 3-5 ways they use water in their daily lives.
 Cut up the stages of the water cycle and ask students to line them up in order and provide
a description for every stage.

If you look back at the lesson goal, which was ‘Demonstrate understanding of five steps of the water
cycle’, you can see how each of these tasks and activities measures what your students are supposed to
learn. By doing these assessments, students should be able to demonstrate that they did not just
remember the steps of the water cyle, but that they also understand what happens in each step, why it
happens, and why it is important.

Reference

Cabral, Robin, Socorro G. Herrera, and Kevin G. Murry. Assessment Accommodations for Classroom
Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students. First ed. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon,
2007.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI
3.7.1 Optional Reading: A Ten-Step Process for
Developing Teaching Units
Please read this optional article if you would like to learn more about developing teaching units.

"A Ten-Step Process for Developing Teaching Units"

For a study guide of the Butler, Heslup and Kurth article click here.
To better address student needs, teachers are encouraged to use a backward-design approach
when developing curriculum. Rather than creating the curriculum with first selecting a
textbook, teachers are encouraged to think about what they want students to be able to do by
the end of the course. This design approach is a ten-step process and can be used for all types
of classes of any size.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context.
Bulter, G., Heslup, S., and Kurth, L. (2015). A Ten-Step Process for Developing Teaching
Units. English Teaching Forum, 53(3),2-12. (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

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GEOFFREY BUTLER, SIMON HESLUP, AND LARA KURTH
United States and Qatar

A Ten-Step Process for

Developing Teaching Units

C
urriculum design and implementation can be a daunting
process. Questions quickly arise, such as who is qualified to
design the curriculum and how do these people begin the
design process.
According to Graves (2008), in many contexts the design of the
curriculum and the implementation of the curricular product are
considered to be two mutually exclusive processes, where a
long chain of specialists including policy makers,
methodologists, and publishers produce the curriculum in a
hierarchical process, at the end of which lies the teacher.

The teacher’s role is to not be a suitable match for a

implement the course and use given classroom. Teachers
materials received from the may supplement such
specialists. One weakness of coursebooks with their own
this specialist materials for a variety of
model of curriculum design is a reasons, among which are
misalignment between materials concerns about
and the classroom in which they methodology, content,
are eventually implemented language, or the balance of
(Graves 2008). Common skills necessary to meet
examples of these sorts learning outcomes
of materials are the coursebooks (Cunningsworth 1995).
that many English as a foreign Coursebooks may also place
language (EFL) schools and a financial burden on
institutions rely on as the sole students and
basis of their course syllabus
(Cowling 2007).While
coursebooks can fit this role
adequately when they are a
suitable match for the context
and meet student needs,
issues of alignment arise when
they do not meet the needs of
the students and the goals of
the institution (Cowling 2007).

Mass-market coursebooks may

 teachers (Richards 2001) to the Kumaravadivelu (2001)
extent that they may be too advocates a postmethod
expensive for their target audience pedagogy where teachers
(Mack 2010).What, then, can “acquire and assert a fair degree
teachers do when faced with a of autonomy in pedagogic
mass-market coursebook not decision making” (548). He
specifically tailored to their argues for a pedagogy that “is
teaching context or possibly no responsive to and responsible
coursebook at all? The answer, for local individual, institutional,
based on our experience, is that social and cultural contexts in
teachers in either situation can act which learning and teaching
as curriculum designers take place” (Kumaravadivelu
themselves. 2003, 544).While teachers
should be aware of principles
There has been a movement in and practices from the field,
recent years by teacher- “they rely mostly on context-
practitioners to exert sensitive
greater agency over curriculum local knowledge to identify problems,
analysis and design (El-Okda 2005; find
Jennings and Doyle 1996). solutions and try them out to see what
works

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and what doesn’t in their specific curriculum development. Reflection
context” (Kumaravadivelu 2003, allows teachers
544). According to to avoid making decisions based on
Kumaravadivelu (2003), mere intuition, impulse, or routine
teachers would not only have (Richards 1990; Farrell 2012). For this
agency to create curriculum, but reason, we incorporated elements of
would be in a better position to the experiential learning cycle into our
address the concerns of the ten-step process. Without it, we would
students and the institution than not have been able to learn from our
would an international publisher. successes and mistakes and
make informed decisions on how to
From September 2011 to the revise and
present, a group of teachers at
the language center of a
national university in Seoul have
embraced their role as
curriculum developers and
collaborated on the creation,
implementation, and ongoing
development of a wholly
teacher-generated backward-
designed curriculum that targets
our students’ collective needs.
The curriculum is teacher-
generated in that we have
created all our teaching
materials without the use of
traditional coursebooks, and it is
backward- designed in that we
began by identifying needs and
learning outcomes before
making all other curricular
decisions. In the process of
implementing and continuing
this project, we have devised a
ten-step development process
(Butler, Heslup, and Kurth 2014),
based on
a backward-design approach to
curriculum
design, to facilitate the
creation and revision of five-
week teaching units for our
practical English conversation
courses.

As Kumaravadivelu (2001)
suggests, experimentation is
part of teaching. It can,
however, be frustrating if one
lacks a means with which to
process classroom experience
and use those experiences for
that was created and revised using the The ability of teachers to
process. create their own materials
We write this article in Teachers are fully capable of
the hope that this tool developing their own course
and our experiences curriculum (Graves 2000;
using it may help guide Jennings and Doyle 1996), and it
other educators who is preferable for them to
wish to design their own determine what does and does
teaching materials or not work through direct study of
units, either to the classroom itself
supplement an existing (Kumaravadivelu 2001;
curriculum or as the Kumaravadivelu 2003; Nunan
foundation for a new, 2004). At our language center,
completely teacher- teachers found that our
generated curriculum. coursebooks would meet some
needs well, some needs poorly,
MAIN ELEMENTS OF and some needs not at all.We
THE TEN-STEP saw a mismatch between the
PROCESS TO perceived needs of our students
CREATE AND and the coursebook content.
REVISE TEACHER- Since the coursebook content
GENERATED was not a perfect match for our
MATERIALS students, we were often forced
to supplement
The ten-step process to generate heavily with our own materials. Sheldon (1988,
materials 238) suggests that teacher-
(1) is intended for use generated material “potentially
by teachers themselves has a dynamic and maximal
to facilitate the creation relevance to local needs” when
of teaching units, compared to mass-market
(2) incorporates a publications. Indeed, we were
backward-design already supplementing heavily
model, and (3) and were effectively creating
assumes the much of the material used in
importance of courses at our language
reflection in teaching. center.
improve our completed teaching units.

The purpose of this article is

to describe the concepts that We saw a mismatch
guided the creation of the between the perceived
process, to provide a
description of the process as needs of our students
applied to our teaching and the coursebook
context,
content.
and to offer examples from a teaching unit

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A further advantage of creating also open to input by
our teaching units and materials administrators. In different
was the belief that “people teaching contexts, other
support what they help to stakeholder groups might be
create” and will involved.
be more invested when they
participate in the design and The application of a backward-
design model
creation of the curriculum
(Jennings and Doyle 1996, Another main element of
171).We feel that a lack of the ten-step process is its
investment in and satisfaction backward-design approach
with the coursebooks (upon to materials and curriculum
which the curriculum of any development. Prior to the
given semester was based) curriculum project, teachers
made teachers at the language would (1) agree on a
center adopt and discard them coursebook before the
on a regular basis. This led to beginning of a semester, (2)
teachers having to develop a select which chapters to
new curriculum at the beginning teach,
of each academic year, or even (3) decide the learning
at the start outcomes based on the
of each semester (Butler, chapters, and (4) create test
Heslup, and Kurth 2014). At the tasks based on those
language center, the hope was outcomes. In this way, we
that allowing teachers to create were following a forward-
their own teaching units and design model where
materials would increase teacher “decisions about
investment, with the result of a methodology and output”
more stable curriculum. had to wait until

Teacher-generated
curriculum and materials also
can be tailored to the goals of
the institution. For a language
program’s curriculum to grow
and flourish, there
needs to be a dynamic dialogue
between the stakeholder groups
of administrators, teachers, and
students (Brown 2001). At the
language center, student
feedback prompted the director
to request teachers to develop
curriculum. She also provided
guidance regarding university
expectations in regard to testing
and ultimately approved the
project for wider implementation
(Butler, Heslup, and Kurth
2014).While
the development of the teaching
units was guided by collective
student needs, the process was
“issues related to the content of backward design “is a well-
instruction” were resolved (Richards established tradition in
2013, 8). Because a primary concern curriculum design in general
of the curriculum project was the education and in recent years
needs of all students, we moved has re-emerged as a prominent
from this forward-design model to a curriculum development
backward-design model. According approach in language teaching”
to Wiggins and McTighe, (Richards 2013, 20). Because a
backward design calls for us to main goal of the curriculum
operationalize our goals or project was to enhance and
standards in terms of assessment provide measurable learning
evidence as we begin to plan a outcomes for students’
unit or course. It reminds us oral skills communication, the
to begin with the question,What backward-design model fit in well
would we accept as evidence with the ten-step process.
that students have attained the
desired understandings The significance of reflection in teaching
and proficiencies—before Reflection is the third main
proceeding to plan teaching and element of the process.We were
learning experiences? inspired by Kolb’s (1984)
… Greater coherence among experiential learning cycle of
desired results, key concrete experience, reflective
performances, and teaching and observation, abstract
learning experiences leads to conceptualization, and active
better student performance—the experimentation.
purpose of design. (1998, 8–9; We integrated Kolb’s cycle
italics in the original) into a process of reflection on
teaching, evaluation of the
Our backward design began with (1) reflections, and revision
the needs, then proceeded to (2) based on our
learning outcomes based on those experiences. As Farrell (2012)
needs, followed by (3) test tasks stated when discussing the
based on the outcomes, and finally (4) origins of reflective practice, the
content based on the language skills purpose of reflection is for
necessary to accomplish those teachers “to make informed
tasks.This is certainly not decisions about their teaching”
an uncommon approach, as

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that were “based on systematic The following is a brief description of
and conscious reflections rather each of the ten steps, how they were
than fleeting thoughts about implemented, and how they led to the
teaching” (11). It is our belief creation of several five- week units of
that teaching units take time to instruction.The units included “Hot
come into their own and should Spots,” where students described and
be viewed as a work in progress provided directions to local places of
over multiple semesters until interest; “Conversation Strategies,”
they best match students’ where students employed language to
collective needs.We further develop and continue small-group
believe that a system of conversations; “Problem Solving,” where
reflection provides teachers new small groups of students discussed and
to the teaching unit with a voice solved common problems at their
in the process and increases university; and “Small Talk,” where
their investment in the process students role-played first-time
of materials development. encounters with someone from another
Reflection therefore allows for country or culture. In this article, we
informed decisions over time
and greater investment in the
outcome of the teaching unit.
Furthermore, we have found
that structured reflection allows
for improvement over time.
Instead of leading teachers to
develop a curriculum once, only
to start over again several years
later, the
ten-step process uses its built-in
reflection to
allow for manageable and
organic curriculum development
(Butler, Heslup, and Kurth 2014).

TEN STEPS FOR DEVELOPING

TEACHING UNITS

The ongoing curriculum project

has resulted in a ten-step
process (see Figure 1), which
continues to be used for
creating and revising five-week
teaching units.This process
was used to supplement a
coursebook in the first
semester of the project, and
after that to entirely replace
the coursebook.The ten-step
process was not defined prior to
the start of the project; rather, it
developed organically out of
discussions and as teaching
units were created, reflected
upon, and revised over time.
focus on “Small Talk,” questionnaires and structured
as it was one of the first interviews—be employed to
of the units created analyze student needs. Key
using the ten-step components of a successful
process and has 1. student needs
undergone multiple
revisions. Although the 2. goals and objectives
examples provided here 9. evaluation
follow the creation and 10. revisions: repeat Steps 1 through 9

revision of one small

part of a five-week unit,
we believe that this
8. refleCtiOn 3. test tasks
process is effective in
the development of
teaching units of
virtually any size. 4. language and skills
7. teaching
Step 1: Student needs
The process begins
with student needs, in analysis are that it is learner
accordance with the centered, related to the real world,
principles of backward repeatable, and prioritized.
design. If needs have
not been identified, or The curriculum project strove
if they need to be to address the shared needs of
reidentified, teachers all students enrolled in the
may execute their course. Teachers were
own needs requested by the language
assessments (Tarone center director to proceed with
1989) by using one or
more of
the available methods
6. 5.
of needs analysis. materials sequence
West (1997) suggests
that a variety of Figure 1. A ten-step cyclical process of course
methods—among generation and revision (Butler, Heslup, and Kurth
which are 2014)

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all possible haste and were learnable, and specifically
not provided with financial measurable. If students meet
support for a thorough needs all the objectives, they will
analysis. The initial needs therefore also meet the
analysis was conducted by goals.
brainstorming in faculty
meetings. The subsequent list of In the case of ST, teachers
student needs was based on two defined the goal as being
major factors: (1) teacher able to conduct a successful
observation of classroom first-time conversation with a
behavior and foreigner in a variety of
(2) student feedback situations. More specific
gathered through informal objectives within that goal
conversations with teachers. were a specific length of the
A compiled list of needs was conversation and an ability
then made available to all to grasp the situation and
teachers.

Teachers and students both

identified the learning need
of Small Talk (ST). Students
themselves informed
teachers that they did not
know how to approach or
initiate
and continue a first-time
conversation with a non-
Korean stranger. Teachers had
also observed that their
students were often unable to
conduct a successful first-time
conversation in English outside
class, despite such
conversations often being the
focus of the first lesson of the
semester (as presented by the
coursebook at the time). The
teachers
then proceeded to create the ST
unit based on those student
needs.
Step 2: Goals and objectives
The second step is to create
goals and objectives to define
learning outcomes based on
student needs. According to
Graves (2000), goals state the
broader aims of what the
teaching unit is meant to
address, while the objectives
break down the goals into
statements that are teachable,
apply the appropriate formality in be limited by available resources. Rough
greetings, closings, and choice of test
language. Students were also materials, including a rubric,
introduced to small-talk topics which may be created at this point and
were, as decided by teachers, then revisited during the
generally safe for first-time materials creation phase (see
conversations and would lead to Step 6). The tasks need not be
successful encounters. limited to an in-class oral
communication test. Alternative
Step 3: Test tasks assessments such as a project
The third step involves the creation or presentation are possible as
of the language task to assess well.
students’ performance in relation to
the specific objectives and broader In the case of ST, the test task
goal of the teaching unit.Van den was for students to conduct a
Branden (2012) states that task- three-minute conversation
based learning—rather than having simulating a first meeting, with
students learn language and try to one student playing the role of
translate their learning into himself or herself and another
spontaneous language use—exposes student playing the role of a
students to “approximations and foreigner. Students then
simulations of the kinds of tasks switched roles with their partner
they are supposed to be able to for a second conversation.
perform outside the classroom and Students were provided with
learn about relevant forms of contexts in which each
language while trying to understand of the meetings was imagined to
and produce the language that be taking place. Teachers felt
these communicative tasks involve” that this would be the most
(134). As with all aspects of testing, effective way to simulate the
the test task will conditions necessary to use the
skills covered in ST.

Teachers defined the [Small Talk] goal

as being able to conduct a successful
first-time conversation with a
foreigner in a variety of situations.

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Step 4: Language and skills contribute to meeting the original unit
For the next step, teachers objectives.Teachers should now consider
volunteer to pilot the test while the amount of time available for
other teachers record the instruction.
explicit language and Should it appear that too much or too
sociolinguistic skills used to little language has been selected,
complete the task.We teachers may revisit Step 4 to change
recommend that the language selection, Step 3 to
the teachers who pilot the test modify the test task, or even Step 2 to
be different from those who make modifications to the unit
designed the test, in order to objectives.
bring to light unanticipated
problems in the test design (and At the time that ST was created,
possibly in the teaching unit) teaching units were five weeks long.
prior to the creation of the entire The first three lessons (weeks) were
teaching unit. Teachers creating devoted to helping students develop
the teaching units may then use the skills necessary to meet the goals
the test responses to determine and objectives. The fourth lesson was
the language and skills to be used to revisit past lessons and practice
taught in the unit.
This list is then modified based
on perceived overall usefulness
to the students and available
instructional time. Further
factors are teachability and
learnability—that is, the ease
with which the language or skill
can be taught by the teacher or
acquired by the student
(Thornbury 1999).

When performing the ST test

task, teachers immediately
identified that language choices
were heavily influenced by the
context in which the
conversation was supposed to
be taking place—for example,
the lower-register “Hey, how’s it
going?” and the higher-register
“Good
morning/afternoon/evening.”
From teachers’ performance of
the role plays, language thought
to be most useful to students
was selected.

Step 5: Sequence
The next step is to order the
selected language and skills into
a sequence. Once the order is
determined, a number of smaller
objectives may be created to
for the test. Finally, the materials were shared in
fifth lesson was used to person or via email. By the
administer the test. In second semester of the project,
the case of ST, the a website for students and
greetings were teachers was in place.We used
introduced in the first the website’s online forums to
lesson and were facilitate the sharing of lesson
practiced in a variety of materials, conduct online
situations as the unit discussions, and provide
went on. feedback.

Step 6: Materials One example of ST teaching

Teachers then use the material was a PowerPoint
lesson objectives to presentation.We collected
create in-class activities, photographs from open-source
homework, and quizzes websites as well as some taken
to help students develop by teachers in places on campus
the language and skills where students might encounter
to succeed in the unit. non-Koreans, such as at a park
Once the materials are or a coffee shop.We chose
created, they are places and situations familiar to
sequenced into a logical students in order to help them
order for each lesson visualize common contexts and
(with some activities and to tie the unit to their own
even language being personal experience.The
moved as the lessons presentation was then used
are created), and lesson in a pre-task activity where
plans are created for students worked together in
each lesson. Final groups to brainstorm relevant
versions of the test topics of conversation for each
materials can also be context.We used this
created. presentation in our lesson
because it
At this point in the (1) supported student learning
process, we found it in preparation for the final test
useful to meet, share task and (2) elicited language
ideas, and receive from students that resembles
feedback from real-world use, a goal of
colleagues regarding language tasks (Ellis
materials in 2003).Teaching does not,
development. During the however, need to be limited by
initial semesters technology. Should teachers
of curriculum find themselves without access
development, to a computer or photographs,

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they could just as easily describe modifications could then be
different settings to their recorded into future versions
students. of
the lesson plans,
Step 7: Teaching sometimes replacing the
Following materials creation, the original activities and
next step is to teach the sometimes providing
unit.Teachers conduct the optional activities, which
lessons and utilize the materials teachers could use to
that were generated prior to the accomplish the same
beginning of the teaching unit. It objectives.
is important at this stage for
teachers to not only conduct the Step 8: Reflection
lessons but also take careful Reflection is employed to
notes make sense of the concrete
of student reactions, behavior, experience of teaching the
and performance in relation to unit.
the objectives of each lesson
and the overall goal of the
unit.These notes will be
important in subsequent steps of
the process.

At the outset of the curriculum

project, the language center
director had instructed
teachers to standardize the
learning outcomes and test
tasks. In compliance with the
director’s instructions, all
teachers introduced the same
target language using the same
handouts, assigned the same
homework and
in-class quizzes, administered
the same end- of-unit test, and
used the same assessment
plan to assign grades. Those
teachers who prepared the
materials also provided a
basic lesson plan as an aid to
teachers who were new to the
curriculum. Teachers in our
program were not bound,
however, to the provided
lesson plans. The lesson plans
were intended to support
teachers, not to restrict them.
Teachers were encouraged to
modify and experiment with
the lessons, and then to report
the outcomes of their
modifications. Successful
As Moran (2001) noted when electronic copy of the lesson plan
discussing experiential learning, in for future revisions. In the case of
reflective observation the participant ST, one such observation recorded
“pauses to reflect on what happened through group reflection was that
in order to describe what happened, the greetings alone did not always
staying with the facts of the match the provided situation and
experience” (18). Following led to awkward or inauthentic
classroom instruction, teachers return conversations.
to their notes and make reflective
observations based on their Step 9: Evaluation
experiences.We recommend that In this step, the teachers not
teachers suspend interpretation and only reflect on the unit but also
first express their observations of evaluate it and make
what they saw, heard, and felt during suggestions for the next round of
instruction.While we recommend revisions. It is important to
that reflection occur throughout the separate observation from
process, analysis and interpretation to
it is most important after student completion avoid jumping to conclusions
of the test tasks so that teachers about the success of the
can look back at the teaching unit teaching unit. As Moran (2001)
as a whole. Evaluation and decision notes, reflective observation is
making for revisions will come from followed by abstract
end-of-unit reflection. conceptualization where the
teacher “assigns meaning to the
We met each week, after teaching the experience by developing
week’s lessons, for one hour to share explanations or theories” (18). It
our observations and discuss what we is recommended that the
perceived to have gone well and what teacher keep the initial student
needed improvement for each lesson. need in mind when evaluating
At the meetings, a designated teacher the efficacy of the teaching
recorded feedback directly on an unit.We have found

It is important to separate observation

from analysis and interpretation to
avoid jumping to conclusions about
the success of the teaching unit.

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that it is easy to be distracted by to the first step in the process and is
later elements of the process, included to emphasize the cyclical nature
such as the end-of-unit test task. of the ten-step process.
It is entirely possible to spend Active experimentation follows abstract
too much time on designing a conceptualization in the experiential
test task that is not well aligned learning cycle and is the stage when the
with the targeted student need. teacher “prepares to reenter experience
by devising strategies consistent with
In response to the observation personal learning goals, the nature of
that some of the student the content, and the form of the
conversations in the ST unit experience” (Moran 2001, 18). At this
seemed inauthentic, we revisited point in the process, the teachers meet
how students would begin the to discuss revisions and to formulate
role play of a first-time strategies on how best to revise and
conversation with a foreigner or improve the teaching unit. It is our
stranger. Rather than opening recommendation that teachers go
with a simple greeting, teachers through the feedback once again and
suggested that students be discuss what aspects of the unit are
taught how to use the context to possible to revise within the
generate an icebreaker.

In addition, as part of the

evaluation of the unit, student
feedback was gathered
formally, through confidential
online surveys, as well as
informally, through
conversations between teachers
and students. Students agreed
that
the teaching unit met their need.
For example, in a future
semester students reported
having used the unit content to
successfully meet foreigners. A
representative from the
language center administration
also reviewed our materials and
provided feedback from an
administrator’s perspective.
That feedback was useful
because it provided teachers
with guidance on the broader
goals and vision of the
university. For example, it
ensured that the curriculum met
certain requirements for
international accreditation, a
matter of great importance to
the university administrators.
Step 10: Revisions
The final step is actually a return
time available to task, the syllabus, and the
them.We would lesson materials.These newly
recommend that developed materials included
teachers take an “if it a handout for students,
ain’t broke, don’t fix it” revised PowerPoint
approach to presentations, and new
revisions.That is, not role-play activities.Table 1
every aspect of the unit provides a summary of the
will require change and creation and revision of the ST
fixing. It is important teaching unit through the ten-
that teachers take time step process.
to prioritize the changes
that need to be made FURTHER SUGGESTIONS
before embarking on
revisions so that Based on our experiences
necessary changes can working with this process
occur within a realistic since 2011, we would make
time frame. the
following additional suggestions.
After the end-of-unit Collaboration played a major role
reflection meeting, in the creation and
tasks were divided implementation of our ten-step
among teachers. process.
Different teachers took Indeed, we have described it
different items to revise elsewhere as one of our
and kept in contact with guiding principles in the
each other as revisions defining of this process (Butler,
were made. Prior to the Heslup, and Kurth 2014).We
beginning of the recommend that teachers
semester, all revised consider collaborating closely
materials were collected with their peers whenever
by a point person to possible. Other studies have
make certain that shown that curriculum reform
everything was in order can falter and fail without
and ready to be taught collaboration and discussion
for the next teaching among teachers (Wang and
cycle. Cheng 2005).
Additionally, one major drawback
The icebreaker to creating your own materials
concept was can be the time and energy
incorporated into required (Cunningsworth 1995;
revisions during the Graves 2000; Richards 2001).We
following round of have found that balancing the
development. It was workload in small groups of three
incorporated into the or four
objectives, the test

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Step Application in the Small Talk teaching unit*

1. Student Needs Students approached teachers with questions

about how to start a conversation with a foreigner.
Students reported struggling with first- time
conversations in English.
2. Goals and Objectives Students will be able to initiate a first-time
conversation with a foreigner, using context-
appropriate register and language.
3. Test Tasks Students will conduct a role play with a
classmate wherein a student playing himself or
herself initiates a short first-meeting
conversation in English (using language and
skills from the module) with a student playing
the role of a foreigner in a specific context.
4. Language and Skills Two greeting phrases were generated in the
Test Task practice: “Hey, how’s it going?”
(lower register)
“Good morning/afternoon/evening.” (higher register)
5. Sequence Lesson 1 – Students will distinguish between
and practice high- and low-register greetings
and responses.
Lesson 2 – Students will begin to apply the
language learned to different possible
situations and contexts outside the language
classroom.
Lesson 3 – Students will begin to shift among a
wider variety of high- and low-register contexts
and integrate them into complete role plays.
Lesson 4 – Students will review and practice role
plays in formal and informal situations for the end-
of-module test.
Lesson 5 – Students will take the end-of-module
test.
6. Materials Handouts were created to provide language
support. A PowerPoint presentation was
created to provide example situations in which
to practice the language.
7. Teaching Students practiced initiating conversation with
greetings in Lessons 1–4. They began practicing in
role plays with classmates in Lesson 2 and
continued through Lesson 4, with varying
situations and partners.
8. Reflection Teachers observed that the greetings taught did
not always match the provided situation and led
to awkward or inauthentic conversations, resulting
in unsuccessful first-meeting conversations.
9. Evaluation It seemed that students needed to be introduced
to the concept of beginning with an icebreaker
based upon the context. Students also needed to
understand what would be a more or less
appropriate or natural icebreaker in a given
situation.
 10. Revisions A new handout was created to introduce the
concept of icebreakers, and the presentation was
revised to provide more opportunities to practice
icebreakers.
*In the interest of brevity, only one small aspect of the Small Talk module
is presented here.

Table 1. The ten-step process with examples from Small Talk

10 E NG LI S H TEA CHING F
ORUM 2 01 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum
5
teachers keeps the labor to improve our materials over time.
manageable while keeping During the first semester, much of what
discussions and debate we produced for students tended to be
productive. rougher than the material we used in
later semesters. As Sheldon (1988)
A further observation is that the notes, one downside of teacher-created
cyclical nature of the ten-step materials is that the glossier materials
process has allowed us to provided by publishers can be more
complete time-intensive tasks alluring to students even if those
over the course of multiple materials are of poorer pedagogic value.
semesters. As a result, we can Our materials got better as we tested
do further research to help them out and made them work, but that
define student needs and improvement required time,
accompanying goals and commitment, and patience from all
objectives.The ST unit contains stakeholders.
several examples of how
language and culture content, While this article has presented the
English language teaching process as a series of ten discrete and
approaches, and materials sequential steps, it is important to note
creation have been informed that this description is a
over time by teacher research
during reflection and revisions.

For example, we began with a

concept, based on English as a
second language principles, of
“appropriate” first encounters
but gradually revised our ST
goals to support greater
awareness of the role of English
as
an international language. Our
guidance for this change came
from research in the field of EFL.
In this way, we continued to
follow the experiential learning
cycle in that we began with a
concrete experience, followed up
on that experience by
performing reflective
observation, sought out sources
in the field to help with our
abstract conceptualization of the
experience, and finally began
revisions for the next semester
in the active experimentation
phase. By following the
experiential learning cycle over
several semesters, we have
been able to make informed
curricular decisions.

We have also had an opportunity

simplification to illustrate The ten-step process could be
the steps clearly and to used to modify coursebook
indicate the cyclical content to meet student
nature of the process.The needs.The process could be used
process of curriculum to identify a gap between the
development is a holistic content and students’ needs and
one, with each element to assist teachers in generating
influencing nearly all the activities and materials to work
others (Graves 2000). As within their prescribed
described in Steps 3 and curriculum.
5, there were many For example, instead of creating
instances where a an end-of-unit assessment,
change made in a later teachers could use the test task
step led to a modification to create an activity that would
in a previous step or assess student learning at the
steps. Also, while we end of a lesson rather than at
engaged in formal the end of a unit.
reflection and evaluation
following teaching, CONCLUSION
informal reflection and
evaluation were ongoing As we have outlined above,
throughout all steps curriculum design and
in the process.With this in mind, we still evaluation is not a matter for
find specialists alone. The specialist
it helpful to think of the model produces a variety of
process as progressing in curricular policies, materials,
order, especially when and products, among which is
creating timelines and the mass-market coursebook.
setting goals and Teachers may find that their
deadlines. coursebook is not a suitable fit
for their students. Rather than
More-prescriptive waiting for an outside entity to
language programs fill the gap or fix a problematic
might require teachers element, teachers can utilize
to closely follow provided their own experience,
coursebooks and syllabi. knowledge, and skills to better
If teachers are not free to meet student needs.
create their own units,
there is precedent After establishing who is
for modifying content qualified, the next natural
that does not suit the question is how to do it.We
target students (Graves had the same question when
2000; Richards 2001). we began in 2011. The

americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching- 201 E N G L I S H TEA C H I N G F ORUM 11

forum 5
ten-step process has proven to Challenge and change in
be our answer to that question. language teaching, ed. J.Willis
It has offered us a means to and D. Willis, 169–177. Oxford:
create teaching units over time Heinemann.
Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential
and allowed us to make
learning: Experience as the
informed curricular decisions source of learning and
that are responsive to our development. Englewood Cliffs,
students’ needs.We hope that it NJ: Prentice-Hall.
will be of equal use to educators Kumaravadivelu, B.
who find that their present 2001.Toward a
curriculum is not meeting the postmethod pedagogy.
needs of their students. TESOL Quarterly 35 (4):
537–560.
–––––. 2003. A postmethod
REFERENCES
perspective on English
Brown, H. D. 2001. Teaching by language teaching. World
principles:An interactive approach Englishes 22 (4): 539–550.
to language pedagogy. 2nd Mack, K. 2010. Perspectives on
ed.White Plains, NY: Longman. criteria for an ESL textbook
Butler, G., S. Heslup, and L. Kurth. 2014. appropriate for Japanese
Development of a teacher generated university students.
curriculum at a Korean university. In Komyûnikêshonbunka
KOTESOL proceedings 2013: Exploring [Communication in Culture] 4:
the road less traveled—from practice 34–44.
to theory, ed. D. Shaffer and M. Pinto. Moran, P. R. 2001. Teaching
Seoul: Korea TESOL. culture: Perspectives in
Cowling, J. D. 2007. Needs analysis:
Planning a syllabus for a series of
intensive workplace courses at a
leading Japanese company. English
for Specific Purposes 26 (4): 426–442.
Cunningsworth, A. 1995. Choosing your
coursebook. Oxford: Macmillan
Education.
Ellis, R. 2003. Task-based language
learning and teaching. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
El-Okda, M. 2005. A proposed model
for EFL teacher involvement in on-
going curriculum development.
Asian EFL Journal Quarterly 7 (4):
33–49.
Farrell,T. S. C. 2012. Reflecting on
reflective practice: (Re)Visiting
Dewey and Schön. TESOL Journal 3
(1): 7–16.
Graves, K. 2000. Designing language
courses:A guide for teachers.
NewYork: Heinle and Heinle.
–––––. 2008.The language curriculum:
A social contextual perspective.
Language Teaching 41 (2):
147–181.
Jennings, K., and T. Doyle. 1996.
Curriculum innovation, teamwork and
the management of change. In
 practice. Boston: Heinle and art. In Teacher Education for LSP, ed.
Heinle. Nunan, D. 2004. Task-based R. Howard and G. Brown, 68–79.
language teaching. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wiggins, G., and J. McTighe. 1998.
Richards, J. C. 1990. The language Understanding by design.
teaching matrix. Alexandria,VA: Association for
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Supervision and Curriculum
–––––. 2001. The role of textbooks in a Development.
language program. RELC Guidelines 23
(2): 12–16. www.
professorjackrichards.com/wp-content/up Geoffrey Butler began his teaching
loads/ role-of-textbooks.pdf career as a Peace Corps volunteer in
–––––. 2013. Curriculum approaches in 2003. He holds an MA in TESOL from the
language teaching: Forward, central, SIT Graduate Institute and has taught in
and backward design. RELC Journal 44 Kyrgyzstan, Costa Rica, Japan, and Korea.
(1): 5–33. He worked at SeoulTech from 2011 to
Sheldon, L. E. 1988. Evaluating ELT 2015 as an assistant professor.
textbooks and materials. ELT Journal 42
(4): 237–246.
Simon Heslup holds an MA in TESOL
Tarone, E. 1989. Teacher-executed needs
from the University of Birmingham.
assessment: Some suggestions for
teachers and program administrators. He has previously taught in Japan and
MinneTESOL Journal 7: 39–48. Korea, and is currently teaching
Thornbury, S. 1999. How to teach grammar. English for Academic Purposes at the
Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. University of Calgary in Qatar. His
Van den Branden, K. 2012. Task-based professional interests include testing
language education. In The Cambridge and teaching writing.
guide to pedagogy and practice in
second language teaching, ed. A. Burns Lara Kurth holds an MA in TESOL from
and the SIT Graduate Institute. She has
J. C. Richards, 132–139. Cambridge: taught in Spain, Costa Rica, Japan, and
Cambridge University Press.
Korea. She worked at SeoulTech from
Wang, H., and L. Cheng. 2005. The impact
2011 to 2015 as an assistant professor.
of curriculum innovation on the cultures
of teaching. Asian EFL Journal Quarterly Her interests include reflective
7 (4): 7–32. practice, world Englishes, and
West, R. 1997. Needs analysis: State of the intercultural communication.

12 E NG LI S H TEA CHING F 2 01 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum

ORUM
5
 An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for:
A Ten-Step Process for Developing Teaching Units
Article by Geoffrey Butler, Simon Heslup and Lara Kuth

From English Language Teaching Forum, 2015, Volume 53, Number 3 Retrieved 12 February
2018 from:
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/02_etf_53-
3_2_butler_heslup_kurth.pdf

Overview

Designing a curriculum can be a daunting process because it involves teachers, policy makers,
specialists, and more many. Because of this, the designed curriculum can often mismatch with
the materials in the classroom and the needs of the students. To add, textbooks present
difficulty in the classroom because they may not meet content needs and they could be very
expensive for students. Recently, teachers have been encouraged to understand their
classroom contexts in terms of students, administration, materials, etc., and then create
lessons according to their own particular classroom contexts. This way, teachers are helping to
address the concerns of students individually.

It is recommended that teachers engage in a backward-design approach to curriculum

development. This means teachers should first identify the learning outcomes and needs of the
students, then make decisions about the curriculum. In this process, there is room for
experimentation, or the ability for instructors to reflect on their process and make
improvements in the future.

The Main Elements of the Ten-step Process To Create Your Own Material

Element 1: Teachers can create their own materials

The needs of the students and the contents of the textbook may not match. To prevent from
oversupplementation of materials, or the use of extra resources to teach, teachers can create
their own materials. This is also beneficial because teachers will be more invested in what they
teach since they will be more satisfied with their own creations as opposed to the activities in
the textbook. Teacherdeveloped curriculum can also be developed based on the goals of the
school. Administration can work together with teachers to create a curriculum where students
can learn the most.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: A Ten-Step Process for
Developing Teaching Units for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered
by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a
copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Element 2: Backwards Design Approach

Normally, teachers agree on a textbook first, then select the chapters to teach, then decide the
learning outcomes and create activities to match. This is a forward design approach. In a
backwards-design approach, teachers decide the learning outcomes of the course first. They
ask themselves what students should be able to do by the end of the course. Teachers begin
thinking about the needs of the students. Then they think about the learning outcomes. Next
they match the outcomes to different activities and lastly think about the content of the course.
Element 3: The Importance of Reflection in Teaching
Teaching units should take time and is a work in progress over many semesters until they best
match the students’ needs. By offering time for teachers to reflection on their curriculum
creations, they are making more informed decisions about their teaching and have more
investment into their students and their learning process.

This ten-step process can make any class of any size can more effective.

The Ten-step Process

Step 1: Think of Student Needs

Identify the needs of students by conducting surveys and interviews. Based on what the
students say they want to learn, create a curriculum that addresses the shared needs of the
students. (Ex. in previous classes, the instructor asked students what they wanted to learn
through class observations and discussions. Students said they wanted to learn small talk.
Therefore, teachers created a unit on small talk.)

Step 2: Identify Goals and Objectives

Create goals that define objectives of the course. These goals should be the bigger aims of the
course. (Ex. Because the students wanted to learn small talk, teachers created this goal: to be
able to have a first time conversation with a foreigner in different situations.)

Step 3: Create tasks

Teachers should now think about different tasks that would allow the students to practice the
language skill creating more relevant language use. At this point in the process, rubrics can now
be created as well as presentation and project prompts. (Ex. for the Small Talk class, the task
was to engage in a threeminute conversation simulating a first meeting. One student would
play his or herself and another student would play the role of a foreigner. Then, the students
would switch roles.)

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
Step 4: Develop language and skills
Now, teachers should test the activity with other teachers. They act as the students and think
about all of the natural language they would use in this type of situation. This language
becomes the key vocabulary for the unit. (Ex. In the Small Talk class, the teachers identified
language and were able to think about different situations where they would use that language.
“Hey, how’s it going?” would be used in informal situations and “Good morning” would be used
in more formal situations.

Step 5: Develop a Sequence

Put the skills and language in order of how students should learn them. Teachers should
consider class time when designing the order. (Ex. in the five-week Small Talk Course, the first
three lessons were dedicated to helping students learn the skills to meet the goals and
objectives. The fourth class was devoted to practice and the fifth lesson was for the Small Talk
test.)
Step 6: Create Materials
Teachers now create quizzes, activities, homework, etc. for the course. They should be put in
order for the lesson as well. Lesson plans should also be created in this step as well and
collaboration among teachers is encouraged for feedback. (Ex. the teachers in the Small Talk
class collected photos to create a PowerPoint presentation.)

Step 7: Teach the Unit

Teachers should teach the lessons that they created, but also take notes of the activities that
worked and those that didn’t work. (Ex. the Small Talk class teachers were all given the same
lesson plans and materials but were not required to teach the materials exactly the same way.
They taught the course, took notes about the effectiveness of the course and reported back
with their results.)

Step 8: Reflect on Your Curriculum

Teachers should report their notes and discuss the parts of the curriculum that worked and
parts that need improvement. Reflection should occur throughout the course, but it is most
important at the end once students have completed everything and you can report about all of
the activities. (Ex. in the Small Talk course, teachers met, designated a note taker, and
discussed all of their thoughts on the course.)

Step 9: Evaluation
Teachers make suggestions for the next run of the course and keep the needs of the
students in mind as opposed to smaller parts/tasks within the course. (Ex. the Small Talk
teachers

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
thought one activity seemed inauthentic, so they thought about the role that the student
should play in that activity along with the activity itself.) In this phase, teachers should review
students’ feedback from surveys or evaluations.

Step 10: Revisions

Teachers develop strategies to improve the course’s content and experiences. Teachers should
focus on revising contents that need improvement and not revising contents that worked for
students. (Ex. the Small Talk course teachers divided the course improvements and each
teacher revised sections of the course to ensure that everything was ready for the next
teaching cycle.

Further Suggestions

In the ten-step process, teachers are also encouraged to…

 collaborate with other teachers as much as possible.
 divide work into groups to save time and energy.
 do research on how to fulfill student needs.
 modify textbooks based on the process.

Conclusion

Both curriculum design specialists and teachers should be involved in designing curriculum for
students. Teachers can use their own experience and knowledge to find solutions to their
classroom problems. Overall, this process helps address students’ needs.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
References (Copyright):
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, H.D. 2001. Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. 2nd
ed. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Butler, G.S. Heslup, and L. Kurth. 2014 Development of a teacher generated curriculum at a
Korean university. In KOTESOL proceedings 2013: Exploring the road less traveled – from
practice to theory, ed. D. Shaffer and M. Pinto. Seoil: Korea TESOL

Cowling, J.D. 2007. Needs analysis: Planning a syllabus for a series of intensive workplace
courses at a leading Japanese company. English for Specific Purposes 26 (4): 426-442.

Cunningsworth, A. 1995. Choosing your coursebook. Oxford: Macmillan Education.

Ellis. R. 2003. Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

El-Okda, M. 2005. A proposed model for EFL teacher involvement in on-going curriculum
development. Asian EFL Journal Quarterly 7 (4): 33-49.

Farrell, T. S. C. 2012. Reflecting on reflective practice: (Re)Visiting Dewey and Schön. TESOL
Journal 3 (1): 7-16.

Graves, K. 2000. Designing language courses: A guide for teachers. New York: Heinle and
Heinle---. 2008. The language curriculum: A social contextual perspective. Language Teaching
41 (2): 147-181.

Jennings, K., and T. Doyle. 1996. Curriculum innovation, teamwork and the management of
change. In Challenge and change in language teaching, ed. J. Willis and D. Willis, 169–177.
Oxford: Heinemann.
Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kumaravadivelu, B. 2001. Toward a postmethod pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly 35 (4): 537–560. ––

–––. 2003. A postmethod perspective on English language teaching. World Englishes 22 (4):
539–550.

Mack, K. 2010. Perspectives on criteria for an ESL textbook appropriate for Japanese university
students. Komyûnikêshonbunka [Communication in Culture] 4: 34–44.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
Moran, P. R. 2001. Teaching culture: Perspectives in practice. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. 1990. The language teaching matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. –––
––. 2001. The role of textbooks in a language program. RELC Guidelines 23 (2): 12–16. www.
professorjackrichards.com/wp-content/uploads/ role-of-textbooks.pdf–––––. 2013. Curriculum
approaches in language teaching: Forward, central, and backward design. RELC Journal 44 (1):
5–33.

Sheldon, L. E. 1988. Evaluating ELT textbooks and materials. ELT Journal 42 (4): 237–246

Tarone, E. 1989. Teacher-executed needs assessment: Some suggestions for teachers and
program administrators. MinneTESOL Journal 7: 39–48. Thornbury, S. 1999. How to teach
grammar. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.

Van den Branden, K. 2012. Task-based language education. In The Cambridge guide to
pedagogy and practice in second language teaching, ed. A. Burns and J. C. Richards, 132–139.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

‘Wang, H., and L. Cheng. 2005. The impact of curriculum innovation on the cultures of teaching.
Asian EFL Journal Quarterly 7 (4): 7–32.
West, R. 1997. Needs analysis: State of the art. In Teacher Education for LSP, ed. R. Howard and
G. Brown, 68–79. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Wiggins, G., and J. McTighe. 1998. Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
3.7.2 Quiz: Using Backward Design

“Untitled” by Tumisu is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Quiz Instructions

Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on the Backward Design Model and identify
key concepts of lesson planning, test your knowledge! It is time for another fun quiz!

This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want. Your highest score will
count. You must earn at least 11 points to move on to the next Module.

This quiz must be completed online.

3.8 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey

Now it is time to reflect on the unit! Some of the questions in this survey are open-ended, meaning that
they require a full answer, using your own knowledge or feelings. You are encouraged to draft your
answers somewhere else, so that you can save them and revisit your thoughts later. Then, you can copy/
paste or type in your responses to the survey. This will give you a chance to take some time to reflect on
the answers.

The purpose of this activity is for you to reflect on your own. This survey is graded. You will receive 4
points after you submit it. You will not receive personalized feedback from an instructor on this
assignment.
This survey must be completed online.

11
Module 3 Check
Quiz Instructions

Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in Module 3. You
must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will count as 1 point toward
your grade.
This quiz must be completed online.

11
MODULE 4: INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING
READING, WRITING, AND VOCABULARY
Table of Contents

4.1 Introduction to Module 4................................................................................................2

4.2 Warm Up Discussion: Think and Write............................................................................4
4.3 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Reading........................................................................7
4.3.1 Lesson Activity Development: Reading Strategies........................................................16
4.3.2 Reading: Applying Reading Research to the Development of an Integrated Lesson
Plan................................................................................................................................29
4.4 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Writing.........................................................................40
4.4.1 Lesson Activity Development: Writing Strategies.........................................................49
4.5 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary...................................................................54
4.5.1 Lesson Activity Development: Vocabulary Strategies...................................................58
4.6 Culture Spotlight: Digital Citizenship and Responsibilities...............................................62
4.7 Optional Discussion: Reading, Writing and Digital Citizenship........................................65
4.8 Lecture: Feedback............................................................................................................67
4.8.1 Quiz: Giving Feedback...................................................................................................84
4.9 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge ……………………………………………………………….. 87

1
© 2020 by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 1: Teaching English across Cultures for the Online
Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State with funding provided by the U.S.
government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License,

except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit

4.1 Introduction to Module 4

"Untitled (Links to an external site.)" by mohamed_hassan (Links to an external site.) is licensed by a Pixabay (Links to an external site.)License. It is free to use and share.

Welcome to Module 4: Teaching Reading,

Writing, and Vocabulary
Please view the introduction video. You can download the transcript here .

Video Transcript:

Hello Everyone and welcome to Module 4. This is the second to last two module of our course, and it will
focus on instructional strategies for the four different skills. This week we will discuss reading, writing, and
vocabulary. Like the previous ones, this module is also packed with a lot of fun activities, and we hope that

you continue having fun working through each one of them.

This week has many interesting components. First, we are going to focus on strategies for teaching reading,
writing, and vocabulary to our students by examining each of these strategies one by one. You will get
familiar with some ideas that can make it easier for you to design activities targeting these skills.
Next, we are going to talk about digital citizenship and the importance of being responsible writers and
readers when it comes to online content. In today’s world, it is vital that students be aware of the

2
possibilities, but also the dangers, the internet can provide. We will discuss ways we can make our students
aware to become responsible digital citizens.
Finally, we will spend some time on feedback and error correction, both of which are essential parts of
learning a language. Teachers should make sure that students understand that making mistakes is part of
the learning process.
Before we begin this module, take a moment and reflect on the importance of reading, writing, and
vocabulary in the overall language learning process. Do you think one is more important than the other? If,
so, why? Keep thinking of this question as you work through the module. You might change your mind by
the end!
As before each previous module, take a minute and set some goals for yourself for this week.
 Do you want to learn about different strategies for teaching reading, writing, and vocabulary?
 Do you hope to take some of these strategies and apply them in your own classroom?
 Do you want your students to be more aware of some of the questionable content found on the
internet?
Great! We hope that you will find this module just as useful as the previous ones, we are very excited to
keep working with you in this course. Let's get started.

Module 4 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Participate in the Warm-Up discussion (15 minutes)

2. Read the Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Reading (30 minutes)
3. Do the Lesson Activity Development: Reading Strategies actives (15 minutes)
4. Read about "Applying Reading Research to the Development of an Integrated Lesson Plan" (45 minutes)
5. Read the Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Writing (30 minutes)
6. Do the Writing Strategies activities (15 minutes)
7. Read the Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary (30 minutes)
8. Do the Vocabulary Strategies activities (15 minutes)
9. Read Culture Spotlight: Digital Citizenship and Responsibilities (25 minutes)
10. Participate in the optional Discussion: Reading, Writing and Digital Citizenship (30 minutes)
11. Read the Lecture: Feedback (20 minutes)
12. Complete the Giving Feedback quiz (15 minutes)
13. Complete the Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey (30 minutes)

3
The Module 4 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download it here .

Module Requirements

 Each page of the module should be viewed and read

 All quizzes require 7 points to pass
 Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
 Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
 Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

4
4.2 Warm-Up: Think and Write

Warm-up
1. Think about the following questions (you don't need to submit the answers):

 What do you do when you read?

 How can you help your students learn those skills?

2. This activity will help you consider the reading strategies you use when you read. You can
also use this checklist with your students. Complete the MARSI Reading Strategies checklist on
the next page.

MARSI Reading Strategies Checklist

You do not have to turn this in. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to activate your prior
knowledge (think about what you already know).

4
 Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory

School name: Teacher name:

Student name: Date:

Directions: Listed below are statements about what people do when they read academic or school-
related materials such as textbooks or library books.
Five numbers follow each statement (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), and each number means the following:
 1 means “I never or almost never do this.”
 2 means “I do this only occasionally.”
 3 means “I sometimes do this” (50% of the time).
 4 means “I usually do this.”
 5 means “I always or almost always do this.”
After reading each statement, circle the number (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) that applies to you using the scale
provided. Please note that there are no right or wrong answers to the statements in this inventory.

Strategy
1 I have a purpose in mind when I read. 1 2 3 4 5
2 I take notes while reading to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
3 I think about what I know to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
4 I preview the text to see what it’s about before reading it. 1 2 3 4 5
5 When text becomes difficult, I read aloud to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
6 I summarize what I read to reflect on important information in the text. 1 2 3 4 5
7 I think about whether the content of the text fits my reading purpose. 1 2 3 4 5
8 I read slowly but carefully to be sure I understand what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
9 I discuss what I read with others to check my understanding. 1 2 3 4 5
10 I skim the text first by noting characteristics like length and organization. 1 2 3 4 5
11 I try to get back on track when I lose concentration. 1 2 3 4 5
12 I underline or circle information in the text to help me remember it. 1 2 3 4 5
13 I adjust my reading speed according to what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
14 I decide what to read closely and what to ignore. 1 2 3 4 5
15 I use reference material such as a dictionary to help me understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
16 When the text becomes difficult, I pay closer attention to what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
17 I use tables, figures, and pictures in the text to increase my understanding. 1 2 3 4 5
18 I stop from time to time and think about what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
19 I use context clues to help me better understand what I’m reading. 1 2 3 4 5
20 I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to better understand what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
21 I try to picture or visualize information to help me remember what I read. 1 2 3 4 5
22 I use typographical aids like boldface and italics to identify key information. 1 2 3 4 5
23 I critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the text. 1 2 3 4 5
24 I go back and forth in the text to find relationships among ideas in it. 1 2 3 4 5
25 I check my understanding when I come across conflicting information. 1 2 3 4 5
26 I try to guess what the material is about when I read. 1 2 3 4 5
27 When the text becomes difficult, I reread to increase my understanding. 1 2 3 4 5
28 I ask myself questions I like to have answered in the text. 1 2 3 4 5
29 I check to see whether my guesses about the text are right or wrong. 1 2 3 4 5
30 I try to guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases. 1 2 3 4 5

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4.3 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Reading

7
8
9
1
1
1
1
1
On the next page, you can view videos of sample activities discussed in the
presentation.

1
4.3.1 Lesson Activity Development: Reading
Strategies Before Reading
Before reading, a successful reader will think about the assignment and use different strategies
to prepare for the task. Look at some of these pre-reading strategies and think about which
one would best fit for your students.

Preview Texts:
Previewing a text helps readers prepare for what they are about to read and set a purpose for
reading. Please watch this video to get familiar with different previewing strategies.

Below is the transcript of this video.

1
1
1
Ask Questions:
Questioning is a skill that students should use before, during and after they read. There are
different reasons for asking questions before, during, and after reading. Please watch this video
for examples of questioning strategies.

Below is the transcript of this video.

1
2
2
2
2
Complete a KWL Organizer:
KWL charts are graphic organizers that help students organize information before, during, and
after a unit or a lesson. They can be used to engage students in a new topic, activate prior
knowledge, share unit objectives, and monitor students' learning. Here is an example of a KWL
chart:

What I Know What I Want to Know What I Learned

During Reading
A successful reader will read actively, noting their questions, connections and comprehension
breakdowns. They can talk with partners to share their thinking and help clarify what they
understand. Completing graphic organizers can support their comprehension and be a tool that
is used later for writing.

2
2
2
After Reading:
Summarizing:

2
2
4.3.2 Reading: Applying Reading Research to the
Development of an Integrated Lesson Plan
Read this article published by American English. Links to an external site. This article will help
you to learn about some effective ways to teach students reading. A study guide is provided.

"Applying Reading Research to the Development of an Integrated Lesson Plan"

It can be tough to help students learn to read in English, which is their L2, but it is especially
difficult if they are not proficient readers in their L1. Faced with this challenge while he was
teaching in Chile, Thomas Baker writes about becoming a successful reading instructor from his
own experience. In his article, he discusses some of the most common approaches to teaching
reading, and he supports that teachers should integrate different approaches so that students
receive the benefits of all styles of reading instruction.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context. You will have a chance to discuss these ideas and your own connections in the
upcoming optional discussion.
Baker, Thomas (2008). "Applying Reading Research to the Development of an Integrated Lesson
Plan." English Teaching Forum. 46,(1), pp.
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/08-46-1-d.pdf (Links to an external
site.)Links to an external site.

Below is the study guide for this article.

2
Thomas Baker

Applying Reading
Research to the
Development of an
Integrated Lesson
Plan

W
hat can you do individuals
when your from
English language participatin
students are poor g in society
read- (August and
ers? I asked myself this Shanahan
question after half my sixth 2006a;
grade class in Santiago, OECD/UNE
Chile failed a reading test. SCO-UIS
For many students, reading 2003).
is not only a prob- lem in These
their second language (L2); facts
it is also a problem in their prompted
first lan- guage (L1). For me to reflect
example, 15-year-old on my own
Chilean students have poor teaching
reading skills in their L1 practice and
when compared with their to review
peers in other countries the research
(OECD/UNESCO-UIS on reading
2003). This peda- gogy
data is troubling because in L1 and
the lack of literacy and poor English as a
reading ability pre- vents second or
 foreign language (ESL or brings together methods
C H I L E
EFL) con- texts. In this from differ- ent
article I will discuss some perspectives. Finally, I will
major trends in reading present an integrated lesson
instruction, including an plan that I believe can be
integrated approach that adapted to benefit students
of all levels.

Approaches to reading
instruction
Any investigation into
reading pedagogy will
encounter a long-term
debate about two opposite
approach- es to help
children learn to read.
Although there are
variations of these two
approaches, the extremes
are represented as whole
language versus phonics.

The whole language

approach to reading
Goodman (1967) became a
propo- nent for the whole
language approach when he
claimed that beginning
read- ers needed little direct
instruction to decode the
letters and sounds of the
language. He believed that
learners have the ability to
decode the let- ters,
syllables, words, and
phrases as they read
meaningful texts by making
22 2008 N U M B E R 1 | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
inferences about the linguistic results from teaching syn- thetic phonics, or the explicit
data. This process, which he instruction of letter sounds and how to pronounce
called a “psycholinguistic words by sounding out and blending all the letters. In
guessing game,” necessarily the study, approximately 300 first grade stu- dents of
involved risk-tak- ing and miscues, different genders and socio-economic backgrounds were
but he claimed it allowed students taught to read using analyt- ic and synthetic phonics for
to become proficient readers and 20 minutes a day over a period of sixteen weeks. At the
users of the language. end of the first year, the synthetic phonics group was
Whole language became a performing the best. The progress of 95 boys and 85
comprehensive way to teach girls was then monitored over a seven- year period,
reading and other language skills after which researchers concluded that the positive
with concrete suggestions for how effects of synthetic phonics were sustained over the
teachers can deal with duration of the study.
instructional, psychological, and
institutional factors. For the whole
lan- guage approach, it is
essential to provide a literate
classroom environment with a
wide variety of relevant texts
that are attractive to learners.
Even though students will make
mistakes in word recognition,
spelling, and pronunciation, they
eventually will be able to create
meaning out of words and
sentences by using textual cues
and their own background
knowledge to figure them out.
The phonics approach to reading
Supporters of the phonics
approach, also referred to as a
skills-based approach, point to
research showing that children
benefit from direct instruction
about the letters, syllables, and
corresponding sounds of English
(Rose 2006; Johnston and Watson
2003). There- fore, the phonics
approach claims that reading
instruction should start with the
most basic components of words,
which are the letters of the
alphabet and phonemes (speech
sounds). As they practice,
students blend individual sounds
into words and are ultimately able
to recognize and pronounce them
in a reading text.
Many studies have indicated
positive results from skills-based
instruction. For example, in a
study conducted in Scotland,
researchers found beneficial

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U | NUMBER 20 2
They stated letter or combination of letters
that that represents a phoneme. Many
synthetic English phonemes are
phonics represented by differ- ent
instruction graphemes that are pronounced
“led to identi- cally, while other
children phonemes are represented by
from lower identical graphemes that are
socio- pronounced differently. For
economic example, the phoneme /f/ is
background spelled differently in the words
s fox, elephant, and rough, and the
performing grapheme “ea” in the words dear
at the same and pear has two different pro-
level as nunciations. These issues make
children English words notoriously difficult
from for beginners to spell and
advantaged pronounce and can interfere with
background word recognition.
s” and “to In contrast, Spanish uses 30
boys letters— five vowels, 22 single
performing consonants and three digraphs (ll,
better than rr, ch)—to represent the 28
or as well as phonemes of the language (Ijalba
girls” and Con- ner 2006). The one-to-
(Johnston one correspondence between the
and Watson letters of Spanish and its sounds
2005, 8). make it a highly transparent
language. Thus, decoding can be
Phonics and different languages learned more rapidly in Spanish
In spite of than in English.
positive
An integrated approach to reading
results,
instruction
many
research- Because of the importance of
ers have reading, many countries in recent
suggested years have com- missioned studies
that the to compile and analyze research
English and provide recommendations on
sound sys- how to improve instruction.
tem is too Among these countries are
irregular for Australia (Australian Govern-
the teaching ment Department of Education,
of phonics Science and Training 2005), New
to be Zealand (Literacy Task- force
practical. 1999), the United States (National
English has Reading Panel 2000), and Ireland
26 letters, (Eivers et al. 2005). The final
approxi- reports on the studies are notable
mately 44 because their recommendations
phonemes, com- bine elements of both the
and a large whole language and phonics
number of approaches.
graphemes,
which are a

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U | NUMBER 20 2
 A trend towards this type of Human
integrated approach is clearly Develop
represented in the Chil- ean ment
educational system, as is (NICHD)
recognized by Mabel Condemarín, convened
winner of the Chilean National an
Prize for Education 2003, who influentia
emphasizes the need to unite l group of
contribu- tions from the whole experts
language and pho- nics to assess
approaches into an integrated different
approach (Condemarín, approach
Galdames, and Medina 1995; es used
Alliende and Condemarín 2002). to teach
Further- more, in a description of children
first grade reading, the Ministerio to read.
de Educación de Chile (2007, 5) The
states that the most productive National
strate- gies to allow children to Reading
read various texts independently Panel
and with comprehension will (NRP), as
“integrate the contributions of the it was
whole language model, which called,
promotes immersion in a world was
of print, with the contributions directed
of the skills model.” Some whole to report
language strategies mentioned on the
include (1) creating a lettered research,
classroom, (2) practicing silent, indicate
sustained reading, (3) taking a if it could
reading walk, and (4) examining be
a variety of authentic texts applied
relevant to the child’s world in the
(Minis- terio de Educación de classroo
Chile 2007). How- ever, research m, and, if
and teaching practice shows how appropri
“only one model does not favor ate,
the development of reading,” and present
that immer- sion should be “a
combined, especially in first strategy
grade, with “strategies designed for
to develop phonemic awareness rapidly
and the discovery of the dissemin
relationship between the sounds ating this
of words and the patterns of informati
letters, as this helps the majority on to
of children to decode the meaning facilitate
of texts” (Ministerio de Educación effective
de Chile 2007, 5). reading
instructio
The National Reading Panel n in the
In 1997, the U.S. National schools”
Institute of Child Health and (National

2 20 NUMBER | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U
 Reading Panel 2000, 1). studies. In 2000 it released a
The NRP reviewed scientific, report that examined the five
evidence- based research that met components of reading discussed
rigorous method- ological below.
standards while excluding
1. Phonemic Awareness is the
qualitative
ability to notice, think about,
and manipulate the individual
sounds in spoken words. For
example, below is a basic
activity to make students aware
of different sounds in Eng- lish
words.

Question Answer

What is the first sound of the word hat? h

What is the last sound of the word map? p

What is the middle sound of the word top? o

Add an “s” to the end of top. tops

Put the “s” in front of top. stop

Replace the “t” in the word stop with an “h.” shop

2. Phonics is instruction that

teaches the relationship
between letters and/or
graphemes and phonemes. For
example, the word “cat” would
be pronounced: /k/
+ /æ/ + /t/ = /kæt/ Students are
taught to pronounce words by
sounding out and blending all
the letters. The National
Reading Panel (2000, 10) found
“that explicit, systematic
phonics instruction is a
valuable and essential part of a
classroom reading program.”
3. Fluency is the ability to read
a text accurately, smoothly, and
rapidly with proper expression.
The NRP found that fluency is
often neglected in the
classroom, and that guided,
repeated oral reading with
feedback is effective. Other
tech- niques to promote fluency
include Exten- sive Reading
(ER) and Repeated Reading
(RR). With ER, students read
a variety of texts that are
interesting to them and at the
2 20 NUMBER | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U
right level. With RR, learners read a specific passage
several times in order to increase their word
recognition and comprehension; both ER and RR can
result in increased fluency and enjoyment of reading
(Taguchi, Takayasu-Maass, and Gorsuch 2004).
4.Vocabulary is knowledge of words and is required to
communicate effectively and understand a text.
According to Nation

2 20 NUMBER | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U
 (2001), it takes five to sixteen possibilities to make reading instruc- tion more
meetings of a new word before comprehensive and integrative.
it can be learned. Nagy (2005)
Reading instruction for second language learners
has identified five components
of effective vocabulary The National Reading Panel (2000) did not focus on
instruction: reading for ESL or EFL students. However, most of the
reading instruction techniques and activities from an L1
1. Wide reading
inte- grated approach are applicable to L2 learn- ers and
2. Developing word
are a recognizable part of ESL and EFL instruction, as
consciousness in students
can be seen from second
3. Use of high-quality oral
language in the classroom
4. Direct teaching of specific
words
5. Modeling independent
word learn- ing strategies
5. Comprehension is the
understanding of what is being
read, and it is the ultimate goal
of reading. The National
Reading Panel (2000) identified
seven strategies to enhance
reading comprehension:
1. Comprehension monitoring
2. Cooperative learning
3. Use of graphic and
semantic organizers
4. Question generation
5. Question answering
6. Story structure
7. Summarizing
After the NRP released its
report, several researchers and
practitioners expressed their
concern over the narrow point of
view and exclusion of alternate
research and qualitative studies
(Yatvin 2000; Pressley 2001,
2006; International Reading
Association 2006). As a result,
qualitative instructional practices
relat- ing to classroom
organization, motivation and
engagement, differentiated
instruction, oral language,
writing, and expert tutoring were
recommended by the International
Reading Association (2006) to be
added to the five components of
reading instruction identified by
the NRP. In conjunction with the
NRP’s actual findings, these new
recommendations offer more

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U | NUMBER 20 2
language Statistics 2007). August and
teaching Shanahan (2006b) report that in
methodolog 2004 five times as many students
y texts such with limited English ability failed
as Omaggio to complete high school than did
(1986). students who used English at
In the home. This educational disparity
United affects these students’ ability to
States, learn to read and write
where proficiently, and therefore
minority lan- prohibits them from fully
guage participating in American society
students (August and Shanahan 2006a).
generally In response to this disparity, the U.S.
underperfor Department of Education created
m in school, the Nation- al Literacy Panel
a large (NLP) in 2002 and directed it to
amount of “identify, assess, and synthesize
research has research on the education of
been language minority chil- dren and
conducted youth with regard to literacy
to learn how attain- ment and to produce a
to help them comprehensive report” (August
achieve in and Shanahan 2006b, 2). In
reading and addition to recommending many
other aspects of an inte- grative
English approach to reading instruction,
language the final NLP report underscored
skills. the importance of oral proficiency
Between (August and Shanahan 2006a).
1979 and Students with oral proficiency in a
2005, “the second language will be better
number of able to transfer their linguistic
school-age knowledge and vocabulary to new
children situations and contexts (Omaggio
(ages 5–17) 1986). Therefore, stricter
who spoke a attention to oral skills is an
language essential component to an
other than integrated approach to reading for
English at ESL and EFL students.
home
Reading progress and the Matthew
increased
Effect
from 3.8
million to After reviewing my course
10.6 million, textbook, I real- ized that it used
or from 9 to the whole language model almost
20 percent exclusively. The reading strategies
of the of skimming, scanning, and
population prediction are rou- tinely taught.
in this age However, the textbook does not
range” include any direct instruction in
(National the five com- ponents of reading
Center for identified by the National Reading
Education Panel (2000). When faced with

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U | NUMBER 20 2
unknown
vocabulary
in context,
half of my

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U | NUMBER 20 2
 students were unable to make the By
contextual guesses necessary to keeping
adequately comprehend the abreast
reading text. As a result, half of of new
my stu- dents were losing the developm
“psycholinguistic guess- ing ents in
game” described by Goodman reading,
(1967). teachers
My students had been left to can
the mercy of the Matthew Effect improve
described by Stanovich (1986), their
which refers to a biblical parable practice,
in Matthew 25:29: “For to all as I did
those who have, more will be by
given, and they will have an researchi
abundance; but from those who ng the
have nothing, even what they have topic and
will be taken away.” In the developi
Matthew Effect the good reader ng an
gets better and the poor reader integrate
gets worse. How? When someone d lesson
likes to read, they read more. plan that
Conse- quently, they gain is based
vocabulary and practice in fluent, on
automatic reading. Reading gets methods
easier with practice. This virtuous that have
cycle then repeats itself. On the demonstr
other hand, when someone ated
struggles with reading or does not positive
like to read, they read less. As a results.
result, they do not gain The
vocabulary or practice in fluent, lesson
automatic reading. This lack of plan
reading practice makes reading engaged
even more difficult. This vicious my
cycle then repeats itself students
(Stanovich 1986, 364). in
To circumvent the Matthew reading
Effect and improve reading ability and
for all of my stu- dents, I created helped
an integrated lesson plan (see them
Appendix) that included the five understa
components of reading specified nd what
by the National Reading Panel they
(2000). I also incorporated read.
opportuni- ties for students to Their
participate in meaningful grades
conversation with each other as improved
recommended by the National so that
Literacy Panel (August and by the
Shanahan 2006a) and others end of
(Eivers et al. 2005; Omaggio the
1986). semester
no one
Conclusion
2 20 NUMBER | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U
 was failing. They became self- You can steer
motivated readers, and many
began to read books on their own yourself any
outside of class, for plea- sure. direction you
Most importantly, they discovered
choose.
that Dr. Seuss (1990) was right
when he said: You’re on your own. And you
know what you know.
You have brains in
your head. You have And YOU are the guy who’ll
decide where to go.
feet in your shoes
Oh, the places you’ll go!

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Report of the Nation- al Reading instruction, National Reading
Panel—Teaching children to read: Panel, 1–6. Washington, DC:
An evidence-based assessment of National Institute of Child Health
the scientific research literature and Human Development. http://
on reading and its implications www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/u
for reading instruction. pload/ minorityView.pdf.
Washington, DC: National
Institute of Child Health and
Human Develop- ment.
http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publicatio
ns/ nrp/smallbook.cfm. THOMAS BAKER is an International House
OECD/UNESCO-UIS. 2003. Literacy CELTA-qualified teacher who has taught
skills for the world of tomorrow: EFL in Chile for seven years. He currently
Further results from PISA 2000. teaches at the Colegio del Verbo Divino and
Paris: OECD/UNESCO. at the Instituto Chileno Británico de Cultura
Omaggio, A. 1986. Teaching in Santiago.
language in context:
Proficiency-oriented instruction.
Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
Pressley, M. 2001. Effective beginning
reading instruction: A paper
commissioned by the

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U | NUMBER 20 2
 Do You Like Green Eggs and Ham?
An Integrated Lesson Plan for Reading
Applying Reading Research to the Development of an Integrated Lesson Plan • Thomas
Baker

Purpose
I recommend this lesson plan for teachers who want to improve their
students’ reading compre- hension. Beyond that, it will also positively
affect students’ enjoyment of reading. It can be easily adapted to almost
any teaching situation. For each activity I note the skills that are
developed, includ- ing oral proficiency and the following components from
the National Reading Panel (2000):
• Phonemic awareness is evident when students can identify words
that rhyme. In writing their own new ending that rhymes, they
manipulate sounds and create rhymes of their own.
• Phonics is evident when students learn the sounds that vowel
combinations make and then apply them to decode unknown words.

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U | NUMBER 20 2
 Do You Like Green Eggs and Ham? (continued)
Applying Reading Research to the Development of an Integrated Lesson Plan • Thomas
Baker

• Fluency is developed by the repeated reading of the story. Students

read the story several times, each time with a different purpose. This
builds their ability to automatically recognize words on sight without
sounding them out. Additionally, students practice with sight words
to build speed of recognition.
• Vocabulary knowledge appears in the read aloud/think aloud activity,
and the teacher shows students how good readers learn vocabulary in
context by verbalizing thoughts. Additionally, students use the
vocabulary of the story when summarizing, retelling, and writing.
Concrete vocabulary is consolidated when students draw pictures to
provide a visual representation of the words in the story.
• Comprehension is enhanced in the read aloud/think aloud activity.
The teacher demon- strates how to make, confirm, and refute
predictions, summarize while reading, monitor understanding while
reading, visualize, make personal connections to the story, and
develop word consciousness by focusing on how words are used and
the sounds they make, such as the rhyme and rhythm of the iambic
pentameter used by Dr. Seuss (1960). In addition, the Reader’s
Theater frees students to interpret and express their own meaning
through the use of their voice and gestures.
Total Time: 80 minutes (2 class periods of 40 minutes each)
Materials
• Handout/Storybook: Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss (1960)
• CD or tape-recording of Green Eggs and Ham
• CD or tape player
Three presentations (presentations can be done with PowerPoint,
overheads, drawings, magazine cutouts, index cards, or an actor)
1. Green Eggs and Ham story (also downloaded Google images,
drawings, realia)
2. Dr. Seuss biography (birthplace, childhood, family, marriage,
career, death)
3. Sight words and Fry Phrases (index cards, chalkboard or
whiteboard, paper)
First Class: (40 minutes)
Pre-reading (15 minutes)
Skills developed: Vocabulary, Comprehension, Oral Proficiency
1. Activate Prior Knowledge
a. Write the word egg on the board. Ask students in pairs to draw a
spidergram with the word egg in the center. Students make as
many connections as possible.
b. Pair and Share: Each pair shares their spidergram with another
pair.
c. Change Pairs and Repeat.
d. New pairs. Write the word ham on the board. Repeat steps a, b,
and c.
e. Pairwork. Turn and Talk:
•“Have you ever tried to give someone something they didn’t
want?”

2 20 NUMBER | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U
 •“Has anyone ever tried to give you something you didn’t
want?”
2. Prediction Activity
a. Write the words green eggs and ham on the board. Ask students
to make two predictions about the story.
b. Pair and Share: Students discuss their predictions in pairs.
During Reading (15 minutes)
Skills developed: Vocabulary, Comprehension, Fluency, Oral Proficiency
3. Read Aloud/Think Aloud (Teacher reads text aloud and students read
silently)
a. Teacher models fluent reading: Reads with rhythm, rate,
intonation and expression.
b. Teacher thinks aloud periodically to show what a good reader
does when a story does

2 20 NUMBER | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U
Do You Like Green Eggs and Ham? (continued)
Applying Reading Research to the Development of an Integrated Lesson Plan • Thomas
Baker

not make sense. Some examples include: reread or summarize

parts; use story structure; use pictures, maps, graphs, charts,
and examples; personalize the story; guess at mean- ings using
prefixes, suffixes, root words, synonyms, and antonyms.
c. Teacher asks students to predict, summarize, retell, and visualize.
d. Students confirm predictions and make new predictions.
e. Teacher asks questions using: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? What if...?
Post-reading (10 minutes)
Skills developed: Vocabulary, Comprehension, Oral Proficiency, Phonemic Awareness
4. Teacher wraps up 40-minute class period
a. Students share their personal reaction to the story in pairs.
b. Plenary: Teacher asks students to share reactions with the whole class.
c. Teacher assigns homework from the list below:
1. Reread the story. Make a list of all the words that rhyme,
such as boat/goat, house/mouse, and train/rain.
2. Write a letter to the author. Tell him your opinion of the story.
3. List at least three ways to make green eggs. (Interview
parents or use Internet or encyclopedia.)
4.Draw all of the characters or objects mentioned in the story.
Second Class (40 minutes)
Post-reading (continued from previous class)
Skills developed: Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Vocabulary,
Fluency, Oral Proficiency, Comprehension
5. Students turn in homework (1 minute)
6. Retell Story in pairs (2 minutes). One student retells the story; the
other summarizes the retold story.
7. Shared Reading (7 minutes). All students read along aloud with CD
recording of story (pos- sibly set to music).
8. Use PowerPoint, overheads, drawings, magazine cutouts (7 minutes).
a. Share Dr. Seuss biography with students.
b. Use PowerPoint, overheads, or flash cards to practice sight words and Fry phrases.
c. Teacher asks students to find all words that rhyme and circle
vowel combinations. Teacher tells student to ask their partners
about the sounds that oa, ou, ai, make.
d. Complete the rhyming rule:
When two vowels go walking, the first one does the
. (talking)
When o goes walking with u, the rule isn’t always !
(true)
9.Repeated Reading Role Play (7 minutes)
a.Divide the class in half.
b. Half the class is A; the other half is B. Read in character and use appropriate expression.
c. Change roles. Repeat same as above.
10. Reader’s Theater. Students read from a text while performing the
story. Lines are not memo- rized. (14 minutes)
a.Students perform Green Eggs and Ham in pairs.
b.Teacher and students give Oscars for outstanding performances.
11. Teacher assigns homework from list below (2 minutes)

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U | NUMBER 20 2
 a.Write a new ending for the story. The ending must rhyme.
b. Write a paragraph about the character you liked most in the
story and explain why. How are you similar or different from this
character?

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U | NUMBER 20 2
 An AE E-‐Teacher Study Guide for:
Applying Reading Research to the Development of an Integrated Lesson Plan
Article by Thomas Baker
Study Guide by Cara Aaron

From English Language Teaching Forum, 2008, Volume 46, Number 1 Retrieved 5 January 2018
from: https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/06-‐44-‐1-‐d.pdf

Glossary:
• Proficient (adj) -‐ skilled; able
• Integrate (v) -‐ combine; blend
• Comprehensive (adj) -‐ all-‐inclusive; complete; full

Overview:

It can be tough to help students learn to read in English, which is their L2, but it is especially
difficult if they are not proficient readers in their L1. Faced with this challenge while he was
teaching in Chile, Thomas Baker writes about becoming a successful reading instructor from his
own experience. In his article, he discusses some of the most common approaches to teaching
reading, and he supports that teachers should integrate different approaches so that students
receive the benefits of all styles of reading instruction.

Common Reading Approaches:

Whole Language Approach:

• This is a comprehensive approach to teaching learners how to read in an L1 or L2.

• The teacher gives students a large range of different level-‐appropriate reading materials
that the students would find interesting or exciting.
• The teacher allows the students to individually interact with the reading materials using
their own background knowledge of the topics and using textual cues so that the students
make inferences about the meanings of the reading materials.
• Of course, learners will at first make mistakes in word recognition, spelling, and
pronunciation. To use the Whole Language Approach effectively, students must learn to
take risks in order to find meaning in a text.
• With more exposure to reading materials as they learn from their mistakes, students
gradually begin to understand and create meaning for words and sentences; therefore,
they become proficient readers over time

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E- -Teacher Study Guide for: Applying Reading
Research to the Development of an Integrated Lesson Plan for the AE E- -Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S.
Department of State, with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is
licensed under the Creative Commons AUribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license,
visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Phonics (Skills-‐Based) Approach:

• The instructor focuses on teaching individual letters, phonemes (the sounds of each letter),
and the syllables or words. Students then learn to read by sounding out the letters in order
to learn words. This leads to word recognition and then spelling and pronunciation
awareness.
• The Phonics Approach can be troublesome when teaching English, however, because
English has 26 letters but 44 phonemes. This means that some letters in English have more
than one sound, so the decoding process can be difficult for learners.
 Baker (2008) provides the example of the phoneme /f/ because English can
represent this sound with the letter f as in the word fox, the letters ph as in the
word elephant, and the letters gh as in the word rough (2008, 23, p.23).

Integrating Whole Language and Phonics Approaches:

Baker (2008) combined his research and his own experience to conclude that a combination of
both Whole Language strategies and Phonics strategies are most appropriate for teaching
students how to read. He specifically notes research that was done by the United States’
National Reading Panel (NRP) because it proved that it is important to integrate Whole
Language and Phonics approaches, and it also places importance on students’ ability to
communicate orally in their L2. This is because students who are proficient L2 speakers will use
their understanding of how the L2 works and their knowledge of L2 vocabulary in new
situations, such as while they read a new text (Baker, 2008, p. 25, as cited in Omaggio, 1986).

If you combine aspects of the Whole Language Approach, the Phonics Approach, and student’s
L2 oral communicative skills when you teach reading, you will likely be able to help your
students become better readers in English while motivating them to enjoy the reading
experience.

At the end of the article, Baker provides an example of a lesson plan to demonstrate how you
can apply this integrated approach in your own classroom. Please open the appendix of the
article to find his example.

Reference:
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public
use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Omaggio, A. 1986. Teaching language in context: Proficiency-‐oriented instruction. Boston:

Heinle and Heinle.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
4.4 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Writing

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4.4.1 Lesson Activity Development: Writing Strategies
PRE-WRITING
Writing is a creative process and it is almost impossible to write well without doing planning
ahead of time. There are many ways we can encourage students to prepare for a writing
task. Look at some pre-writing strategies and think about which one would best for your
students.

DRAFTING
Drafting is getting all your ideas on paper without worrying about mechanics (spelling,
punctuation, or word choice).

REVISING/EDITING
The revision process is an essential part of writing and it is very important that students build in
time for it before submitting their written work. Revision is stepping back and looking at
the paper as a whole and asking the question: Do I say what I wanted to say?
Editing is essentially proofreading the paper: correcting grammar, punctuation, or spelling
errors.
Watch this video on peer review using the C.A.R.E.S Model (a 5-step model for giving peer
feedback), which is an effective part of the revision process.
Below is the C.A.R.E.S. handout (Peer Review Feedback Form).

Below is the transcript for this video.

4
C A R E S Peer Review Feedback Form
Perhaps the most helpful tool in developing logical, readable drafts is a peer review session. Peer
Review is effective for both the writer and the reviewer. Depending on the writing assignment, adult
readers will review class content, as well as strengthen vital writing and close reading skills. Writers
will recognize that good writing communicates effectively with diverse readers.

To remember while viewing:

Note: The least helpful comment to receive from a peer reviewer is "It looks good to me."

 First attend to Higher Order Concerns: thesis, audience, purpose, organization, development (support)
 Then attend to Lower Order Concerns: sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling
 Make comments in spirit of helpfulness. Take comments in spirit of helpfulness.

Writer: Reviewer:

What does the writer do well in this assignment? (List one or more aspects.) Also, please write the writer's main
C claim or focus (thesis) according to what you have read. (It may not be the last sentence of the first paragraph -
the traditional place for the thesis.)
Congratulate

What part(s) of the essay were a bit confusing? Why?

A
Ask
clarifying
questions
What specific suggestions (3 or fewer) do you have for revising the unclear parts of this writing? *

What would you like to know more about the topic that can enhance the essay and that supports the thesis?
R
Request
more

What specific detail(s) do not work with the essay (e.g. doesn’t support the thesis) or can be moved within the
E essay?
Evaluate
its value

Overall, what new information have you learned or how are you thinking differently after this reading
S
Summarize
C A R E S Peer Review Feedback Form
Page 2

* You may use the list below for ideas.

(Please identify the paragraph for your suggestion)

 Thesis needs to better identify the main point of the essay

 Topic sentence(s) needs to identify the main point of this paragraph

 Paragraph(s) needs one overall idea (needs more specific evidence, needs more writer's commentary)

 Words: repeating words, repeating ideas, repeating sentence structure

 Using vague language, using slang, transition words needed

 Proofreading: punctuation, spelling, grammar

 Sources (if used) need to be clearly identified

 Proper intext / reference format needed

5
5
PRACTICE
See if you can put the writing process steps in the correct order.

This activity is for practice and will not be graded.

5
4.5 Lecture: Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary

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5
5
4.5.1 Lesson Activity Development: Vocabulary Strategies
VOCABULARY STRATEGIES
Vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read. Learners cannot understand what they
are reading without knowing what the words mean. Therefore, the ability to read effectively
requires a strong vocabulary. Look at these different strategies and tools for improving
students' reading vocabulary.
CONTEXT CLUES
A context clue is a word or phrase in the same sentence or a nearby sentence that can help the
reader determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word.
There are many types of context clues:

5
WORD PART CLUES
When you are reading on your own and you come to a word that you do not understand, you
can try to break the word into parts. You can look at prefixes, suffixes, and root and base words
for some help with the meaning.
Watch this video to learn more about word part clues.

Below is the transcript for this video.

5
6
6
4.6 Culture Spotlight: Digital Citizenship and Responsibilities

In this cultural spotlight we will talk about using the internet in a responsible way.

Digital Citizenship and Responsibilities

Technology has a growing presence in people's lives. From cell phones to the Internet,
Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, WhatsApp and more, people are leaving a digital reminder of
their interactions. What we say is recorded and can last a long time. Anyone can write
something and present it as truth. This presents some challenges related to reading and writing
in English. While freedom of speech is protected by the Constitution of the United States,
citizens must also balance this freedom with an awareness that what they say and do will be
preserved as data. Additionally, not everything that is in writing is true.
With the expansion of technological advances come great responsibilities. For these reasons,
English teachers should promote and model digital citizenship. This means to model and teach
safe, legal, and ethical use of digital information and technology, including respect for
copyright, intellectual property, and the appropriate documentation of sources, as well as
making responsible choices about how much personal information to share online.

We need to teach our students to be responsible digital citizens. But what does that mean?
Writing:

6
What you post online is permanent. You will leave a digital footprint (a record of what you
post) that may never disappear. We have to make sure that students know that whatever they
post now can be accessed later.
We should encourage learners to:

 share positive images and examples

 avoid posting photos they don't want a boss or other officials to see
 avoid posting comments or ideas that are negative or hurtful to others
 choose carefully what they share with others online

Reading:
Another important aspect of being responsible digital citizens is to be able to think and read
critically. But again what does that mean? It means that we need to teach students how to
detect biased (when we believe that some people, ideas, etc., are better than others)
information, or incorrect information, and how to find information that is reliable and
trustworthy.
For example, "The Onion" is a satirical newspaper in the U.S. It pretends to be news for
entertainment, but usually makes a social statement in a silly way. Its articles are often false but
are presented to look real as a form of humor. English learners can practice reading articles like
this with a critical eye to learn to recognize when something written is true, or a joke. Likewise,
some other articles are written for political purposes and may not be true.
We should encourage learners to:

 Verify that the source of information is reputable

 Compare the information with what other sources are saying
 Analyze the language that is used (it is fact or opinion)?

Look at this guide about detecting fake news.

6
6
4.7 Optional Discussion: Reading, Writing and Digital Citizenship

Reading, Writing and Digital Citizenship

After working through the lectures, the activities, and the reading, you should be familiar with
some reading and writing strategies, as well as the challenges of reading and writing in a digital
world. Let's discuss how these ideas apply to our own teaching contexts.

Directions:
1. Answer the following questions in your post:

 How do you currently teach reading skills, and engage students in reading in your classes. What
strategies might you apply with your own students?
 What challenges have you experienced in helping English learners develop their writing skills? What
do you do now that is working well? What is one thing you will try that you learned in this unit?
 What is one way you can prepare your learners to use English as a responsible digital citizen? How
might you embed this into what you are currently teaching?

2. Post your responses to these questions in the discussion thread below. Your responses
should be between 150-250 words long.
This discussion is not graded. However, please see this self-assessment rubric for scoring on
how well you address each part of the assignment.

6
6
4.8 Lecture: Feedback
Learner Feedback
It is very important to provide learners with continuous feedback throughout a course. We call
this feedback formative. Watch this video about formative feedback.

Below are the transcripts for Part 1, Part 2 and Part 3 of the video.
Following the transcripts, you can also access the accompanying handout.

6
 Transcript
Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 1
Narrator: Module five, Learner Feedback. Module focus, introduction. One important distinction to
make when giving learner feedback is that a formative versus summative evaluation. Formative
evaluation is a way of giving students feedback along the way. It is the answer to the questions; how
am I doing so far and how can I improve?. Summative evaluation includes those kinds of evaluation that
summarizes a student’s overall performance. For example, the final grade for a course. In this module,
we’ll look at some do’s and don’ts for formative learner feedback and some specific techniques for
giving feedback on work that students have produced when the primary focus is on oral skills and on
writing skills.

Number 1. Viewing points: general do’s and don’ts. Some general guidelines for feedback are to
understand why the error has happened. For example, it was a guess, it was a careless mistake. Or, it
actually showed an error in the student’s understanding of the rules or use of language. When it is an
actual language error, analyze what kind of error it is. For example, a vocabulary, grammar,
pronunciation, or a pragmatic error. Choose a feedback techniques that fits both the error type and the
context in which it occurred. Ask yourself what are the important errors in this context. Did the error
prevent us from understanding and what errors are worth overlooking in the interest of fluency,
continuity, overall communication and so on.

Teacher instruction.

Narrator: Whenever possible, use feedback mechanisms so that the students can self-edit and self-
correct with a peer or in groups. Above all, encourage rather than discourage. Use positive feedback
over negative. Students are more likely to engage with the language when they feel motivated,
confident, and successful.

Video segment number one: observe the following video segments at two different teachers describe
their approaches and techniques for dealing with feedback. What techniques did the teacher use? What
is the relationship between classroom atmosphere or tone and student performance?

Video Segment One (Teacher speaking): I have everything from barley can speak a word to are almost
a native speaker. So, and you see that in the interaction with the children, as you know some of them
are really bold but about mid-year I had a real huge transition as I conference with the parents and, and
really encouraged. The parents do encourage their students to participate more in class. It made a huge
difference, like seventy-five percent difference. I had more almost the majority of my kids participating
during English language time, compared to five kids really participating. So that was a huge shift for me
and something really exciting to see with the culture that I’m working with in my classroom all of them
came to their conferences and literally the next week it was a complete shift of kids being more
involved. My teaching didn’t really change, we didn’t have no curriculum or anything, it was just a

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 1:Transcript for the
AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed
under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
matter of it’s okay we learn by making mistakes and if you don’t practice you’re never going to learn or
you’re going to learn a lot more slowly, and they all really want to be good English speakers and because
we have, because of our language model here in our classroom, we only have a limited time in English
and they really need to take advantage of it.

Video Segment 2 (Teacher speaking): They were working according to their learning styles. We’re going
to assign them different topics. The topics they started last year, and they have to develop some
activities, like exercises, something like that, according to the linear learning styles. Then they will
switch the activities and the other groups are going to sell their activities…you know what I mean, their
activities for example Group A prepares different the other groups are going to solve the activities, so
the exercises and after that the original group will collect the activities and they, they will check them.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Transcript
Shaping the Way We Teach English Part
Narrator: Summary, in both cases, the teachers have created a classroom atmosphere where it is okay
to make mistakes. Making mistakes and using trial and error process for learning counts as a positive
student behavior. Students help each other, correct each other and even design activities for each
other.

Number two viewing points: Feedback on oral production. There are many reasons for students to
engage in speaking tasks. From a simple almost formulaic level, for example, greeting other, asking for
directions, shopping, or telling or retelling a story. On up to a more complex level stating a point of
view, synthesizing information and reporting on it, debating performing in a play and so on.

Video Segment Number Two. Observe the following video segments as the teacher offers some on-the-
spot feedback. In what ways are the feedback techniques a good match for the activity and the
situation?

Teacher asking students questions: How long did they go for their canoe ride? And so, and what did
they do? Migeul? They caught the fish? Uh-huh? And Pedro? What did they, what did they find? Could
you give a sentence?

Pedro: The girl caught the fish.

Teacher; Who can give me the first sentence? Maria, very good? Now, can you give the next one? When
did they go.

Student: Oh, they go through the lake.

Teacher: No when, did they go on Monday?

Student: Oh, the girl and the boy went on the weekend.

Class: On Saturday and Sunday.

Teacher: Oh, thank you, we’re gonna give that one to Pedro.

Pedro: They went to a large house and rented a canoe.

Teacher: They went for a canoe ride. How long did they go for a canoe ride?

Student: For two hours? And they caught fish.

Teacher encourages conversation amongst students.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 2:Transcript for
the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360

and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
 Transcript
Shaping the Way We Teach English Part
Narrator: Summary, here we saw examples of students helping retell a story about a canoe ride and
catching a fish with a million dollars in it. The teacher used a blend of Correction, Reformulations, and
asking for clarification techniques. She and the other students also use gestures to help the speaker
continue. On-the-spot correction techniques are useful for giving feedback while a student is
performing. Examples include using gestures or silent mouthing, offering a quick correction,
reformulating and asking for clarification or of repetition. Delayed correction techniques avoid
interruptions and allow students to speak or write with fluency and cohesion. In this case, observers
note errors and give individual, group, or whole class feedback. Afterwards the feedback can be oral or
written. Teachers can also record or videotape students. Students can then self-reflect, get feedback
from others and/or receive feedback from the teacher.

Number Three Viewing Points: Feedback on Written Production: As with oral productions, there are
many purposes for writing. For example, stating a point of view, telling or retelling a story, synthesizing
information and reporting on something, applying for a job, making a request, planning for the future,
writing a letter and so on. A teacher can support the writing process and help with effective feedback by
providing models. By making available student self-edit checklists and resources by focusing first on
fluency and overall comprehension instead of mechanical mistakes and by allowing time and making
resources available for students to self-correct and to receive formative feedback and peer feedback
along the way.

Module focus: Summary. The focus in module five has been on providing appropriate learner feedback
in the classroom. Some questions to ask ourselves in order to provide students with helpful feedback
include the following: Is the mistake or error really wrong or could it be my imagination? I can always
ask for clarification or a repetition. Is this a mistake that several students are making? Should I pull back
and redirect the group or the whole class instead of the individuals? Does the mistake or error affect
communication? Are we concentrating on accuracy at the moment? Would on-the-spot or delayed
feedback or even ignoring it all together be more appropriate from a cultural perspective? From a
cultural perspective is it likely to offend or irritate someone? Is it the first time the student has spoken
for a long time? Could that the student react badly to my correction? What is themost supportive way
to offer feedback?

Teacher: Remember what we’ve been learning about?

Narrator: Anticipating mistakes and errors that students are likely to make, diagnosing them when
they happen, and then providing a feedback technique that’s a good match and that encourages
students to keep going; this is what defines effective learner feedback.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Shaping the Way We Teach English Part 3: Transcript for
AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license,
visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360

and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Teacher: Good, we have a capital letter at the beginning of a sentence and a period at the end of a
sentence.

Narrator: See the manual for readings and for more information on this and other topics related to
learner feedback.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
 Module 5
Learner Feedback

Approaches to e ching:
Languag Tea Foundations
Video Length: Approximately 13 Minutes
Notes to the Trainer

For best results, have participants go through the readings for this module
prior to viewing the video. As you work through this module, use pairs or
groups whenever you think it might be effec- tive. After each group activity,
debrief the answers and use them for further discussion of various points. Refer
back to the main points when appropriate. The primary goal is for participants to
begin thinking positively and creatively about types of learner feedback they
can find and adapt to their own local teaching situations.

See Appendix A for additional handouts that can be used for general
observation and discussion tasks with any of the modules.

Before Viewing

Ask participants to think of a situation or story about a time when they gave
feedback to someone; e.g., a student, a child, a friend, or someone else. The
feedback may have had either a negative effect (the person was angry or sad)
or a positive effect (smiles all around; the “Aha!” effect as the student finally
understood a language point). Then, have participants think about a situation
or story from a time when they received feedback from someone. What was
the effect in this case?

Debrief

Have participants get into pairs or small groups and share their stories. As they
tell their experi- ences, they could include such information as:
•Their relationship to the person.
•Why they gave or received the feedback.
•When, where, and how they it happened.
•The result.

In addition, they can reflect on whether they wish anything had happened differently.

Finally, have groups compile their feedback and sort items into three
columns or categories or piles: + (plus / positive), - (minus / negative), and
not clear. Give them these discussion questions:
• How were feedback examples distributed within the group? Across all of the groups?
• Did any clear patterns emerge?
•What conclusions might you draw from this?
•What further questions or issues come to mind?
•What is the relationship to this activity and types of feedback in your class(es)?
 Page 45
This work is a derivative of “Shaping the Way We Teach English” by the University of Oregon via American English, used under Public Domain This derivative is licensed under under CC BY 4.0 by
the University of Maryland Baltimore County for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.
 Modul 5: Learner
e Feedback
Preview Vocabulary

Terms Definitions
Canoe A small, narrow, open boat.
Diagnose To determine exactly what kind of mistake or error
the student is making and what might be the cause
of the error.
Error Language production that is not correct. In applied
linguistics re- search, it refers to patterns in
production that shows incomplete or incorrect
learning.
Feedback; Information which lets learners know how they are
error correction doing or whether their production is correct.
Formative feedback Feedback used to check on learner progress during
the period of learning, to determine what has been
learned so far and what still needs work.
Formulaic Structures or communication patterns that are
predictable and usually the same, such as
greetings, shopping dialogues, etc.
Mistake Generally, a mistake is incorrect language production.
In research, as opposed to the specialized meaning of
“error” (see above), a mistake is the result of
inattention or carelessness, rather than incomplete
learning.
Negative feedback Informing learners directly when their work is
incorrect. May use negative wording such as “no” or
“don’t.”
Positive feedback Techniques that help learners discover their own
mistakes and self-correct. Avoids the use of
negative wording.
Pragmatics Social and cultural aspects of language use.
Reformulate To write or say something again, differently.
Self-reflect To reflect on or think about your own learning or
teaching.
Summative feedback Feedback that takes place at the end of a learning
period to mea- sure what has been achieved by the
learners.;
Synthesize To combine ideas in a way that creates a whole that
is new or dif- ferent from the separate ideas or that
encompasses the separate ideas under a more
holistic idea.
Trial and error Learning by trying new or different language,
taking risks, and learning from errors or mistakes.

Now start the video. Listen to the introduction. Complete the guided
observation and reflection tasks for each of the video segments. The next part
of the manual is for trainees and is available on separate pages for ease of
copying.
Page 46 Shaping the Way We Teach English
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Module 5, Learner Feedback

Introduction, Expanded Narrative

Appropriate feedback is necessary for effective and efficient learning.

Incorrectness is not the only standard teachers can use to assess learning. This
module considers learner feedback in these three domains:
1. Feedback can be linguistic in nature and relate to the actual use of the language.
2. It can also focus on communication, which concerns the task or the content of the message.
3. And, finally, feedback can be affective, encouraging learners’ attempts
to communicate and to use the language. The purpose of affective feedback
is to build confidence.

There are several important aspects to consider when giving feedback:

• Both positive and negative feedback are needed for the most effective learning. Negative
feed- back is direct error correction or drawing attention to error. Positive
feedback can be affective, can reward for correct or successful communication,
or can provide the opportunity for self-correction.
• Feedback can be oral, written, or non-verbal; it can be given to individuals, groups, or the
entire class.
• Feedback can be given immediately or delayed, depending on which would be most effective
for the task or situation?
• Feedback can be either formative or summative. Formative feedback isn’t usually graded
and is given at all stages throughout the learning period. Summative feedback is
given at the conclusion of a unit, a project, or a period of learning. This can be a
grade or a final report on students’ work.
• It is important to understand the nature of an error in order to determine whether and how
to use corrective feedback.

Module Focus

The focus in this module is formative feedback. Formative feedback is

continuous, and it can encourage or discourage the learner. Teachers need to
learn how to use techniques that encour- age learners and that give them
confidence. He or she need to learn how to avoid techniques that discourage
learners, that embarrass them, or make them feel “stupid.”

Some general guidelines on what to do, and what not to do:

• Understand why the error occurred. Did the student not know how to produce the correct
lan- guage, or did they make a careless mistake?
• Determine the type of error. If it was a language error, what kind of error was it?
Grammar? Vo- cabulary? Pragmatic in nature (inappropriate usage)?
• Make the feedback fit both the kind of error and the context in which it occurred. Avoid
trying to correct every error. The teacher must decide whether the error is
important enough to correct, whether it prevents understanding, or whether
fluency is more important for this task, so some errors can be overlooked.
• Avoid over-correction and too much negative feedback. Whenever possible, use feedback
tech- niques that allow learners to self-correct, either individually or in groups.
• Above all, encourage student learning through positive feedback. Tell students that making
mistakes helps them learn. Help students to be successful and confident. Use positive feedback
tech- niques that help to create a comfortable atmosphere in which students see
making mistakes as part of the learning process.
Shaping the Way We Teach English Page 47
 Modul 5: Learner
e Feedback
Video Segment #1, General Dos and Don’ts: Observation Guide
[Read before viewing.]

The first two video examples will focus on oral production and the third one will
focus on written production. Watch the video as many times as needed.

At a general level, look for examples of the following items in this first video segment.
Describe what you see, and try to interpret what you think is happening. (See
Module 4 for an explanation of the Describe, Interpret, Evaluate process).
• Classroom atmosphere.
•Trial-and-error processes at work in the classroom.
• Students supporting and correcting each other.

At a more detailed level, look for the next set of items below. Once again,
describe what you see, and try to interpret what you think is happening. Be prepared to
summarize, analyze, and evaluate your findings as part of the discussion for this
module.
• Pay attention to how the first teacher increased student participation in class.
• Listen for comments on how the classroom atmosphere relates to student performance.
• Listen for the first teacher’s description of a trial-and-error process.
• Listen for the group process that enables students to help each other and give peer feedback.

Reflection
[Read and answer after viewing.]

1.Who did the teacher give feedback to in order to increase student

participation? Is this some- thing you could do in your own situation? Why or why
not? What techniques do you use to get learn- ers to participate actively?
2.This teacher discussed two ideas related to classroom atmosphere. One was
something she did, and one was a characteristic of the students. What were they?
How are they related to giving feed- back? How did the teacher’s beliefs and
behavior encourage a trial-and-error process?
3.With a partner, write the step-by-step procedure that the second teacher
followed in using groups. Do you believe the feedback in the procedure can be effective?
Why or why not? Could you use this procedure for feedback in your own situation? If
not, try to adapt this idea. How could you use peer feedback in your own
situation?

Video Segment #2, Feedback on Oral Production,

On-the-spot vs. Delayed Feedback: Observation Guide
[Read before viewing.]

Some focus points for this video segment are:

• On-the-spot feedback.
• Delayed feedback.
• Relevance of the feedback to the task.

Some suggested observation tasks follow.

1. Before watching this segment, review the definitions of negative and positive feedback in
the Introduction. Make two columns on your paper, one labeled “positive” and
the other “negative.” As you watch, list the types of feedback you see in the
appropriate columns.
2. Determine what the task is and decide if the feedback given is appropriate for the task.
3. Look for things in the lesson to which the teacher does not draw
attention that might be appropriate for delayed feedback.

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Ap roaches to Language in Foundations
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Reflection
[Read and answer after viewing.]

1. Compare the notes in your positive and negative columns with a partner
or others in your group. Add techniques you missed to your own columns. Are
there more negative or more positive techniques? Put a check next to the
ones that you already use. Make a circle or highlight those that you would
like to try.
2.What student task(s) did you observe? Was the teacher’s feedback appropriate? Did it
match the situation? Did it meet the students’ needs?

Video Segment #3, Feedback on Written Production: Observation Guide

[Read before viewing.]

Watch for feedback on written production in this video segment.

1. List the different writing activities that you see students performing or hear listed on the video.
2. Listen for feedback techniques that can be used with writing activities.

Reflection
[Read and answer after viewing.]

1. Compare your list of writing activities with a partner. Together, add to your lists.
2. After each activity, write one or two techniques that might be effective
ways of giving feedback on the activity. These may be feedback techniques
that you observed on the video, or they may come from your own
experiences or reading.
Shaping the Way We Teach English Page 49
 Modul 5: Learner
e Feedback
Now You Try It—An Action Plan

Step 1
You can read some of the articles on the topic of contextualizing language (see
Module 5 Readings plus the List of Additional Readings and Resources in Shaping
the Way We Teach English: Readings and Resources). Using the video, you have seen a
few examples and ideas from other teachers’ classes.
Now, think about your own classes. Here are some suggestions for classroom
issues that you may want to consider. Talk about your ideas with others in your
group.

Affective Domain
• Increase your students’ willingness and ability to use or produce language.
•Create a positive atmosphere for risk-taking, so students feel comfortable trying to use the language.
• Create opportunities for peer correction and positive feedback.

Linguistic Domain
• Determine what the student’s problem really is.
• Create opportunities for positive feedback.
• Maintain student focus on the language goal of the session or activity.
• Help students learn to self-correct in order to make them more independent learners.
• Deal with errors the whole class is making and deal with individual errors.

Step 2
By yourself or with a peer, design a portion of a lesson that incorporates a new feedback
technique that you would like to try.

Step 3
Share your plan with others in your group. Explain how feedback might be
given during this lesson to improve the class atmosphere and student
performance. Get their ideas and feedback.

Step 4
Change your design, as needed. Try it with your class. Share your results with
others, as applicable. If you are not teaching, ask the trainer or another
experienced teacher for feedback.
Page 50 Shaping the Way We Teach English
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Answer Key to Module 5, Learner Feedback;

Module 5, Video Segment #1, Classroom Techniques

Here are some suggested directions for answers to the questions for this
module. Actual answers may vary depending on local context and the kinds of
experience that viewers bring to the task of interpreting and applying video
and text concepts.

Video Segment #1, General Dos and Don’ts

1.The first teacher wanted more participation from her students, but wasn’t
able to get it in class. In this case, she gave feedback to the parents in parent
conferences. The parents then told their children to participate. This was a successful
delayed feedback technique (more on this in Video Segment #2).

2.The teacher told her students directly that making mistakes was part of the learning
process. By saying this, she set up an atmosphere of acceptance, so the children
would feel comfortable making mistakes. This relaxed atmosphere led to more and
better practice. For this technique to be effective, the teacher’s behavior and the
way she gives feedback must support the statement that mistakes are necessary
and natural. If she gives a lot of negative feedback, frequently correcting students,
they will not believe her original statement.

3. Motivation was the learner characteristic discussed. The teacher said that the
students wanted to be good English speakers. This also contributed to a positive
class atmosphere, a willingness to try to use the language and accept feedback.
This fact, too, led to better student performance. Positive feedback can ensure
that students stay motivated; too much negative feedback, especially if it em-
barrasses students or makes them feel bad, can cause students to become less
motivated.

4.The second teacher used a group process. Her students were grouped
according to learning styles. In the groups, they created activities and
distributed them to other student groups in the class. As each group finished
doing the activities, the original group collected the work and checked it.
This check was peer feedback. Peer feedback can reduce overall anxiety
about making mistakes and, at the same time, cause students to focus and
figure out for themselves what was correct and what wasn’t. It is important
that the teacher monitors such work closely to ensure that the feedback is
both correct and helpful.

Video Segment #2, Feedback on Oral Production,

On-the-Spot vs. Delayed Feedback

1. Below are some possible positive and negative feedback techniques the teacher in the
class used. Both can be appropriate, depending on the context. You may have seen others or
have listed these differently.

This teacher used more positive feedback than negative feedback. She used
gestures, indirect cor- rection, restatement, and requests for clarification or
repetition. Although she did use some negative feedback, she never said,“No, that
isn’t right.” Instead, she quickly gave an answer, gave quick commands, or used
humor.
Shaping the Way We Teach English Page 51
 Modul 5: Learner
e Feedback
Positive Negative;
• Asking direct questions to stimulate speaking. • Giving the next phrase when a speaker
• Asking students to restate for clarification. can’t remember it.
• Using questions as cues to help students • Giving joking criticism; e.g.,“Oh, come on.
continue. You can do better than that.”
• Using question words to cue response •Telling students to wait.
(“When,”“Where,” etc.).
• Clapping for student performance.
•Using words and vocalization of
approval; e.g.“Very good,”“Uh
huh,”“Good.”
•Thanking students.
• Repeating after students to make
response clear.
• Using rapid gestures to encourage response.
• Using words to encourage more response;
e.g.,“Keep going.”

2.The task is retelling a story. Sometimes the two students at the front act
out the story and the others respond with a sentence from the story.
Sometimes the students in class give a sentence and the students in front
respond by acting it out. The teaching/ learning focus is on retelling the story
for content. However, for the students in front, it is also a listening task. They
have to comprehend well enough to act out each utterance. The students
sitting in class have to speak comprehensibly enough that the actors can
understand them and respond accurately.

The feedback in this case is a natural communicative one. If the actors

understand, they respond appropriately. The speakers then know whether
they were understood, even without additional teacher feedback.

The teacher feedback was appropriate to the task. All of her feedback was
focused on the main point of the language practice, retelling the story. Her
feedback was primarily used to encourage students to complete that oral task
and reward them when they did. She did not interrupt them to correct details of
pronunciation or grammar. Likewise, she did not give many instructions to the
actors, except at the end to encourage a more enthusiastic response.

3.The teacher could take notes during the session and use delayed feedback to
correct individual pronunciation and grammar errors. If many students had the
same language problem or were making mistakes on one part of the content,
the teacher could have the whole class work on it after the activity was
completed. She could audio- or video-tape the session and then have students
review it to find and try to correct one or two patterned errors. Note: You might have some
other answers to this question.
Page 52 Shaping the Way We Teach English
Ap roaches to Language in Foundations
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Video Segment #3, Feedback on Written Production

Here are some possible answers to the reflection question. Ideas for feedback
techniques will vary according to the local educational setting.

Writing Activities Possible Feedback Techniques

Purpose: Accuracy (A) or Fluency (F)

1. Writing the alphabet 1. Provide models; when finished, a partner

compares it to the model. (A).
2. Copying 2. Provide models; read the finished copy
aloud to a partner, who is reading along
with the model. (A).
3. Writing a letter 3. Provide correct letter format; send the fin-
ished letter to another student for a
response. (A & F).
4. Writing a story you heard or 4. Provide guidelines that tell students
read how you will be evaluating the story;
correct only those points listed in the
guidelines. (Focused A & F).
5. Making a request 5. Provide a format for making
requests. An- other student responds to
the request. (A & F).
6. Synthesizing information for a 6. Provide guidelines for writing a
report report; pro- vide a checklist of errors
for self-checking the report. (A).
Shaping the Way We Teach English Page 53
Page 54 Shaping the Way We Teach English
P-Q-P Peer Feedback
The praise-question-polish is a great way for students to provide constructive peer feedback to
each other. Let's look at in more detail what each of these words mean.
PRAISE:
 Say one or two specific things you like about the writing.
 Explain why you like it.
 Offer specific examples from the writing.

For example:
I like the part where...
You did a great job when you said/wrote....

QUESTION:
 Ask for more information about something specific in the writing.
 Ask for clarification on a topic that wasn’t explained well enough for you to
understand it.
 Ask why the writer made the choice to write certain ways or certain ideas.
For example:
I'd like to know more about...
Can you give more examples?

POLISH:

 Suggest a specific way to improve the writing.

 Explain why you think your suggestion will improve the writing.

For example:
Can you use more academic words in paragraph 2?

I got confused in the part about......

Could you add more to the conclusion because.........

83
4.8.1 Quiz: Giving Feedback

Quiz Instructions

Now that you have had a chance to read about giving feedback, test your knowledge! It is time for
another fun quiz!

This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want. Your highest score will count.
You must earn at least 7 points to move on to the next Module. This quiz must be completed online.

8
8
8
4.9 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey

Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on teaching reading, writing, and vocabulary
skills, try and match concepts with their meaning. Take the quiz to test yourself!

This quiz is graded, but you can take it as many times as you want. Your highest score will count.
You must earn at least 7 points to move on to the next Module. This survey must be completed
online.

8
8
8
9
9
9
MODULE 5: INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING
LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Table of Contents
5.1 Introduction to Module 5.................................................................................................2

5.2 Warm Up Reflection: Accuracy vs. Fluency...................................................................4

5.3 Lecture: Focus on Listening.............................................................................................5

5.3.1 Lesson Activity Development: Teaching Listening......................................................34

5.3.2 Reading: Practical Tips for Increasing Listening Practice Time..................................44

5.4 Lecture: Focus on Speaking.............................................................................................61

5.4.1 Lesson Activity Development: Teaching Speaking......................................................73

5.4.2 Reading: Reciprocal Teaching: A Useful Tool for Increasing Student Talking
Time..............................................................................................................................78

5.5 Quiz: Teaching Listening and Speaking Skills................................................................89

5.6 Lecture: Error Treatment..................................................................................................90

5.6.1 Quiz: Error Treatment...................................................................................................100

5.7 Culture Spotlight: Interaction in the EFL Classroom.......................................................101

5.8 Optional Discussion: Communicative Activity................................................................103

5.9 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey..............................................................104

5.10 Course Wrap Up.............................................................................................................105

Module 5 Check......................................................................................................................106

1
© 2020 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 5: Instructional Strategies for Teaching Listening and
Speaking for the Online Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State with
funding provided by the U.S. government and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
5.1 Introduction to Module 5

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Welcome to Module 5: Teaching Listening

and Speaking
Hello Everyone, and welcome to Module 5!
This is the last module of our course, and it will focus on instructional strategies for the
two oral skills: listening and speaking. This module we will discuss listening, speaking, and
spoken error treatment. Like the previous ones, this module is also packed with a lot of
interactive activities, and we encourage you to continue being engaged and work through
each one of them!
First, we will discuss the importance of teaching speaking and listening skills to our
students. We will review the different techniques that instructors can use to teach speaking
and listening. We will also look deeper into specific communicative language teaching
methods and share our own teaching methods with each other. We will also examine
different ways to treat spoken errors and discuss various strategies for how to best select
your error correction methods. Finally, we will share our favorite activities with each
other.
Before we begin this module, we would like you to take a moment and reflect on the
importance of speaking, listening and error treatment in the overall language learning
process. Do you think one is more important than the other? If, so, why? Keep thinking of
this question as you work through the module. You might change your mind by the end!
As before each module, take a minute and set some goals for yourself for this module.
2
 Do you want to learn about different strategies for teaching listening and speaking?
 Do you hope to take some of these strategies and apply them in your own classroom?
 Do you want to be able to use the most appropriate error treatment methods and
customize it to your students’ needs?

Great! We hope that you will find this module informative and, we are very excited to keep
working with you in this course.

Module 5 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Complete the Warm Up Reflection on Accuracy vs. Fluency (15 minutes)

2. Read the Focus on Listening lecture (30 minutes)
3. View different examples of classroom activities to practice listening (15 minutes)
4. Read about practical tips for increasing listening practice (50 minutes)
5. Read the Focus on Speaking lecture (30 minutes)
6. View different examples of classroom activities to practice speaking (15 minutes)
7. Read about ways to increase student talking time (30 minutes)
8. Take the quiz on teaching listening and speaking skills (15 minutes)
9. Read the Error Treatment lecture (15 minutes)
10. Take the quiz on error treatment (10 minutes)
11. Read Cultural Spotlight: Interaction in the EFL Classroom (15 minutes)
12. Participate in the optional discussion called Communicative Activity (60 minutes)
13. Review what we covered in this module by taking the Cascading New
Knowledge Reflection Survey (30 minutes)

The Module 5 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download it
here.

Module Requirements

 Each page of the module should be viewed and read

 All quizzes require 7 points to pass
 Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
 Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
 Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

3
5.2 Warm up: Reflection on
Accuracy vs. Fluency

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Accuracy is when learners can produce sentences correctly. This includes the correct use
of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc. Fluency is when learners can speak freely
(without a lot of stops). Their sentences might have some errors, but overall they can share
their message clearly.

Think and Write

1. Think about your experiences in different classroom environments and answer

the following question:

Is it more important to be accurate (correct) or fluent (without frequent pauses to think

about the right word) when speaking a language?

2. On a piece a piece of paper or in a word doc, write some notes on your answers to
these questions. Use this opportunity to think about what you already know.

You do not have to submit this. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to activate your
prior knowledge (think about what you already know). Spend about 5-10 minutes on this
activity.

4
5.3 Lecture: Focus on Listening

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Introduction
By engaging students in active listening activities, teachers allow learners to more
effectively practice the English language and also retain the information for later use.
Listening has its own functional uses in daily language and it is important that teachers
utilize these functions as goals in the classroom in order to design the most appropriate
activities for students.

The Three Modes of Listening

Students can engage in listening activities in three different ways. Look at the three modes
of listening below and various classroom activities that correlate with each mode.
Bidirectional: Exchanges of information include two or more people

 Have students engage in discussions where each student has to ask at least one
question during the time limit.
 Have students engage in Skype conversations with students in a class in a different
country.
 Instruct students to interview people in their community about the class topic.
 Assign a presentation where learners have to interact with audience
members throughout the presentation.
 Read a question of the day and allow students to share their answers. Have
students ask each other follow-up questions about their answers.

5
 Have students engage in a Scavenger Hunt where they “Find someone who” has a
certain quality in the classroom.

Unidirectional: Input comes from other sources and is taken in by the listener

 Have students listen to a podcast and answer comprehension questions about it.
 Play a song or movie clip and have students fill-in-the-blanks with the missing words
that they heard.
 Create a study guide for your lecture and have students fill in the notes
(including titles, key words, dates, names, etc.) by listening.
 Instruct students to listen to a news show and identify various parts of
spoken language including fillers, intonation, stress, etc.
 Give students a category (birthdays, height, shoe size, etc.). Students listen and
arrange themselves from highest to lowest by listening to their classmate’s
answers.

Autodirectional: Our internal self-dialogue and self talk where the listener listens to his or
her own thoughts.

 Have students sit in silence for a period of time. After they, write down all of their self
talk thoughts. They keep a self-talk journal.
 Play four corners: assign each corner of the room as an answer to a question.
Have students move to different corners based on their answers to the question.
 Have students brainstorm a topic by making a mind map individually.
 Instruct students to think about a topic for one minute. Students can draw out their
thinking on a poster.

Types of Listening Skills

Teachers can also teach the six types of listening skills to students in different activities.
These listening skills are:

 reactive (listen and repeat)

 intensive (listen for specific sounds and features of English)
 responsive (listen and respond briefly)
 selective (listen for particular items in a longer stretch of discourse)
 extensive (listen for global comprehension)
 interactive (authentic 2-way communication

For examples of classroom activities to practice the six listening skills, go to 5.3.1.

Conclusion
Teachers should take into account the goals of the lesson to teach listening. What do you
want students to focus on? What should they master by the end of the lesson? By
understanding the objectives, instructors can design activities to allow students to directly
practice listening skills.
6
References (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for
public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

 Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to

language pedagogy (3rd Ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
 Davies, P. (2008). Success in English teaching. London: Oxford University Press.
 Morley, J. (2002). Aural comprehension Instruction: principles and practicies. In M.
Celce-Murcia. Teaching English as a second or foreign language, 3rd Edition.
Boston, MA: Longman.
 Richards, J.C. (2008). Teaching listening and speaking: From theory to practice.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
 Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input
and comprehensible output in development. In Gass, S. and Madde, C. (Eds.), Input in
SLA. Newbury House.

7
 Focus on Listening

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Learning Styles and Strategy-Based Instruction PPT, sponsored by the U.S Department
of State, with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation, we will discuss the
listening including its functions and processes.
Then, we will focus on activities and practices that
teachers can use in the classroom to teach
listening skills.

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
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 The Functions of
It is important to understand ways we use listening
in English. They include:

• Transactional function: focuses on the message

• Examples: giving instructions, giving
directions, academic classroom language
for procedures

• Interactional function: focuses on the listener

• Examples: small talk, completing tasks in “Untitled” by by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

whole group, small group or pair work

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 Three Modes of

Bidirectional Unidirectional Autodirectional

Our internal self- dialogue as speaker and listener

Learners engage with the metacognitive skill overtim
Input
ple overcomes from
a platform other sources
(telephone, Skype,(such
socialas the radio,
media). Therelectures, TV, etc.)
is some listener to one listener. There is no listener co
control

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 • Discussions where each student has to ask
at least one question during the time limit.
• Skype conversations with students in a
class in a different country.
Bidirectional • Interviews with people in their
community about the class topic.
• Presentations where learners have to
Listening interact with audience members.
• Question of the day each student shares
Activities their answers. Ss ask each other follow-up
questions.
• Scavenger Hunts where they “Find
someone who” has a certain experience or
characteristic in the classroom.

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
 • Podcasts Ss listen to and answer
comprehension questions about it.
• Songs or movie clips students fill-in-
the-blanks with the missing words that
Unidirectional they heard.
• Study guides for your lecture and
Listening have students fill in the notes
Activities (including titles, key words, dates,
names, etc.) by listening.
• News show Ss listen and identify
various aspects of spoken language
including fillers, intonation, stress,
etc.
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 • Self Talk Journal students sit in
silence for a period of time. After
they, write down all of their self
talk thoughts.
• Four corners assign each corner of
the room as an answer to a
Autodirectional question. Have students move to
different corners based on their
answers to the question.
• Mind maps Ss share their own
thoughts in English by
organizing them on a map or
drawing
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Types of Classroom Listening

Reactive • Listen and repeat

• Example Activities: repeating sentence drills;
reciting a song or chant at the beginning of every
class to help students remember common
questions and vocabulary; play Simon Says
where students perform the instruction that they
hear (i.e. touch your head, etc.)
• Listen for specific sounds, discourse markers,
Intensive intonation and patterns)
• Example Activities: Listen to various media for
reductions, sentence fillers, intonation, etc.; mark
transcriptions of audio text with various symbols
to identify spoken sentence patterns; students
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Types of Classroom Listening
hold up different
cards based on
the vowel sound
they hear.

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Types of Classroom Listening
• Listen and respond briefly
• Example Activities: Ask one minute questions
Responsive where students respond to a question in one
minute; teacher cuts up a listening script into
parts and students arrange themselves into the
order in which they hear their part;

• Listen for particular items in a longer stretch of

discourse
• Example Activities: listen to a text and
Selective identify the main idea and details; identify key
words and phrases in a song; students have a
written script and have to correct the mistakes
from an audio file
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Types of Classroom Listening
• Listen for global comprehension
• Example Activities: students listen to audio
files outside of class and keep a journal about
their thoughts on the topic; students are
Extensive assigned a news source and each week the
students summarize the news from each source;
students create a story chain where they listen
to the student’s story before them to create the
next part of the story.

• Authentic 2-way communication

Interactive • Example Activities: engage in discussions;

hold debates, have classroom conferences
where students are trying to solve a problem
together; students

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Teaching Tips for Listening Skills
• Help students prepare for listening by asking what they know
and building on that knowledge
• Offer multiple listening attempts
• Supplement textbook listening text with real audio clips that
are also related to the topic.
• Encourage students to respond to the content of a listening
text, not just the language.
• Match different listening stages with appropriate listening
tasks.
“Good teachers exploit listening texts to the fullest!”
(Harmer, 2007)
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How Do We Listen to Incoming Messages?
Top-down Processing
• We listen and understand the general
knowledge and relate it to life experience
(content schema)
• We listen to situational routines (textual
schema)
• Driven by the listeners’ expectations,
understanding of the topic, context,
knowledge of the world, prior knowledge

Bottom-up Processing
• We listen for vocabulary, grammar and
sounds “Untitled” by Clker-Free-Vector-Images via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

• Driven by sounds, phrases, syllable stress,

intonation patterns, etc.
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 How Do We Design Active Listening
• Include both top-down and bottom-up
techniques
• Include diverse modes of listening
• Encourage the development of
listening strategies that learners use…

• Pre-listening
• While listening
• Post-listening
“Untitled” by OpenClipart-Vectors via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

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Pre-Listening

Pre- • Discuss a relevant picture

• Discuss relevant experiences
listening • Associate vocabulary with the
topic
• Predict information about the topic
• Write questions about the topic

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While Listening

• Gather the gist of the topic

• Identify supportive details about the
While topic
• Answer questions
Listening • Complete sentences
• Complete a chart, map, graph,
notes page, etc.

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Post-listening

Post- • Give opinions (using English

language functions)
listening • Relate similar experiences
• Role-play a similar interaction
• Write a brief report
• Write similar text
• Debate the topic
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 In the next section of this module, we will look at
sample activities that you can do in your classrooms to
teach listening.

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with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
References (Copyright)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

• Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (3rd Ed.). White
Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
• Brown, G., and Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the spoken language, Cambridge..
• Davies, P. (2008). Success in English teaching. London: Oxford University Press.
• Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. Edinburgh: Pearson Longman.
• Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible
output in development. In Gass, S. and Madde, C. (Eds.), Input in SLA. Newbury House.
• Morley, J. (2002). Aural comprehension Instruction: principles and practicies. In M. Celce-Murcia. Teaching
English as a second or foreign language, 3rd Edition. Boston, MA: Longman.
• Nunan, D. (Ed.) (2003). Practical English language teaching. McGraw Hill.
• Mubarak A.T.Z. (2009). Helping teachers increase student talking time. In S. Borg (Ed.) Understanding
English language teaching and learning in Oman, p. 73-80. Sultanate of Oman: Ministry of Education.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
5.3.1 Lesson Activity Development: Teaching Listening

“Untitled (Links to an external site.)” by Gerd Altmann (Links to an external site.)via Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is
free to use and share.

Overview
Teaching listening skills does not only happen while students are listening, but rather the learning process occurs before, during and
after any listening activity. Richards (2015) makes it clear that teachers should plan their listening courses around the goals and levels
of the students while also teaching students strategies for listening to English both in class and in the real world. Lets take a look at
examples of classroom activities that teachers can implement for students to practice listening.

Activity 1: Drawing Dictation

This activity allows learners to practice listening to their peers speak English and immediately engages them in an activity to test their
listening skills.

3
Step 1: Split the class into pairs.

Step 2: Give partner A a picture. Partner A describes the picture aloud in as much detail as possible to partner B.

Step 3: Partner B draws what they hear.

Step 4: The partners switch roles and practice with a different picture.

Example:

“Untitled” (Links to an external site.) by Mohamed Hassan (Links to an external site.) via Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is free
to use and share.

Partner A: "There is a man. He is wearing a white t-shirt, a burgundy jacket, blue pants, white socks and black shoes. He is laying
on the grass. He is in front of a house. There is a tree to the left of the house. The house is a tan color with the green roof. In front of
the house is a fence. There is a dog to the left of the man. The dog has a stick in its mouth, etc..."

Drawing Dictation Alternatives:

3
  The instructor can give more advanced prompts and pictures based on the content of the lesson.
 The instructor can give specific criteria for stating the descriptions (ex. state the location of objects using prepositions of
place., etc.)

Activity 2: Listen and Point

This activity is for beginner learners who are listening for key vocabulary words or phrases.

Step 1: The instructor give students a picture with many objects, or several pictures.

Step 2: The instructor states a vocabulary word aloud and instructs the students to point to the object or picture that matches the word.

Step 3: The students point to the object or picture

"Groceries" (Links to an external site.) by Mittmac (Links to an external site.) via Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is free to
use and share.

3
Example:

Teacher: "Point to the carrots."

*Students point to the carrots in the bottom right corner*

Teacher: "Where are the bananas?"

*Students point to the bananas in the upper-right hand corner.*

The game continues until students have learned the

vocabulary. Listen and Point Alternatives:

 After identifying the fruits and vegetables, the teacher may ask students to practice "numbers" and the language of "how
many." For example, "how many mushrooms are there?" "Are there two or three apples?"
 The instructor can put the vocabulary words or images on large posters on the board. The students can come to the board
and point to the pictures in a speed game.
 The students can get into groups using one handout. Students can practice asking each other to listen and point.
 The instructor can put vocabulary pictures all around the room. The instructor calls out a vocabulary word and the
students have to run to the correct picture.

Activity 3: Simon Says

This activity is for to get students moving while also practicing listening skills for classroom instructions.

3
 “Untitled” (Links to an external site.) by Robin Higgins (Links to an external site.)v ia Pixabay (Links to an external site.) is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It
is free to use and share.

Step 1: The teacher gives the students instructions while also modeling the instructions (ex. touch your head, touch your nose, look up,
look down, sit down, stand up).

Step 2: Without speaking, the students listen to the instructions and complete the action.

Step 3: If students complete an incorrect action, they have to sit down and are out of the game.

Step 4: The last student to continue standing is the winner.

Simon Says Alternatives:

 Instead of the teacher giving instructions, the students can come to the front one-by-one and give instructions.
 The class cane be divided into groups. Each group has a winner. The winners of each group complete against each other
until there is only one winner remaining for the class.
 The teacher can give directions without modeling to test students' listening and vocabulary skills.
 The instructor can assign different actions to different grammar points (i.e. touch your head for a verb, touch your nose for a
noun, touch your feet for an adjective). The teacher can call out different words and students can categorize them by
assigning them to actions as they hear them.

3
Activities for Different Parts of a Listening Lesson
Teachers can also design activities to help student understand listening before, during and after listening to audio sources.

Choosing Audio Sources

It is important for teachers to choose between the

use of authentic sources and non-authentic sources
of materials in order for students to reach their
Choosing Audio Sources learning goals. When choosing the type of material
your students will work with, many factors need to
be taken into account.

Skills learners use when listening to different

Teachers can:
audio sources:

3
  Create your own listening practices using their
own voices or the voices of others.
 Record your own voicemail message for
 Differentiating between various accents and
students to call to practice listening skills.
dialects within the English language.
 Have advanced students record role-plays or
 Understanding the use of pauses and rhythm.
videos for beginner level students.
 Realizing the importance of pitch, intonation
 Use extracts from the media including news
and stress with regard to different contexts stories, radio, TV or the Internet.
and situations.  Play movies excerpts which are suitable to the
 Understanding context and the nuances of level of students.
English in different situations.  Invite guests who represent the diversity of
English to the class to deliver a presentation.
 Use audio books for practice.

Pre-Listening Activities
In this phase, teachers should provide essential
background information such as, vocabulary or
Pre-Listening Activities content information that students wouldn't be able
to guess from context.
Skills learners use when engaging with the
Teachers can:
listening before actually listening:
 Understand the context of the text .  Group students to brainstorm as many words
 Reflecting on their experiences with the text. as possible related to the topic.

4
 Familiarizing themselves with unknown  Help students predict the words that may be
words and/or phrases that they might hear heard during a listening based on the topic.
while listening.  Discuss a picture that relates to a topic that
students will hear about.
 Generate a list of questions that could be
asked about a topic.
 Have students build a story from a list of
action verbs that they are given about a text.
 Allow students to choose a strategy to use
when they are listening to a text (i.e. Should
we listen for the main idea? Should we listen
for the details?, etc.)

During Listening Activities

This process is essential because it allows learners
to engage with the actual listening. It is important
During Listening Activities that teachers design activities that allow students
to process the meaning of the the text as opposed
to distract them with other tasks.
Skills learners use when engaging with the
Teachers can...
listening while listening to a text:
 Practicing intensive listening
 Have students listen to the first part of a story
 Developing strategies to improve listening
and predict what happens next.
(i.e. listening for key words, guessing words
 Instruct students to number a series of events
from context, etc.)
that occur.
 Processing the meaning of text

4
 Completing a series of tasks while listening  Create true and false sentences for students to
check while listening.
 Tell students to match pictures to sentences
while listening.
 Stop the audio just before a key word and ask
students which word they think they will hear.
 Allow students to fill in a gap fill sheet with
the missing words that they hear during a text.
 Have students listen and check the predictions
that they previously made to mark if they were
true or false.
 Ask students to complete a chart or graph as
they listen.

Post-Listening Activities
In this phase, teachers can check
learners' comprehension and where they made
Post-Listening Activities mistakes. Now, teachers will help students analyze
the text on a much smaller level and engage in
follow-up activities.
Skills learners use when engaging with the
Teachers can...
listening after listening to a text:
 Recognizing spoken features of the English  Replay the text to check comprehension
language such as reductions, links, ellipses, problems.
etc.  Design a follow up activity using another
 Responding to the context of the text. language skill to the content that they learned

4
  Making links to other skills and/or contexts. about (i.e. write a letter to the character, make a
 Returning to the text to examine other public service announcement video for the
structures such as grammar, vocabulary, etc. radio to address a problem they heard about).
 Expanding overall language awareness.  Have students examine a transcript of the
listening to identify language structures learned
in class.
 Instruct students to read a text on the same
topic and compare information.
 Ask students to use words heard in the text to
in a gap-fill exercise.
 Allow for students to prepare a summary of
what they heard in the text.

Previous Previous: 5.3 Lecture: Focus on Listening Nex

4
5.3.2 Reading: Practical Tips for
Increasing Listening Practice Time
Read this article published by American English (Links to an external site.). A study guide is provided below.

For a study guide of the McCaughey article click here.

While it's often assumed that learners are effectively learning by using pre- and post-listening activities and listening to the
teacher talk, it is recommended that teacher dedicate time for students to practice simply listening to text without answering
comprehension questions before or after. By listening to short audio files, students can better understand the many aspects of
the English language and the teacher can also see if the students are understanding what they are learning.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching context. You will discuss these
ideas and your own connections in the Module 5 discussion.
McCaughey, K. (2015). Practical Tips for Increasing Listening Practice Time. English Teaching Forum, 53(1),2-13.

4
 An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for:
Practical Tips for Increasing Listening Practice
Time
Article by Kevin McCaughey

From English Language Teaching Forum, 2015, Volume 53, Number 1 Retrieved 28 January
2018 from:
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/forum_article_-_mccaughey_-
_listening.pdf

Overview

It is often assumed that students get listening practice when they listen to the teacher.
However, it is important to reconsider listening tasks and provide time specific for practicing
listening. With particular tasks that help manage the classroom and activities during listening
activities, more learning can take place.

The Concept of ‘Not-Listening’

McCaughey recalls notes from a classroom observation where students engaged in more pre-
listening and post-listening activities instead of actual activities. Because these pre- and post-
activities overtook the listening activity itself with more practice on vocabulary, grammar and
writing, there was very little listening practice. He notes that scaffolding for more difficult
listening activities is actually anti-listening because students can only be successful in listening
tasks if they complete activities where they are not listening. Neither vocabulary and grammar
review, nor games during the listening, count as a listening activity because students are more
focused on skills other than listening.

Listening-Specific Goals

The first goal of a listening activity should be listening just to practice listening. Usually,
teachers play an audio and have students answer comprehension questions after they listen.
However, this method only acts as a memory test for students and doesn’t address the listening
process. With listening specific goals, teachers allow students to understand various aspects of
the speech including utterances, differences in speech patterns, pauses, speed, accents, etc.
Students are able to understand the reality of language as opposed to only understanding the
message. Practicing this way will ultimately lead to students’ ability to process the language
automatically and understand authentic English.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Practical Tips for
Increasing Listening Practice Time for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and
administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted.
To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Five Tips for Increased Listening

Here are five ways teachers can setup and conduct effective listening activities:

1.) Students Do During: students react immediately to audio.

a. Have students respond to the audio while it is playing instead of after. Pause the
audio and have students respond immediately.
b. Picture Dictation: Students draw a picture based on instructions. After each
instruction, students draw a part of the picture. They must listen to
instructions correctly to draw the correct picture.
c. Sound-clip Dictation: Students write sentences as they listen to an audio or
sentences from the teacher. The sentences can be played again and again.
d. Single-sentence Gap Fill: To practice different features in speech such as
reduction, students can fill in the gaps to complete sentences that they hear.
2.) See It: build activities that allows teachers to see if students understand the material or
not
a. Follow the Map: Teachers give students directions on a map. Students find the
correct places on the map based on the instructions.
b. Seeing Answers: Distribute “Yes/No” or “True/False” cards to students instead of
asking them to raise their hands. This was everyone takes part in the listening
and teachers can see who understands the question. The cards can be
substituted for movements such as stand up, or remain seated.
3.) Keep it Short: Work with short audio files to make short activities, which require little
preparation and allow students to pay more attention.
4.) Play It Again: Play audio as many times as learners need, despite the general rule of
playing audio only twice or three times. Learners can engage in fill-in-the-blank activities
while listening.
5.) Change It Up: Use a variety of audio files for class.
a. Recorded audios from online sources and also the teacher’s recorded voice also
work for listening activities.
b. Use non-authentic texts for learners to understand audio files with limited
vocabulary. Use authentic texts for learners to practice natural communication.
All levels can use authentic texts, however, it is important to shorten the texts
for lower-level students.
c. Use scripted (pre-written) texts such as TV shows or movies. Teachers can also
use unscripted (free speaking) texts to show examples of natural English.
d. Use audio files with both native and non-native speakers to introduce students
to the various dialects and accents around the world.

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FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
 Conclusi

Implementing these tips does not have to be difficult. Overall, make the audio files small and
short to be the most effective. To overcome technical challenges, teachers can record their own
voices or bring in a guest. Students can even use their own cell phones to listen to audio. Of
course, teachers can always practice other language skills together with the listening activities,
but no matter the technique, it is important to give students time to practice simply listening.

References (Copyright):
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, J. D. 2006. Authentic communication: Whyzit importan’ ta teach reduced forms? In

Authentic communication: Proceedings of the 5th Annual JALT Pan-SIG Conference, Shizuoka,
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teaching connected speech to second language speakers, ed. J. D. Brown and K. Kondo-Brown,
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Buck, G. 2001. Assessing listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Field, J. 1998. Skills and strategies: Towards a new methodology for listening. ELT Journal 52 (2):
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researchenglish-next.pdf

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McCaughey, K. 2010. What makes a great listening task. Shaping the way we teach English
webinar 1.1. U.S. Department of State: Office of English Language Programs.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
Nunan, D. 2002. The changing face of listening. In Methodology in language teaching: An
anthology of current practice, ed. J. C. Richards and W. A. Renandya, 238–241. Cambridge:
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Richards, J. C. 2005. Second thoughts on teaching listening. RELC Journal 36 (1): 85–92.

Rost, M. 2002. Teaching and researching listening. New York: Pearson Education ESL.

Scrivener, J. 2005. Learning teaching: A guidebook for English language teachers. 2nd ed.
Oxford: Macmillan.
Ur, P. 1984. Teaching listening comprehension. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
KEVIN McCAUGHEY
Ukraine

Practical Tips for

Increasing Listening
Practice Time
Now I will do nothing but listen ...
–WaltWhitman, Song of Myself

L
earning a language—like learning to dance ballet, weave
carpets,
or play the saxophone—takes time and practice. In
general, it’s safe to say that the more practice you get,
the better you will become.
That’s how I feel about understanding a foreign language,
too. The more listening practice you get, the better you
understand the language.

The problem is that students get exposure to English through

little dedicated listening practice teacher talk. But it begs the
in their classes— and in some question: If teachers assume
cases, they get almost none. students get listening
The reasons are many. Teachers anyway, why bother to
lack materials design listening-specific
or equipment. They think their activities?
classrooms are too noisy or
crowded. They value This article will, I hope, help
speaking, reading, grammar, teachers of English
or vocabulary over listening. reconsider how we think
Their curricula are driven by about listening tasks. It will
standardized tests without a provide guidance for
listening component. increasing classroom
listening practice through
But the main reason is a short, dedicated listening
perception of what listening tasks.The emphasis
practice is and is not. In a poll of is not on the science or
254 teachers from 40 countries, theory of processing
84 percent felt that “any time
the teacher is speaking to
students
in English it is a listening task”
(McCaughey 2010). Now, it is
true that students will get
language—many other articles explanation of these tips, we
cover that— but on the practical need to examine a slippery
business of setting up and “class- notion, one that you may have
managing” listening activities in objected to when you first read it
order to give students more a few paragraphs above: that
practice. “students get little dedicated
listening practice in their classes
Implementing new listening tasks is —and in some cases, they get
easy if we keep in mind five tips: almost none.” Unfortunately, as I
will explain next, there is a lot of
1. Students Do During
not listening happening.
2. See It
3. Keep It Short NOT LISTENING
4. Play It Again
5. Change It Up The last teacher-training
workshop I attended on the
Before we advance to a detailed subject of listening actually
provided a

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5
good illustration of not listening. I had a stopwatch, too, and timed each
After a lecture on pre-listening, segment of the lesson. The result, shown
while-listening, and post- in Figure 2, offers a different picture of
listening, the trainer offered a what actually happened during the
demonstration. He played the lesson.
role of teacher while we
participants were students.The One minute of listening was supported
notes I wrote on the structure of by 23 minutes of not listening
1. Introduction: Teacher
the lesson appear in Figure 1. activities.
asks the class if they
like animals. Students
volunteer answers.
Pre- 2. Teacher presents
listening several riddles about
animals. Students guess
answers.
3. Teacher brings out a
bag. Inside are stuffed
animals that students
can’t see. Students ask
questions until they
determine what animals
are inside.
4. Students receive a
While- handout with three
listening True/False statements.
They listen to a
recorded dialogue
about animals and tick
True or False. They
listen once.

Figure 1. Listening demonstration

lesson

At first glance, this looks like a

classic listening lesson, well-
organized and varied.
Participating teachers enjoyed
it, too. The topic of animals
was appealing.We were not
overburdened with grammar.
And the
guessing game, featuring the
realia of toys in a bag, was a
fun surprise. Neither
participants nor trainer doubted
that the primary focus of this
lesson was listening. After all,
the while- listening task took a
central position.
You might contend that and post-listening time
the other tasks dominated the lesson.
supported the central
listening segment. The question is: How much
Maybe. But those tasks preparation does a 65-second
did not target listening audio warrant? If our goal is to
practice. Or you might increase listening practice, the
argue that there were answer should be “Very little.”
elements of listening in Usually, even within portions of
Steps 1 and 2 of the class devoted to listening,
pre-listening portion of actual listening gets short shrift.
the lesson because
students would need to Figure 3 is a quiz of sorts that
understand the teacher you and fellow language
to form responses. And teachers can take individually
maybe there were and then discuss. In the quiz,
some listening you will see descriptions of
elements. But what if activities. Decide whether
students did not each activity offers true
understand? There was listening practice or whether
no provision for that. it requires students to spend
The teacher took
verbal answers from 1. Introduction 4
volunteers and moved minutes
on. The teacher could Pre-
16
not gauge exactly who understood or listening 2. Riddles 3
minutes
identify minutes
or help those who did not. 3. Guess the toy 9
minutes
If the participants of this
While- 1 minute, 4. Listen to 1 minute,
demonstration lesson
listening 5 recording: 5
had been students and
seconds True/False seconds
not teachers, perhaps
the trainer might have Post-
5. Check answers 1 minute
played the audio two 7
listening 6. Follow-up 6
or three times. That’s minutes
questions minutes
an improvement, but
even so, pre-listening Figure 2. Timed segments of the listening
demonstration lesson

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forum 5
most of their time on some if, in the middle of an audio, you
other skill such as vocabulary, encounter the natural surfacing
grammar, or writing. Discuss of the past perfect progressive
answers with colleagues and tense—something you had just
think about how you give introduced to your class the
students listening practice in week before? Isn’t that the
your classes. My answers to the perfect opportunity to review?
quiz appear in the Appendix, Maybe. But then you are no
though you are free to longer focused on listening
disagree. skills. The common goals of
pre-listening—“activating prior
PREPARING FOR THE LISTENING knowledge, making predictions,
TASK and reviewing key vocabulary”
(Richards 2005, 87)—are
I have heard experienced
valuable in supporting listening
trainers say that “No listening
activities, but they are not
exercise is too difficult if there is
listening practice themselves.
enough pre-listening.”What they
mean is that, with enough
And yet, in a poll of 118
scaffolding and language
teachers from more than 25
support prior to listening,
countries, 31 percent
learners can understand difficult
considered that in a listening
or long audio texts. It’s a
task, the largest chunk
sensible dictum—but sneakily
of time should be devoted to
anti-listening. It tells us that
pre-listening (McCaughey
students succeed at listening
2010). Another 9 percent chose
tasks if they have lots of not
post-listening. A significant 40
listening.
percent, then, did not consider
while-listening the most
Is vocabulary preparation
important part of a listening
critical for understanding an
task!
audio text? Sometimes. But
vocabulary preparation is not
As some have pointed out
listening. What about a game
(Cauldwell 2014; Field 2002),
that uses core ideas from the
teachers often see listening as
listening text? Not listening,
either.What

Does each activity provide a lot of listening Ye Sort of No/Not

practice? s really

1. Four students, one in each corner of the

room, are reading a list of their ten favorite
foods and drinks. The remaining students
move to each corner, in any order they want,
to listen and write down each reader’s list.
2. The teacher describes a scene: a park with
trees, people, and benches. Students draw the
scene as the teacher describes it.
3. Students in pairs do a vocabulary matching
activity on a handout. The vocabulary comes
from the audio text they just listened to.
 4. Students listen to a song several times. They
have a copy of the lyrics with some of the words
missing—a gap-fill or cloze activity.
5. Students in pairs read a dialogue from the
textbook out loud, each student taking on one
role.
6. The teacher tells the class about something
that happened on the way to school that
morning.
7. After students listen to an audio, the
teacher asks the whole class comprehension
questions. Students volunteer answers.
Figure 3. A “quiz” for discussion on what constitutes real listening practice

4 E NG LI S H TEA CHING F
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5
serving other language- do not remain unmoving in front of our
learning goals. That idea eyes; listening texts move past our ears
prompted Nunan to refer to in real time.The student doesn’t have
listening as the “Cinderella the opportunity to go back, review a
skill ... all too often ... sentence, or look up a word in the
overlooked by its elder sister— dictionary. Answering comprehension
speaking” (2002, 238). questions after an audio is mostly a test
of memory.The focus is on outcome, on
We need to think in terms of “product rather than process,” and
listening for the sake of ignores the specific difficulties students
listening practice.We must not may have experienced during the actual
label a segment of the English listening phase (Field 1998, 111).
class listening just because the
teacher talks in English.We Listening-specific goals can address
should realize that when we difficulties of understanding as they
use a listening text as a are
springboard for activities we
are more comfortable with, like
discussions, vocabulary
practice, writing, or grammar,
students are not getting the
actual listening practice they
may need.

LISTENING-SPECIFIC GOALS

A dedicated listening task

focuses on listening goals. A
goal might be understanding the
text—in part or as a whole. It
might be focusing on global gist
or on discrete elements like
single phrases.We do not need
to follow up with writing or
speaking in order to justify the
listening task. Listening for the
sake of practice is a reasonable
goal.

When I observe a listening

activity in a classroom, it usually
follows this pattern: students
listen to a complete audio text
and afterwards answer
comprehension questions posed
by the teacher. (In the past, I did
listening tasks this way, too.)
This model is probably based on
how we use written texts for
reading comprehension: read
the article and answer
the questions. But listening
texts, unlike the written word,
happening. They can see that words are often not
deal with utterances, pronounced the way they are
specifically tackling spelled and that their
differences in oral and pronunciation changes at times,
written language like even when spoken by a single
hesitations, false person. The language teacher—
starts, pauses, like any teacher— shouldn’t
background noise, shelter students from reality.
variable speed, and
variable accent (Rost For instance, in my classes I
2002, 171). Our have used an audio recording of
dedicated listening my father telling a story. In the
tasks might also draw first sentence, he uses the word
attention to reduced probably. Except he doesn’t
forms and actually say probably.
connected speech that He says prolly. Sometimes
occur naturally when students have to listen a few
speakers drop times to hear this, and they
consonants express surprise that a word
(Wednesday = can lose two
Wenzday), leave off separate “b” sounds and one
endings (going = goin), full syllable, yet still be
or blend sounds comprehensible. And if one
together (that will = speaker pronounces a word
that’ll). Brown and one way once, it doesn’t mean
Kondo-Brown (2006, the same speaker will
2) have identified nine of pronounce it the same way the
these processes: “word next time. Most English
stress, sentence stress students are familiar with
and timing, reduction, gonna, a reduced blend of
citation and weak forms “going to.” (Gonna appears
of words, elision, often in writing.) My wife, a
intrusion, assimilation, non-native speaker of English,
juncture, and pointed out to me that when I
contraction.” There’s no say
reason that most “I’m going to,” it comes out as “I’m unna” [ajm
students—or even most ¨n\], with the “g” disappearing
teachers—need to know entirely. And yet teachers
these terms or how to should not get the idea that
differentiate between they are promoting slang or
the processes. But dialects in pointing out features
students will benefit of connected speech, for “it is
from repeated exposure commonly used in all registers
to examples. They will and styles.
Even the most formal pronunciation of a

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 language will typically contain FIVE TIPS FOR INCREASED
some aspects of these LISTENING PRACTICE
phenomena” (Brown and Kondo-
Brown 2006, 5). At this point, we should have
two key ideas foremost in our
Is it any wonder that students minds:
express difficulty in
understanding English speech • First, many activities we do in
outside their classroom the course of a listening
environments? lesson are actually not
listening.
Pointing out the aberrations of
spoken language—or better yet, • Second, we can increase
letting students discover them listening practice by including
through our guidance—is a simple activities with listening-
shortcut toward understanding specific goals.
authentic speech:
The five tips below will make
When second-language the design and setup of
learners learn some new listening practice in the
element of a language, classroom easy and effective.
at first they have to pay
conscious attention and
1. STUDENTS DO DURING
think about it; that takes
time, and their use of it A good listening task is one
is slow. But as the new with “active responses
element becomes more occurring during, or between
familiar, they process it parts of, the listening passage,
faster, with less thought, rather than at the end” (Ur
until eventually the 1984, 4). In fact, a great model
processing of that for a listening task is the
element becomes children’s game Simon Says. In
completely automatic. Simon Says, one person (in a
(Buck 2001, 7)
classroom setting, usually the teacher)
gives

Many activities the road to that automatic

processing. Is it frustrating
for students that language
we do in the doesn’t conveniently bend to
the rules written in their
course of textbooks? It might be. But
according to Brown (2006),
a listening students enjoy learning about
reduced forms because it’s
lesson are new information. In my own

actually not experience, I’ve found that

students treat

listening.
the discovery of, say, an
elision or glide that suddenly
makes two words
comprehensible as a kind of
We want to put our students on secret key to unlocking
 mysteries of the language and commands:
putting them ahead in the
learning game. And the bottom Simon says, “Put your hands
line is that students feel good on your head.”
about understanding authentic
English. Simon says, “Lower your
hands to your sides.”

Simon says, “Lift your left leg.”

Students follow these

commands bodily.They do this
while listening, or to be more
precise, in those spaces
between spoken commands.
The actions are an immediate
response to the spoken word.
I call this kind of task a “do-
during” task because students
need to do something during
the listening portion of the
activity. (Full instructions for how
to play Simon Says can be found
in a video at www.howcast.
com/videos/258347-How-to-Play-
the-Simon- Says-Game.) Many
audio texts—especially those
where the teacher’s voice is the
audio source—can easily be
paused or segmented,
so that students respond
immediately.Take, for example, a
picture dictation.

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Picture dictation and again as a loop, giving students lots
Each student, working with a of exposure to the language. Students
blank piece of paper, has a write while they listen.
pencil or colored pen or marker.
The teacher dictates instructions Single-sentence gap fill
one by one, and students draw Using another single-sentence text, you
accordingly: could pinpoint attention on reduced
speech.Write the following gap fill on the
Teacher:We are going to board:
draw a monster.We just
learned the word lopsided, (1) be
right? Draw a big lopsided great if (2) get it
circle near the top of your done early this year.
paper. ...
Okay, give your monster two Next, play a recording of the sentence or
big eyes. read it as many times as necessary.
... Give your monster two Repeating the
large ears.
... Now put an earring in his
left ear.
… Good. Let’s give our
monster very curly hair. ...

We can sense the natural

pauses here as the teacher
walks around the room,
observing the progress of every
student. Again, students are
responding immediately, during
the listening activity.

Sound-clip dictation
This Students Do During
principle also applies to writing
or dictation that is based on
listening. In the following case,
I’ve taken a single sentence, one
of the most famous lines in
American film, spoken by the
actor Marlon Brando in 1972’s
The Godfather:

I’m gonna make him an offer

he can’t refuse.

The teacher can voice the

sentence, of course, but such
authentic sound bites are easy
to
find online (onYouTube.com, for
instance, or search for “movie
sound clips”). And with a
recording, you can play it again
audio many times is not writing, or gap-filling, students
a problem—it’s just react immediately to the
three seconds long— listening text.The great
and students may need advantage to this arrangement
the repetition to figure is that no matter what the
out what’s missing, students are doing, the teacher
especially since the can See It every step of the
missing words do not way.The teacher sees exactly
sound the way they look who understands and who
in writing. doesn’t, which groups are fast
and which are slow, who is
The missing words are struggling and who needs an
(1) It’d and (2) we extra challenge, and what
could. (Who says only everyone understands and
one word can be perhaps what no one
missing in a blank?) In understands.The teacher
this authentic audio, can actually discern student comprehension
(1) It’d is pronounced and
[ˆd\d] to rhyme with measure progress in real time.
lidded, and (2) we
could is pronounced Let’s return to Simon Says to
[wik\d]. test whether the See It
principle applies. The teacher
Many students, even says, “Simon says, ‘Stand on
advanced students, are one leg.’” The teacher can see
not aware of the who in the class understands
contraction it’d. But because those students are
after this short listening standing on one leg. The game
task, they will be, and features built-in discernible
catching it in a natural comprehension. True, some
conversation will start students look at others and
to become automatic. imitate what they are doing, but
the teacher sees that, too. (Fix
2. SEE IT that problem, by the way, by
having students wear blindfolds
In the above activities, or close their eyes.)
the key is that Students
Do During: whether Follow the map
they are moving their For another example, let’s take
bodies, drawing, a map activity. Students receive
a handout of a simple city

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map and have it in front of them. Instead, distribute to each
Each student gets a paper clip or student two
some other small object to small squares of paper, one
represent his or her car. The green and one red. Ask
teacher gives oral instructions: Yes/No questions or give
True/ False statements. For
You are in the parking lot each Yes/No
on Monkey Street. Turn left question, every student
on Javelina Street. responds by
… Go two blocks to Giraffe raising one of the colored
Park. … papers: green for “Yes”
and red for “No.” Adding a
The teacher walks around the third paper, a white
room while giving the square to mean “I’m not
instructions and can see sure,” is even better. It
whether students’ cars are at allows students to take part
the right place at every stage, while admitting they do not
thus being able to help those have an answer yet. The
who need it. And if all students teacher can spare these
seem to be following instructions students stress by not
with ease, the teacher can add calling on them or
a little more challenge,
speeding up the language or
offering more complex
directions:

Now make a U-turn, go

two blocks, and turn right.
Do you see the Little Cat
Café? Don’t stop there;
keep going until you get
to Old King Mighty Food—
it’s a huge grocery store
right before the river.

Seeing answers
You can improve any question-
and-answer task by applying
the See It idea—for instance,
when you ask questions about
an audio text or about a
reading text, or even when you
ask for students’ opinions.
Resist the temptation to ask
students to raise their
hands to answer.This tends to
give an artificial picture of
student participation.The same
students tend to answer, and we
have no idea how to gauge
whether those who don’t raise
their hands understand.
asking them follow-up questions. A rainy weather? Are
large number of “I’m not sure” the windows open?
squares are a Is Shanghai the
signal that students need to listen capital of
to the text again. China?

The See It tactic works with all sorts The next day, mix things up: tell
of questions, not justYes/No students to stand up for a “No”
questions. Try asking personal answer.
opinion questions to the entire class,
with each student signaling an You can even practice grammar
answer through movement. forms in listening. Here is an
example where students are
Teacher: Stand up if you like ice cream. required to understand and
Sit down. differentiate between events
Stand up if your favorite associated with certain times—in
color is blue. this case, present perfect vs.
Sit down. simple past structures. A
Stand up if you drank tea warning, though: avoid the trap
this morning. of naming or explaining the
Sit down. grammar.
Once that happens, you are no
TryYes/No questions the next longer doing a listening activity.
day. Tell students to stand up
for a “Yes” answer. Who has had coffee before?

Teacher: Are you 38 years old? Who bought a coffee

Is today Tuesday? somewhere yesterday?
Am I wearing glasses?
Do you like eating Who had coffee this morning?
snakes? Do you like

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 Who hasn’t had any coffee Students give responses during
listening, and teachers can discern who
this week? Who has tried understands throughout.

iced coffee? 3. KEEP IT SHORT

Who has never had iced For most of the above activities, the
teacher is the source of the audio. Thus,
coffee? Who had iced the teacher can provide pauses for
students to do something
coffee this morning?

Who didn’t have iced coffee

this morning?

We can also introduce

variability into student
responses.Write guidelines
on the board:

Yes No Sometimes

Stand up Remain Wave

seated your
arms

And we can easily go

beyondYes/No questions. Here
is a guideline for responding to
questions of “How often ... ?”:

How often do you brush your

teeth in the morning?

How often do you go

swimming on weekends?

How often do you see

monkeys on your way to
school?

Always Often Sometime Never

s
Jump Hold Put one Put
up a hand in your
book the air hands
in over
the your
air eyes

These simple tasks, led by the

teacher and with virtually no
preparation, can considerably
increase student listening time.
during the activities. But second audio will bore them.
often, you will want to
use recordings, too. The All these benefits make short
Internet offers a audios low- risk, too. If an
practically unlimited activity based on a 20-second
source of audio files, audio goes wrong, there’s little
many of which are free. harm done. But if a long-audio
activity (say, one that is based
It’s best to work with very short audios. on a ten-minute speech) goes
By “short” I mean wrong, the teacher has wasted
from a few seconds a lot of time—
in length up to a the teacher’s own and the
minute. What are students’. For Scrivener (2005,
the advantages of 176), “[t]wo minutes of recorded
using short audios? material is enough to provide a
Short lot of listening work,” while Rost
audios mean short (2002, 145) reminds us of the
activities. Short “well-known limitations to short-
activities require little term memory that occur after 60
preparation.You don’t to 90 seconds of listening.”
need to make Lewis and Hill (1985) put the
handouts.You can write concentration of lower-level
a gap fill on the students at about 20 seconds.
board.You can dictate. For the average teacher, this is
Short activities are easy great news: preparing short
to squeeze into the audio takes very little time.
class schedule. And
there’s even a benefit to Some secondary-school
classroom discipline. students may be preparing for
Short audios get university classes where they
students to quiet down will listen to long lectures in
and focus. They shush English.Your short activities will
each other so help them, too. Just increase the
as not to miss the level of difficulty by finding
beginning. They are like audios that are faster or that
50-meter sprinters, contain more complex
bracing themselves and vocabulary. These activities will
cocking their heads to build confidence, give students
hear the starting gun. practice with authentic spoken
They know that there is language, and increase
little chance that a ten- students’ awareness of reduced
forms.

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forum 5
4. PLAY IT AGAIN again, and students can
succeed
In the summer of 2003, I was at the task, without a huge
studying Russian in the United investment of class time.
States. My teacher played a
Russian song in class one day.
She had prepared a gap fill with Students should have
about 12 words missing. It was
exciting because as a teacher specific tasks, something
myself I had used songs to do during the audio,
hundreds of times, but this was,
amazingly, my first time and that enables the
experiencing a gap-fill song as a
learner.
teacher to monitor
progress and
I wrote down missing words as
the song played. But I couldn’t comprehension.
write them all; there just wasn’t Everybod
time.When the song ended, we
checked answers. The teacher y wins.
called on me once. That was for
a word I just didn’t happen to
catch—one of the two words I’d
missed. Somehow that didn’t
feel fair. The teacher— who was
actually wonderful—had decided
to play the song only once,
perhaps because it was four
minutes long and playing it
again might have seemed like a
waste of class time.
Playing the audio just once,
though, was a mistake. It meant
that none of us had a chance to
succeed at the task as it was
designed, to understand and fill
in all the missing words. It is too
bad we didn’t repeat the song,
perhaps playing it in segments
and repeating certain lines
multiple times.

Most trainers and course books

recommend playing an audio
two or three times.
Sometimes that’s enough. But
a better rule of thumb is to play
the audio (or speak it) as many
times as the students need in
order to succeed at the task.
That is another benefit of
keeping it short: you can play or
speak the audio again and
Longer audios can—as we’ve worldservice/learningenglish),
mentioned— always be segmented, and sources mentioned in the
turned into short audios. These sections below.
segments can be played over and
over. All the while, students should Non-authentic or authentic texts?
have specific tasks, something to Non-authentic texts are designed
do during the audio, and that for learners of English, not for
enables the teacher native speakers.Voice
to monitor progress and of America’s Special English
comprehension. Everybody wins. recordings
(learningenglish.voanews.com)
5. CHANGE IT UP are read at two-thirds normal
speed and are, thus, not
Increasing the variety of our audio authentic.When a teacher
sources will make bringing more reads a dictation to the class,
listening to the class easy. Below this is also non-authentic. It is
are some of the choices you will not a natural form of
make when selecting an audio. communication; it is an
exercise to learn English.
Recorded audios or teacher’s voice? However, non- authentic
The teacher’s voice is a great audio recordings are useful: their
source. Give your students a do- clarity and limited vocabulary
during task, and then provide them allow students to understand
with content: read a newspaper large chunks of English.
headline, recite a short poem, or
sing a song. Audio recordings work Outside the classroom,
well, too, and thousands are authentic texts are much
available for free on the Internet. more common. These are
Sources for freely downloadable real, natural communications,
audible content include American intended for purposes
English (americanenglish.state.gov), beyond English learning. A
English Teachers Everywhere radio
(www.etseverywhere.com), BBC advertisement to sell soap is
Learning English (www.bbc.co.uk/ authentic because the goal is to
sell a product, not to teach

10 E NG LI S H TEA CHING F 2 01 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum

ORUM
5
English. A conversation in Africa, and Argentina, among other
English in a café is also places.Your students, if they travel, are
authentic. more likely to encounter other second-
language English speakers than native
Teachers should not avoid using English speakers (Graddol 2006). Non-
authentic texts just because native English speech can be as
they have low-level students or authentic as native English speech.
because they think authentic Students need to hear a variety of
texts are too difficult. The English accents and dialects. They do
teacher’s task is to design the not need repeat-after-the-audio drills,
listening activity so that students though; reproducing dozens of accents
will succeed, whatever the text. is not the goal. Instead, listening
Keeping that text short will practice that leads toward
almost always help. understanding the broad array of 21st-
century Englishes is the goal. If
Scripted or unscripted texts? anything, we as teachers should
We can make a further probably increase listening
distinction among authentic
texts. Some are scripted (or
written), while others happen
spontaneously. The dialogue in a
TV show or film is usually
scripted. So are the lyrics to
songs. These scripted texts are
still authentic, though, since
they are created for
entertainment and not for
language learning.

Unscripted language develops

spontaneously, like the
conversations you have every
day with friends and family.
Interview responses are usually
unscripted. The interviewee may
have a general plan but is not
reading the answers. It is in
unscripted language where we
find the most examples of
reduced speech, and so it
is important that we provide our
students the opportunity to
experience and decipher these
potential points of frustration. A
good source for free unscripted
audios is the English Language
Listening Lab Online (elllo.org).

Native speakers or non-native

speakers?
Listen to CNN or BBC news and
you will hear reporters from
Scotland, Abu Dhabi, South
 have one
single correct form. This
Give exposure may have the added
students benefit of letting students realize
that their own variety of English
variety. is perfectly legitimate and has a
Expose them to a rightful place in the world of
communication.
wide range of
English. Let OVERCOMING BARRIERS

them understand I hope I have convinced you that

that English does adding listening activities to the
class hour need not be difficult.
not have But I realize that for many, there
are obstacles. The curriculum,
one single for instance, is packed. Teachers
correct may have little time to add
form. anything. In this case, think
small; think short. Reminder: an
audio text can be a few seconds
practice from non- long. Dictate a single sentence
native-speaking now and then.
sources. Even more
than a decade ago, in For other teachers, the problem
2004, 74 percent of 750 is technical. They have no
million international audios, no CD player or cassette
travelers were non- player—or they have one, but
native English speakers the class is
traveling to non- just too huge and noisy for
English-speaking students to hear the audio.
countries (Graddol There are possible solutions
2006).What does that here. Use your voice as the
tell us about sticking audio source. Bring in a guest.
only to native English Is there a video player at
models of speech? school?
Use that for audio only. Ask your
Furthermore, native school to purchase an MP3
English itself is full of player, or borrow one from
dialects. Give somebody. Take the students to
students variety. the computer lab. Or use your
Expose them to a phone; today many cell phones
wide range of English. can play audio files. Of course,
Let them understand they
that English does not

americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching- 201 E N G L I S H TEA C H I N G F ORUM 11

forum 5
won’t be audible to the whole listening texts available on
class, so change the the Internet.
arrangement: bring the students
to the audio source. Create a Keep in mind how
listening station in the corner of important it is to have your
the class where a few students students “do nothing but
at listen.” You can, of course,
a time rotate in to keep teaching vocabulary,
listen.Whatever solution you writing, reading, and
find, keeping the audios short speaking. But don’t let
and making sure students have those
a task to complete when they activities steal from the
listen are the keys to productive listening portion of class.
listening practice.
REFERENCES
CONCLUSION
Brown, J. D. 2006. Authentic
Many students of English communication:Whyzit importan’
eventually travel abroad, where ta teach reduced forms? In
Authentic communication:
they are shocked to discover
Proceedings of the 5th Annual
how unprepared they are for JALT
understanding real speech— Pan-SIG Conference, Shizuoka,
whether native or non-native Japan, 13–24. jalt.org/
English. A teacher who attended pansig/2006/HTML/Brown.htm
one of my training workshops
had had that experience: “After
studying English for many
years,”
she said, “I was able to
understand only my teachers,
nobody else.”

Comments like that one are

evidence that students are not
getting the listening practice
they deserve. So often, we are
sidetracked from listening goals
and drift back towards the
familiar safety of teaching
vocabulary and grammar.We
need more listening for the sake
of listening.We need to give
students
practice.We need to give them
while-listening practice. And it
can be easy to do. Keep audios
short. Let listeners respond right
away. Make sure their responses
are visible; make sure that you
can discern how much they
understand and can measure
the progress they make. Take
advantage of the huge variety of
Brown, J. D., and K. Kondo-Brown. 2006. English Language Programs.
Introducing connected speech. In Nunan, D. 2002. The changing face of
Perspectives on teaching connected listening. In Methodology in language
speech to second language speakers, ed. teaching: An anthology of current
J. D. Brown and practice, ed. J. C. Richards and W. A.
K. Kondo-Brown, 1–16. University of Hawai‘i at Renandya, 238–241. Cambridge:
Ma-noa: National Foreign Language Cambridge University Press.
Research Center. Buck, G. 2001. Assessing Richards, J. C. 2005. Second thoughts
listening. Cambridge: on teaching listening. RELC Journal
Cambridge University Press. 36 (1): 85–92.
Cauldwell, R. 2014. Grasping the nettle: Rost, M. 2002. Teaching and
The importance of perception work in researching listening. New York:
listening comprehension. Developing Pearson Education ESL.
Teachers.com. www. Scrivener, J. 2005. Learning teaching: A
developingteachers.com/articles_tchtr guidebook for English language
aining/ perception1_richard.htm teachers. 2nd ed. Oxford: Macmillan.
Field, J. 1998. Skills and strategies: Ur, P. 1984. Teaching listening
Towards a new methodology for comprehension. Cambridge:
listening. ELT Journal 52 (2): 110–118. Cambridge University Press.
–––. 2002. Listening in language learning. In
Methodology in language teaching: An
anthology of current practice, ed. J. C.
Kevin McCaughey is a Regional
Richards and W. A. Renandya, 242–247.
English Language Officer based in Kyiv
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Graddol, D. 2006. English Next. British and covering Ukraine, Moldova,
Council. www. britishcouncil.org/learning- Belarus, Georgia, Armenia, and
research-english-next.pdf Azerbaijan. He has traveled to 100
Lewis, M., and J. Hill. 1985. Practical countries and trained teachers in more
techniques for language teaching. 2nd ed. than 20. He records songs and audio
Hove: Language Teaching Publications. games in English to increase the
McCaughey, K. 2010.What makes a great variety of listening activities. And he
listening task. Shaping the way we teach has a new accordion that he’s very
English webinar proud of.
1.1. U.S. Department of State: Office of

12 E NG LI S H TEA CHING F
ORUM 2 01 americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching-forum
5
APPENDIX
Answer Key to “Quiz” on What Constitutes Real Listening Practice

Note: These answers are the opinion of the author and are not definitive.

1. Yes. It’s a type of dictation. Students are writing down words

that they hear.Writing is involved, but the primary emphasis
is on listening. It sounds like fun, too! Besides, students will
need to practice listening while there’s lots of noise around.
That happens
in real life. This task might not be the greatest listening task ever
invented, but it’s worth doing now and then.We like variety.

2. Yes. This is a picture dictation. Students must listen

and understand, and they immediately draw. It’s a
useful comprehension task.

3. No. Students are working on vocabulary. They are not actively engaged in any
listening.

4. Sort of. Students listen closely and write the missing words
simultaneously. I say “sort of ” here because when there is a
lot of text, students are likely to rely primarily on their reading
skills. Sort-of listening activities are okay sometimes—as long
as we have a lot of variety and are also doing true listening
activities.

5. No. This is reading and enunciation practice. Does one

student truly listen (and do something) while the other
reads? I say no.

6. Sort of. Students may get some listening practice here. Or

they may understand almost nothing. It really depends on how
the teacher speaks. And does the teacher provide some “do-
during” tasks? Natural, spontaneous talk is helpful now and
then, but it should not entirely replace well-designed do-during
activities.

7. No. Answering comprehension questions does not really

constitute listening.Yes, students have to comprehend the
teacher’s questions, but the audio text is no longer playing. This
is more of a memory test. Students can remain quiet and hope
the teacher does not call on them.Very little listening is going
on at this stage.
americanenglish.state.gov/english-teaching- 201 E N G L I S H TEA C H I N G F ORUM 13
forum 5
5.4 Lecture: Focus on Speaking

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Introduction
Speaking is a complex process of creating meaning that combines receiving, processing and
producing information (Burns & Joyce, 1997). The form and the meaning of speaking
depends on many factors. Such factors as speaker's purpose, environment, experience and
shared collective experiences influence the form and the meaning of speaking.
To be able to speak, or produce the language, and to communicate learners need to
have linguistic competence (i.e., vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation) and socio-
linguistic competence (i.e., when, why and how to produce language).
Adding to the complexity of speaking skill acquisition, to be able to speak well learners
need to be aware of and be good at the following aspects of oral proficiency:

6
 Sound system (pronunciation)
 Grammar (structure)
 Vocabulary
 Fluency and rate of speech
 Cultural and social appropriateness
 Functions (e.g., greetings, compliments, apologies, etc.)
 Non-verbal strategies (e.g., gestures, facial expressions, manners, etc.)


Oral Language Genres

Similar to the process of listening, speaking also can fall into three broadly defined genres.
Unidirectional: Unidirectional genres include speeches or narratives. There will be
an audience; however, the audience would not directly participate in oral language
performance with the speaker.
Semi-bidirectional: Semi-directional genres include presentations and interviews. In this
genre, a speaker would interact with a listener or another speaker; however, the
interaction is rather limited. For instance, during an interview, an interviewer will
dominantly ask questions and an interviewee will mainly respond to those questions.
Even when an interviewee gets a chance to ask questions, the chances and content of
questions can be limited.
Bidirectional: In this genre of oral language, the interaction between two or more
participants will be two ways. However, it does not guarantee everybody's equal
participation during the performance.
It is important that as teachers we prepare our students to be able to function in all of the
above described genres.

Possible Challenges in Acquiring Speaking Skills

Speaking in a new language is often a challenging task. Unlike reading and
writing, speaking occurs in real time and it requires immediate action and reaction on the
speaker’s part. Another challenge is that is not enough to construct correct sentences, one
also needs to be understood.
The multi-dimensional nature of speech and many linguistic features involved in speaking
make a speaking task challenging, especially for lower proficiency learners. To be able to
communicate in a given language, speakers have to employ many linguistic elements. Such
elements or features include phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse and others (Van
Lier, 1996).
Among other challenges, Brown and Lee (2015) also mention reduced forms and
colloquial language. Learners need to be aware of contractions, reduced vowels, and
other similar characteristics all that pose special problems in learning spoken English.
Students also need to be acquainted with the words, idioms, and phrases of colloquial

6
language and that they get to practice producing these forms. Students who do not learn
colloquial contractions can sometimes develop a very formal language, that may not be
appropriate for all situations.
Conclusion
Teachers should take into account the complexities of speaking process when teaching
speaking. By understanding and focusing on various oral proficiency components and
genres, teachers can design activities to allow students to directly practice speaking skills
in a communicative environment.

References (Copyrighted)
Brown, D. & Lee, H. (2015). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy. Pearson Education ESL; 4 edition.
Burns, A. & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on Speaking. National Center for English Language
Teaching and Research.
Van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: Awareness, autonomy, and
authenticity. London: Longman.

6
 Focus on Speaking

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Learning Styles and Strategy-Based Instruction PPT, sponsored by the U.S Department
of State, with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation, we will discuss the
speaking including its functions and processes.
Then, we will focus on activities and practices that
teachers can use in the classroom to teach
speaking skills.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
The Functions of Speaking
It is important to understand the many ways we use speaking. They
include:
• Interactional function: focuses on the communication between two
or more speakers
• Transactional function: focuses on the message instead of the
speakers
• Performance function: focuses on the speaker’s ability to use
appropriate discourse to present information

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Examples of Speaking Activities
The main types of speaking activities include
• Conversations
• Small talk
• Transactions
• Discussions
• Presentations
Other activities include
• Information gap
• Think, Pair, Share
• Unscripted role plays “Untitled” by mcmurryjulie via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

• Problem-solving/ decision-making/debates
• Whole class and pair dictation
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Accurac
Accuracy refers to the different aspects of English that a student
produces correctly.
• grammar, pronunciation, word choice, appropriate topics,
formality, etc.
To improve accuracy teachers can do the following:
• Ask students to repeat what he or she said to see if they notice
an error
• Repeat the student’s discourse but with the correction
• Ask other students to correct the error
• Suggest that the sentence contains an error
• Indicate the error
• Point to where the language needs to be improved
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Fluenc
Fluency is a speaker’s ability to produce language naturally (without
many interruptions), so that their message is understood. In teaching
fluency the focus is on meaning.

To improve fluency teachers can do the following:

• Ask students to engage in discussions over a period of time
• Have students respond to questions in a quick time frame
• Instruct students to use conversational practices such as turn-
taking and responding

Both accuracy and fluency are important to teach, however it is

necessary to find a balance between them.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Teaching

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 Teaching
Determine goals Choose suitable
Fluency based? classroom activities
Accuracy based? Match your goals with activities that produce desired outcomes

t have to be considered when administering speaking activity

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 What
What other
language
materials
support will
are needed?
What stages be needed?
What are the
should the
expectations
activity be
for students?
divided
into?

How will
How will it be
feedback be
modeled?
given?

Issues to
Focus of consider How will
when students be
activity
designing assessed?
speaking
activities
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Teaching Implications for Speaking
• Focus on fluency and accuracy
• Motivate students’ by including their goals and interests
• Use authentic language in meaningful situations
• Provide appropriate feedback and correction
• Maximize link between listening and speaking
• Give students the opportunity to speak
• Develop speaking strategies
• Create a safe classroom environment where students are
comfortable talking and listen respectfully

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
 In the next section of this module, we will look at
sample activities that you can do in your classrooms to
teach speaking.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
References (Copyright)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

• Brown, H.D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (3rd Ed.). White
Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
• Brown, G., and Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the spoken language, Cambridge..
• Davies, P. (2008). Success in English teaching. London: Oxford University Press.
• Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. Edinburgh: Pearson Longman.
• Richards, J.C. (2008). Teaching listening and speaking: From theory to practice. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
• Morley, J. (2002). Aural comprehension Instruction: principles and practicies. In M. Celce-Murcia. Teaching
English as a second or foreign language, 3rd Edition. Boston, MA: Longman.
• Nunan, D. (Ed.) (2003). Practical English language teaching. McGraw Hill.
• Mubarak A.T.Z. (2009). Helping teachers increase student talking time. In S. Borg (Ed.) Understanding
English language teaching and learning in Oman, p. 73-80. Sultanate of Oman: Ministry of Education.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
5.4.1 Lesson Activity Development:
Teaching Speaking

“Untitled (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.” by mcmurryjulie (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
via Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. is licensed under a Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external
site. License (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. . It is free to use and share.

Overview
In our previous lectures we mentioned Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as a modern
approach to teaching languages. Communicative activities increase language use by making sure
that all students participate and communicate. One way to think about teaching skills is to group
them into different genres or categories and then look at specific activities that can be used to
teach a specific category of speaking skills. Richards (2015) discusses the following categories
of speaking skills: small talk, conversations, transactions, discussions, and presentations. Let's
examine how we can successfully teach small talk, conversations, and transactions by using the
CLT. Let's look at some specific examples of speaking activities that can be used to teach these
speaking genres and skills while providing students opportunities to interact and be socially
active.

Information Gap Activities

These are partner activities where students try to complete a task or obtain answers when they
are missing information. Each student has only half of the information they need, and their
partner has the other half. Students must take turns asking questions to complete the activity.
Information Gap Activities:

 Require communication
 Maximize participation
 Scaffolds production
 Practice grammar patterns , (i.e. change a sentence into a question, Where is? How
much is?)
 May focus on Speaking and Listening
 May integrate all four skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing)

7
Here is a sample script for an information gap activity:

Student A

1. Dolphins can live yo to years. Student B

(How many....?) 1. Dolphins can live up to 50 years.
2. Dolphins never chew their food. 2. Dolphins (sometimes/often/never) chew their
own food. (Do dolphins?)
3. There are more than species of
dolphins. 3. There are more than 40 species of dolphins.
(How many....?) 4. Some dolphins can swim at per hour.
4. Some dolphins can swim at 20 miles (How fast?)
per hour.
5. Dolphins can migrate if they do not
5. Dolphins can if they do not have have enough food.
enough food.
6. Dolphins are very animals.
(What do dolphins do?)
(What kind?)
6. Dolphins are very intelligent animals.

"Dolphin Information Gap" by University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site.for use in the AE E-teacher program sponsored by the U.S.Department of State

Fluency Circles
A fluency circle or “inside- outside” circle that allows all students to participate in speaking and
listening activities by positioning them in as seen in the photo below.

Fluency circles are organized this way:

 Students form a circle.

 They count off by 1’s and 2’s.
 1's takes one step forward into the circle and turn around to face a partner (2's).
 Students speak and listen based on teacher prompts.
 Then the inside circle takes two steps to the right to say hello to a new partner (teacher
may vary how many steps they take).
 If there is an odd number of participants, the teacher participates.

7
“Fluency Circle" by University of the Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Links to an external site.for use in the AE E-
Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

Here is a sample of a fluency circle activity:

 Students form an inside and an outside circle.

 Teacher says: '1’s you are going to be listeners, you will retell someone else what your
partner said.
 2’s tell your partner (use one prompt,) like: “one way to exercise” or “ask one
question you have about exercising” or “tell about a time you last exercised”.
 After a few minutes, teacher signals to stop (e.g., clap, call and response).
 1’s move “2 steps” to the right to their new partner and retells them what their previous
partner said and adds to it.
 This continues using different questions related to the content.This activity can be
used during the introduction, throughout the lesson, and after the lesson.
 Students returning from this task may do some reflective writing based on questions
or discussions with their peers.

Why are fluency circles effective?

Often participation is limited to only a few students who raise their hand. This structure insures
that all students speak and listen.

 Students must use language authentically.

 If one partner's task is to listen, he or she has time to think.
 Students use different grammatical structures and active listening when engaging
in fluency circles.

7
 “Untitled (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.” by OpenClipart-Vectors (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.
via Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. is licensed under a Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an external
site. License (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. It is free to use and shared.

Cooperative Learning Structures

Cooperative Learning Structures provides opportunities for interactive learning that:
• Foster student engagement
• Maximize participating
• Allow for collaboration
• Can be used with ANY content
• Motivate learners by providing social interaction and the opportunity to be active
• Supports students at different levels

Examples of Cooperative Learning structures include:

Think-Pair-Share: Think-pair-share is a collaborative learning strategy that requires students to
work together to answer a question or to solve a problem. During this activity, students:

 (Think) Students listen to a question about the text or topic and 'think' about what
they know or what they have learned about this topic.
 (Pair) Students form pairs or groups
 (Share) Students share their responses with their partner or groups. They can also share
with the whole class as part of a class discussion.

Additional Optional Resources:

Please review these short resource pages for additional ideas and examples of how to engage
your learners in speaking activities.

1. Making Speaking Fun

To view "Making Speaking Fun" click here

Explore two types of activities (i.e., 'Mystery Box', and 'Find Someone Who..') that you can use
to engage your learners. American English. Teachers' Corner: Making Speaking Fun.

7
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/week_2_activity.pdf (Links to an
external site.)

2. Scaffolding to Support Language Production

To view "Scaffolding to Support Language Production click here

Explore three types of activities (i.e., 'Sentence Starters and Frames', 'Word Banks and Word
Walls', 'Think-Pair-Share') that you can use in your classroom to practice speaking. American
English. Teacher's Corner: Supporting Language Production.

https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/september_teachers_corner_week_4_fin
al_1.pdf (Links to an external site.)

3. Key Issues in Language Teaching Summary (From Richards, 2015).

To view the summary of Key Issues in Language Teaching click here

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or
Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the
course ends.

Read a summary of types of speaking activities based on Richards, J. (2015). Key Issues in
Language Teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

7
5.4.2 Reading: Reciprocal Teaching:
A Useful Tool for Increasing
Student Talking Time
Read this article published by American English (Links to an external site.)Links to
an external site.. A study guide is provided below.

"Reciprocal Teaching: A useful tool for increasing student talking time"

For a study guide of the Vela Izquierdo article click here.
Reciprocal Teaching is an effective method that allows students to maximize their
speaking time during class. This method involves various techniques that teachers can
implement in order to increase talk time between teachers and students, and also students
to students.
Overall, by using this method, teachers are encouraging students to not only
practice language, but also master it fluently and communicatively.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context. You will discuss these ideas and your own connections in the Module 5 discussion.
7
Vela Izquierdo, Felipe A. (2004). Practical Tips for Increasing Listening Practice
Time. English Teaching Forum, 42(2), 20-25.
https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/english-teaching-forum-2004-volume-42-
number-2#child-480

7
 A. Felipe Vela Izquierdo
P E R U

Reciprocal
Teachi
A USEFUL TOOL
IN
I
NCREASING
STUDENT-TALKING
TIME
R ECIPROCAL
AN ACTIVE
TEACHING (RT), A STRATEGY THAT ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH

and relatively expanded dialog between teacher and

students and among stu- dents themselves, is gaining

importance in educational circles. Pioneer RT researchers

Palincsar and Brown (1984) developed this strategy to

reinforce comprehension in L1 and ESL reading classes.

Because of its success, it soon began to be applied to other

areas of study. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate

 how the principles underlying RT can be effectively used to

increase student-talking time in the L2 classroom, and

thereby improve their communicative competence in the

target language.

When RT is used, the classroom is not a one-way street, in

which the teacher maintains strict control of the

environment, but rather a two-way street that allows active

participation by students. In such a classroom, the teacher

assumes the role of facilitator and monitor, and students

are encouraged to perform

20 A P R I L 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
actively in cadence with the point is, teachers should do all they can to encourage
teacher and/or among themselves. students to produce complete sen- tences rather than
Students are given a solid short utterances.
opportunity to improve their Through the use of paraphrasing, reported
communicative competence in the speech, question formation and concept-check- ing,
target language because they have students learn to find synonymous expres- sions or
the openings they need to talk in substitutes, practice relaying informa- tion, and
class. familiarize themselves with the structuring of questions.
Among the procedures that RT The teacher makes certain that the instructions or
utilizes to promote this desired concepts have been understood. When the teacher asks
teacher-student (T-S), student- a question such as “Did you have a good week- end?”
teacher (S-T), and student-student students tend to give short responses, that is, a short-turn
(S-S) exchange are such well- such as “Yes” or “No.” Likewise, if a teacher asks, “What
known tactics as paraphrasing, did you do?” a student
reported speech, and question
formation. In conjunction with
these tactics, I refer in this article
to a procedure called con- cept-
checking, which is not as well
known, and provide examples of
it.

The vocabulary of RT
In RT theory the terms long-
turn and short- turn are often
used. A short-turn, often referred
to as language for informational
purpos- es, is a markedly
abbreviated exchange between
persons. A long-turn, often
referred to as lan- guage for
transactional purposes, is an
extended conversation involving a
series of exchanges. Brown and
Yule (1983, 16–17) describe the
distinction: “A short-turn consists
of only one or two utterances, a
long-turn consists of a string of
utterances which may last as long
as an hour’s lecture…. [W]hat is
demanded of a speaker in a long-
turn is considerably more.” The
researchers point out that the
long-turn speaker takes
responsibility for creating a
“structured sequence of
utterances” that enable the
listener to “create a coherent
men- tal representation” of what
the speaker is try- ing to say.
Brown and Yule (1983, 19) stress
that training students to produce
short-turns “will not automatically
yield students who can perform
satisfactorily in long-turns.” The
 could had something to eat.” Producing
simply say long-turns is part and parcel of
“Nothing!” RT. Of course, short-turn
Such a answers can also be legitimate
response responses. However, from an
provides no instruc- tional point of view, they
details; it neither further com- municative
merely competence nor allow the target
responds to language to become properly
the rooted in the stu- dent’s mind. If
question in students are to make progress in a
as brief a foreign language, they need to be
way as trained to produce utterances that
possible. engage them in a con- sistent
Clearly, fluent dialog. This requires effort
teachers and practice, but the results will
need to be greater fluency
prompt and retention for the student.
students to The next part of this paper
produce focuses on the procedures that RT
longer uses: paraphrasing, report- ed
utterances speech, question formation, and
if they are concept- checking.
to be
Paraphrasing
effective
communica The ability to paraphrase is an
tors, and alternative to using direct
they need quotations when you want to use
to help someone else’s ideas. When you
listen- ers paraphrase, you state an author’s
get a thoughts in your own words
clearer through the use of synonymous
idea of words or equivalent phrases. In
what is the language class- room this
expected of ability is practiced when the
them. They teacher asks a student to
can do so paraphrase what a classmate just
by said or what the teacher just
beckoning explained. From my experience as
the stu- an EFL teacher, I have learned
dent, by that encouraging my students to
word or para- phrase is not an easy
gesture, to undertaking. However, with
give a long- practice, the students made
turn notable progress. The following
answer, sample dialogue shows how
such as: paraphrasing in RT can be used.
“Uh… I Teacher: Let’s talk about
went to the holidays or festi- vals in
movies our country. What’s an
with some important holiday or
friends. We festival in Peru, Karina?
saw a Student: Well, for me it’s
terrific Independence Day.
movie and Teacher: Tell us what you know
after the about this holiday.
show, we
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M A P R I L 2 0 0 4 21
 Student: OK. July 28 is the day speech.
when Peruvians At any
celebrate Independence given
Day. On that day all moment,
houses have a flag on the
the roof, and many peo- teacher
ple go out with their can ask a
families to visit student to
historical spots such as report to
the Main Square. the class
Teacher: Thanks. Juan, can you what a
say in your own words fellow
what Karina just student
explained to the class? or the
Student: Sure. On July 28 teacher
Peruvians remember has just
Independence Day. On expressed
that day they have a flag . An
on the roof of their example:
houses and fam- ilies Teache
like to visit historical r
places, for example, the :
Main Square.
This dialog demonstrates how W
the long- turn facilitates T-S, S-T, h
and S-S exchanges. Student- a
talking time is increased. t
Someone might claim that this is
mere repetition. Far from being a
so, paraphrasing requires r
students to cope with vocabulary e
items and structural forms in
order to present the same y
informa- tion in a different way. It o
gives students the opportunity to u
participate actively and apply
their own personal touch. Since p
students first have to grasp what l
is expressed, listening com- a
prehension is also practiced. n
n
Reported speech i
Many teachers find that helping n
students learn how to use g
reported speech is difficult; I
agree. It is not easy for students t
to change a direct statement, o
question, or command into an
indirect one. Again, practice is d
the remedy, and RT gives students o
the practice they need to
accomplish this. T-S, S-T, and S-S o
exchanges provide immediate n
opportunities to practice reported
y
 our vacation, Alcides? Teacher: Carlos, what did I ask
Alcides: I’m going to Cuzco Elsa? Carlos: You asked her
with my friends. what she was plan-
Teacher: What did Alcides say, ning to do.
Elsa?
This sample dialogue shows
Elsa: He said that he was
how a one-on- one interchange
going to Cuzco with his
can serve to involve other
family.
members of the class. The use of
Teacher: And what are you reported speech could present a
planning to do? Elsa: I’m problem for students in a basic
staying in Lima. program, particularly if they were
not yet exposed to the needed
structures. In such a situation, the
use of prompts on the board can
help ease students into making
acceptable responses. For
example:
Teacher: Where does your
husband work, Teresa?
Teresa: He works in a bank.
Teacher: María, what did
Teresa say about her
husband?
Prompt on the chalkboard:
She just said that…
María: She just said that he
works in a bank.
Here, the student only had to
repeat what her classmate had
said. True, this is an ele- mentary
example; however, any
enterprising teacher can find
ways to facilitate the use of more
complex forms. Here is where the
wise use of prompts, whatever
their format or source, can help
ensure that the objective of a
lesson is met.

Question formation
Learning how to structure
questions is a complex endeavor
because the word order that
underlies questions has its own
logic. This can become a
perplexing challenge for students.
I have discovered that RT has
helped my stu- dents deal with the
complexity of question for- mation
by prodding them to form their
own questions in long-turn
discourse with their peers. A
casual perusal of ESL/EFL
classrooms reveals that it is the teacher who asks most of second to an intermediate one.
the questions, thereby unnecessarily increasing teacher- Course: Basic 1
talking time. As a result, students are deprived of the Function: Asking for and giving
opportunity to become profi- cient in question-making, a information about age.
necessary real world skill. Two examples show how this
can be done. The first is applicable to a basic class, the

22 A P R I L 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
 Teacher: Oscar, how old Here is where concept-checking becomes important in
are you? Oscar: I’m 15 the language classroom. After giving and modeling
years old. instructions, teachers can ask their students to verbalize
them. RT utilizes this routine to heighten the students’
Teacher: Oscar, ask Sandra
attention and comprehension. How many times have we
how old she is. Oscar: How asked students if they understand a lesson only to
old are you, Sandra? receive the invariable response, “Yes”? Our question
Sandra: I’m 17 years old. should rather be: “What is it that you understand?”
Teacher: Choose another Students will then be expected to verbalize the content of
person, Sandra. Sandra: OK, a lesson or
how old are you, Pedro?
Course: Intermediate 5
Function: Making
recommendations.
Teacher: Carmen, ask a
classmate how schools
can be improved.
Carmen: José, how can schools
be improved?
José: I think computers should
be pur- chased for all
students.
Teacher: Gladys, ask José a
follow-up question.
Gladys: How will schools afford
to buy those computers?
José: Schools ought to try to
get fund- ing from
companies or the local
government.
The examples above are brief,
but they sug- gest what can be
done with RT. What is important
to note is that the students them-
selves structure the questions.
The teacher sets up the
conversation in such a way that
ques- tions have to be asked and
responded to by the students. The
teacher remains the guiding and
facilitating force, but the talking-
time is the province of the
students. To insure success, the
level of the students must be
taken into account. A lesson
should not be beyond the
competence of the students.

Concept-checking
Students should be cognizant of
the impli- cations of the lesson and
understand the instruc- tions they
are given to complete a task.
describe manner: “Now that you know the
instruction difference between the simple
s that were past and the past continuous, and
given. you have done some exercises,
Compre- what is your understanding of the
hension distinction between these two
checks can tenses?” This procedure can be
take on particularly profitable when
different students are engaged in pair or
formats: group work. Too often such work
students degenerates into a feckless
can repeat exercise. Monitoring student
the compre- hension is an excellent
informatio way to remedy this. At different
n, summa- intervals the teacher can ask:
rize it, or “What are you doing now?” or
paraphrase “What did your part- ner just tell
it. you?” In fact, after the task is
By using com- pleted, the teacher can say:
comprehen “Tell me what you have done.”
sion
checks, we Axioms to teach by
can be sure It is useful to examine the role
that our of the teacher in RT in greater
instruction detail. Below I enu- merate
s are several axioms fundamental to the
understood technique. Inherent in all of them
and at the is the notion that the teacher
same time plays the role of facili- tator and
give monitor, helping the students per-
students form their tasks and checking on
added the dynam- ics of their
practice in interactions.
the use of Axiom 1: Step back
effective Teachers have to keep in mind
language. that the stu- dents are to be given
For the control of the activi- ties, but
example, always under the teachers’
students guidance and supervision.
can be Axiom 2: Say the whole sentence
asked to At least a complete sentence
paraphrase and preferably an extended dialog
or sum- (long-turn) should be sought on
marize the part of the students. This will
recent better inure students with the
informatio language ele- ments than would
n about the be the case with a short answer
differ- ence (short-turn).
between
Axiom 3: Teach the language of the
the simple
classroom Learners need to
past and
become familiar with the
the past
language that the teacher uses
continuous
and the lan- guage they can use
in this
as students. If the students
E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M A P R I L 2 0 0 4 23
are beginners, the necessary your
expressions can be written as neigh-
prompts on the board or wall. For bors the
example, the teacher might use same
one or more of the following question.”
expressions: They can
• Could you read the next also have
question? students
• Would you mind answering the paraphras
question? e
• Will you tell us what you definition
think? s: “Now
• Open your books to page . that I
have
Students are likely to find the defined it
following expressions useful: for you,
• What does mean? what’s
• Please repeat your question, the
sir. meaning
• I didn’t understand the last of token?”
point. The same
Of course, many more expressions can be
could be added on either side. Be done with
aware that the natural tendency explana-
to use the native language is a tions:
danger that can plague a “What are
classroom. Teachers might insist If
on the use of the target language clauses?”
for class- room chatter, but they Axiom 6:
still need to provide stu- dents We teach
with facilitating cues when each other
necessary. Student
s can
Axiom 4: I teach you
At the beginning of a task, share our
clarify the objective of the activity role by
or the procedure; then model the asking
directions. their
peers
Axiom 5: You teach me
similar
When the students are
questions:
instructed and shown what to do,
ensure comprehension of the • “
procedures by asking different W
students to verbalize the h
information: at
di
• “What is the objective of the
d
activity?”
th
• “Are you going to work in e
pairs or in groups?” te
• “What do you have to do?” a
Teachers can also ask students to c
paraphrase questions they just h
answered and pose them to er
somebody else: “Now ask one of e
x
 plain to the class?” This technique allows us to
• “What is your group’s monitor levels of understanding of
conclusion?” the task or procedure before
• “Are you finished, or do (“What do you have to do?”),
you need more time?” during (“What are you doing?”)
and after an activity (“What have
you done?”). Students also learn
to listen to their neighbors
attentively, learn reciprocal- ly,
and become more active in the
learning process.

Possible reservations
Most teachers acknowledge
that RT is a useful tool for
increasing student-talking time.
However, some teachers object to
all the time spent on
paraphrasing, reported speech,
ques- tion formation, and concept-
checking and the energy they
must expend to ensure that these
techniques are executed properly.
Teachers may feel frustrated and
dismayed by what they perceive
as inadequate responses from stu-
dents. In turn, students could lose
confidence in themselves or feel
threatened if they fail to carry
through on the instructions that
are given. These are clearly
undesirable sequels and should be
countered.
There is no doubt that RT can
become time-consuming, but only
if it is overused. Teachers should
gradually and judiciously
introduce the technique into the
classroom, giving students a clear
idea of the rationale behind RT.
Once students appreciate its
importance, they are more likely
to be willing to engage in the
exercises, particularly when they
see results. I use the word
judiciously because teachers
should be careful not to sig-
nificantly exceed the current level
of compe- tence of the class.
Krashen and Terrell’s (1983)
“input + 1” dictum in their
hypothesis on Comprehensible
Input is decidedly valid in RT.
Students should not feel
overwhelmed or they will fail to
communicate. Teachers must always make ready use of Conclusion
prompts. This tallies with the supportive role that they It is important that student-
have as facil- itators. The chalkboard is one visual aid that talking time be maximized and
is at the immediate service of the teacher. With practice, teacher-talking time be used
students will become less dependent on prompts. Indeed, strategically to provide students
practice cannot be neglected, since students perform in with the open-
propor- tion to the practice that is given.

24 A P R I L 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
ings they need to communicate in the world outside the classroom.
with the teacher and among
References
themselves with long-turn
utterances. Reciprocal Teaching Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the spoken
language: An approach based on the analysis of
has been engi- neered specifically
to accomplish such a goal. It has
proven to be an effective way to
substan- tially increase student-
talking time. It should become a
key tool in the teacher’s repertoire
as a way to help students
internalize language and improve
their communicative competence
 conversational Reciprocal teaching of
English. New comprehension-fostering and com-
York: prehension-monitoring activities.
Cambridge Cognition and Instruction, 1
University (2):117–175.
Press.
Krashen, S. and T. A. FELIPE VELA IZQUIERDO is an EFL teacher
D. Terrell. at the Instituto Cultural Peruano Norteamer-
1983. The icano (ICPNA) in Lima, Peru. He has been
natural teaching English for five years and has pub-
approach. New lished bilingual stories.
York: Pergamon
Press.
Palincsar, A. S. and
A. Brown. 1984.
 An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for:
Reciprocal Teaching: A Useful Tool for Increasing Student Talk Time
Article by A. Felipe Vela Izquierdo,

From English Language Teaching Forum, 2004, Volume 42, Number 2 Retrieved 28 January
2018 from:
https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/04-42-2-h.pdf

Overview

Reciprocal teaching (RT) is a strategy that teachers can use to encourage students to actively
speak. This method decreases talk time for the teacher and maximizes talk time for students.
The teacher acts as a facilitator of conversation as opposed to a teacher. There are many
procedures involved in reciprocal teaching which help increase interaction in student - student
conversations and student - teacher conversations. These methods include:

• Vocabulary used
• Paraphrasing
• Reported speech
• Question formation
• Concept checking

The Vocabulary of RT

Teachers and students can use both short turn and long turn language to interact in the
classroom. Language that is short and only used for informational purposes in the classroom is
referred to as short turn language. Language that is used to exchange information in
conversation is referred to as long turn language. It is recommended that teachers encourage
students to promote long turn language, or language where students are producing complete
sentences, in order to better communicate automatically in conversations. This can be done by
gesturing or asking the student in a few words to continue their explanation by using long-turn
language.

Here is an example of a student being prompted to use long-turn language.

Teacher: Did you have a good weekend?

Student: Yes.
Teacher: What did you do?
©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Reciprocal Teaching: A
Useful Tool for Increasing Student Talk Time for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State
and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where
noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and
delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County
Student: Nothing
Teacher gestures to explain their answer more.
Student: Uh, I went to the movies with some friends. We saw a terrific movie and after the
show we had something to eat.
A teacher’s motion to further the conversation allows the student more talking time and
encourages fluency and language retention.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing means to say or write someone else’s ideas using your own words. By asking
students to paraphrase their classmates ideas or what their classmates say in class, students
have more opportunities to speak and participate. Students also have the ability to think of
synonyms, or words that have similar meanings, further increasing their vocabulary.

Reported Speech

Similar to paraphrasing, students can also practice reported speech to relay information that
their classmates have recently stated. In reported speech, language is changed from a direct
statement or question to a reported on by changing verb tenses. This might be difficult for
students because it involves grammar, however, it can be seen as good practice for speaking. In
lower-level classes, teachers can write prompts on the board to help students with reported
speech.

Question Formation

Usually, teachers ask the majority of question during class. Teachers can also instruct students
to ask their peers questions during long turn conversations.

• Basic courses: the teacher asks the student a question. The student answers,
chooses another student, and asks another student the same question.
• Intermediate courses: the teacher instructs a student to ask a specific question to
another student. After the student responds, the teacher asks another student to ask a
follow up question to the first student.

It is important to take into account the level of students in order to provide the appropriate
scaffolding.

Concept Checking

Concept checking is when a teacher asks students to repeat the instructions for an assignment
after they are given. This method checks students’ comprehension and attention. Students can

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
repeat, summarize or paraphrase the information. Concept checking can not only be used to
check comprehension of instructions, but also to ensure understanding of grammar concepts
and to summarize progress on an assignment.

How to Ensure Success with RT

For reciprocal teaching to work effectively, teachers must take the following steps in the
classroom:
• Step back to give students control of speaking.
• Encourage students to say the whole sentence to ensure that students understand various
language elements.
• Teach the language of the classroom so that students understand what they are being
asked to do. • Give instructions by modeling the task.
• Instruct students to verbalize the instructions after they have heard them to ensure
comprehension.
• Ask students to check the comprehension of their peers by asking peers about instructions
and other course concepts.

Possible Reservations

Engaging in this type of discourse could present difficulties for both the teacher and the
students. Teachers may feel underwhelmed with the level of responses that the students give,
thus making students feel less than confident about speaking. It is also quite time consuming
and could become repetitive. To avoid these challenges, teachers should slowly introduce the
technique to students. As students feel more comfortable, they will start to get comfortable
with the amount of speaking they are being asked to produce. Teachers can also utilize prompts
to help students with more complex language. These can also be slowly removed from the
classroom once students gain knowledge.

Conclusion

Student talk time should be increased in the classroom to provide students with enough
opportunities to develop fluency in the classroom. Reciprocal teaching allows students to
practice language more in the classroom so that they can perform with competence outside of
the classroom.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
References (Copyright):
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the spoken language: An approach based on the analysis
of conversational English. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Krashen, S. and T. D. Terrell. 1983. The natural approach. New York: Pergamon Press.

Palincsar, A. S. and A. Brown. 1984. Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and

comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1 (2):117–175.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by

FHI 360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore
5.5 Quiz: Teaching Listening and
Speaking Skills

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licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is free to use and share.

Quiz Instructions
Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on teaching listening and speaking
and on creating various activities, try and match concepts with their meaning. Take the
quiz to test yourself!
This quiz is graded and it is worth 10 points. You are allowed multiple attempts to
complete this quiz. You must earn at least 7 points to unlock the next page.
This quiz should be completed online.

8
5.6 Lecture: Error Treatment

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Overview
The question of when and how or whether to correct errors in students' speech is one
of the most frequently asked questions by and of the English language teachers. In the
end, everyone develops their own approach to error correction and treatment based on
their own teaching philosophy.
Often, as teachers we know what to correct, as spoken errors are immediately apparent
when our students are speaking. The question becomes when to correct, and how to
correct those errors.

When to Correct Errors

Correcting every error students make is time consuming, and it can lead to some negative
consequences:

 Students may develop a fear of making mistakes and stop speaking so not to be corrected.
 Students may loose concentration or flow of thought if corrected mid-sentence.

9
On the other hand, not correcting students may also lead to some negative consequences:

 Students may not realize they are making mistakes, and, therefore, not improve their speaking
skills.

It is important that teachers find some middle ground on when to correct spoken errors.
You may consider doing it when:

 The meaning of what one is trying to say is unclear.

 The student needs correction before he or she can continue.
 The error is common to several learners in the class.

You can also consider doing immediate correction or delayed error correction.
Immediate error correction is recommended when the focus is on accuracy. Delayed error
correction is recommended when the focus is on fluency.

How to Correct Errors

Below are examples of six common error correction strategies. Please read them and
reflect on how often you use them in your own classrooms.
Explicit error correction is used when the teacher states an error and corrects it.
Example:
Student: I drinked milk for breakfast this morning.
Teacher: We don’t say “drinked,” we say “drank.”
Recast is used when the teacher says it correctly but keeps the flow going.
Example:
Student: I speaked to Karen yesterday.
Teacher: Oh, you spoke to her yesterday?
Clarification request is used when a student makes a mistake and a teacher asks a
clarification question in order to point the mistake out.
Student: She teached that lesson yesterday.
Teacher: Excuse me, she taught what lesson?
Metalinguistic feedback is used when a teacher asks a student to reflect on a particular
grammar rule.
Student: I taked a test yesterday.
Teacher: Is taked the past tense of take?
Elicitation is used when a teacher encourages a student to provide a response.
Student: Yesterday with friends I saw a ummm….
Teacher: What do we call a video on a big screen?
Repetition is used when a teacher repeats an error so a student can hear it and self-
correct.

9
Student: I seed it yesterday.
Teacher: You seed it?

Conclusion
There are multiple ways to correct spoken errors. The timing of error treatment and the
specific approach to it should be carefully considered. Every teacher should determine
what works for his or her particular students and what agrees with his or her teaching
philosophy.

References (Copyrighted)
Correcting Spoken English. In How to Teach English. Retrieved from
http://www.icaltefl.com/error-correction (Links to an external site.)
Lyster, R. & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form
in communicative classrooms. Cambridge University Press, published online. Volume 19-1.

9
 Error Treatment

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Error Treatment PPT for the American English E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the
U.S Department of State, with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation we will discuss
spoken error correction and error correction strategies.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Rationale for Error
• Error correction is part of the teaching and learning process.
• If error correction is done correctly, it helps students
discover knowledge and follow their unique individual
learning paths.
• Over-correction/ poor correction techniques can be demotivating
for learners. They may lead to learners loosing interest in
learning and speaking the language.
It is important that teachers make good decisions about what, when
and how to correct errors to be able to best assist their learners in
acquiring speaking skills (Loewen, 2007).

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
What Errors to
Fluency vs. Accuracy
• Speaking English with a high level of accuracy means to
speak correctly, with very few mistakes.
• Speaking English with a high level of fluency means to speak
easily, quickly and with few pauses.
• Ideally, one would speak both accurately and fluently, but it takes
time to practice. Teachers can focus on either fluency or accuracy in
different speaking activities. It depends on the purpose of the
activity and learner’s proficiency level.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
When to Correct

Fluency: In communicative language teaching, we should

first value the meaning and message learners produce.

Focus on errors that effect the meaning of the message.

Accuracy: When students are practicing new words or trying

to improve pronunciation, you might correct more specific
errors, based on what they are learning.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,
with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
Some Error Correction Techniques:

Use body language. For example, make a ‘T’ with fingers to

illustrate missing ‘the’ or cross hands over to show wrong
word order (Mumford & Darn, 2005)
Use facial expressions. For example, raise your eyebrow, “Untitled” by ProSmile via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.

tilt your head, give a slight frown

It is free to use and share.

Repeat what they are saying wrong to give students an

opportunity to correct themselves (Nunan, 2003).
Say it the right way and give students an opportunity to
repeat the correct language.
Point at correct language. Have grammar rules,
vocabulary, or structure written on the board and point out “Untitled” by TukTukDesign via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.
to them if a student is making a mistake.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of

State, with funding provided by the U.S.
government, and administered by FHI 360
 How to Correct Errors After Your Students
are Done Speaking?
Collect errors for later, write them down. You can use
them later in the same class and engage students in
correcting errors.
Give and use grammar rules to point to errors. This
works well when students know the rules and can
identify it. “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

Ask to try it again. Often students will do better on a

second try, after they had a chance to think about
their errors.
Record student presentations and speeches and ask
students to identify and correct their own mistakes.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of
State, with funding provided by the U.S.
government, and administered by FHI 360
 Conclusion
Listening and speaking in English are
equally important for effective
communication. They are not only
language skills; they are life
communication skills.

“If speaking is silver, then listening is

gold.” (Turkish Proverb) “Untitled” by Free-Photos via pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
References (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

• Loewen, S. (2007). Error correction in the second language classroom. CLEAR News, Volume 11, Issue 2,
Fall 2007. Retrieved from http://clear.web.cal.msu.edu/wp-
content/uploads/sites/22/2018/10/Fall_2007_Newsletter-_Error_correction.pdf
• Mumford, S. & Darn, S. (2005). Classroom management: Speaking correction techniques. Retrieved from
http://www.onestopenglish.com/methodology/methodology/classroom-management/classroom-
management-speaking-correction-techniques/146455.article
• Nunan, D. (Ed.) (2003). Practical English language teaching. McGraw Hill.
• Richards, J.C. (2008). Teaching listening and speaking: From theory to practice. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State,

with funding provided by the U.S. government, and
administered by FHI 360
5.6.1 Quiz: Error Treatment

“Untitled” (Links to an external site.)is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external site.). It is free
to use and share.

Quiz Instructions
Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on error correction and treatment, try
and match concepts with their meaning. Take the quiz to test yourself!
This quiz is graded and it is worth 10 points. You are allowed multiple attempts to
complete this quiz. You must earn at least 7 points to unlock the next page.
This quiz should be completed online.

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5.7 Culture Spotlight: Interaction
in the EFL Classroom

“Cultural Spotlight icon” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. for use in the AE E-
Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

Creating Classroom Communities and

Interaction in the EFL Classroom
Directions:
Read the instructions to creating classroom communities and interactions in the EFL
classroom. As you read, think about interactions in your own classrooms and how cultural
norms affect your classroom interactions. Try some of these suggestions in your next class.

Introduction
Learning is a collaborative process; therefore, creating classroom communities that
promote positive interactions between students and teachers is very important. Such
positive interactions promote our ESL or EFL students' language development.
Classroom community implies students working together to achieve common learning
goals. When students are a part of a classroom community, they feel connected to their
teacher and other students in their class. Additionally, students need to feel safe to
communicate and feel comfortable speaking in English. Therefore, facilitating ways for
students and teachers to interact becomes essential for students' success and learning.
Here are several ways how you can create classroom communities and promote interaction
in your class.
Learn students' names
Knowing students' names will show them that you care about them and about their
learning.

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Know some facts about students' personal lives
Learn about students' families, hobbies, interests, origins, likes and dislikes. You can
then refer to some of these facts in your daily interactions, and make students feel
noticed and important.
Share facts about yourself
Let students know about yourself, your hobbies, your experiences, your adventures. They
will be able to relate to you on a personal level.
Engage in small talk
At the beginning of class, ask students about something that's new or interesting. What
they did on the weekend, etc.
Create classroom rules and expectations together
Students can help create rules and expectations for classroom behavior. It will be easier for
them to practice these rules daily if they took part in creating them. Talk to students about
these rules and how they help them learn, communicate, show respect, and stay safe.
Conduct a daily meeting
Start a class by asking students to sit in a circle or in pairs, shake hands, greet each other by
name, and share something new or interesting that happened to them the day before.
Everyone loves sharing important things. Having such meetings will help your students feel
connected.
Regularly change seating arrangements and partners
Change where your students sit regularly, even during the same class. This will allow
students an opportunity to work with many peers, and it will promote interaction and team
building.
Display student work and success
Post students' work around the classroom to showcase and model their
accomplishments. Students can ask each other questions or comment on each other's
work.
Create a class web page or a blog
Students can post about their learning and life experiences and share them with their
friends and families abroad.
Create a class book
At the end of the course or semester students can create a book with their pictures and
share about their experiences in their class. You can make digital or print copies and share
them with everyone. It is great for students to keep something like this as a memory! They
can write each other messages and memories in English.

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5.8 Optional Discussion:
Communicative Activity
5 Minute Communicative Activity
After working through the lectures, the activities, and the readings, you should be familiar
with some speaking and listening strategies, as well as the challenges learners of English
encounter when mastering their speaking and listening skills. Let's discuss how these ideas
apply to our own teaching contexts.

Directions:
Follow the following suggestions to design and share a 5 minute communicative activity.

1. Think about your own classes and students.

2. Design a 5-minute speaking activity for your students. This can be an activity that is connected
to what your students are studying. Make this activity practical and use it with your students in
the next class.
3. Name your activity and indicate what category of speaking activities it falls into (i.e., small talk,
conversations, transactions, discussions, presentations).
4. Provide an objective/goal (what language skills and functions will students use?) for
your activity and outline the steps your students need to take.
5. Briefly describe how you would assess this activity.
6. Review the rubric below for additional guidance on how to best complete this activity.

OPTIONAL: Read and respond to as many peers as you like.

5.8 Optional Discussion: Communicative Activity Rubric
Criterion Below Expectations Meets Expectations

Post presents practical activity that The activity is complex and needs
can be completed in 5 minutes. more than 5 minutes to complete. The activity is practical and can be
completed in 5 minutes.
Post provides activity name and Post provides name but not the Post provides both, the name and
category. category for the activity. the category for the activity.

Post provides activity objective and

Post provides an objective, but does Post provides both, objectives and
outlines the steps students need to
not outline the steps. specific steps students need to take.
take.

Post describes how the activity will Post does not mention the Post mentions the specific
be assessed. assessment. assessment for this activity.

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This discussion is not graded. However, please see this self-assessment rubric for scoring
on how well you address each part of the assignment.

5.9 Reflection: Cascading New

Knowledge Survey

“Untitled”Links to an external site. by TumisuLinks to an external site.via PixabayLinks to an external site.is licensed under a Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links to an
external site. License (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. It is free to use and share.

Survey Instructions
Now that you are familiar with methods and approaches for teaching listening and
speaking, and also error treatment strategies, it is time to reflect on the module! Some of
the questions in this graded survey are open-ended, meaning that they require a full
answer, drawing on your own knowledge or feelings. You are encouraged to draft your
answers somewhere else, so that you can save them and revisit your thoughts later. Then,
you can copy/paste or type in your responses to the survey. This will give you a chance to
take some time to reflect on the answers. Remember, the purpose of this survey is for you
reflect on your own.
This survey is graded. You will receive 10 points after you submit it. You will NOT receive
instructor feedback on this activity.
You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this activity.
This survey must be completed online.

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5.10 Course Wrap up
Thank you for taking the MOOC Methodology Online Course!

“Education” (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.by Geralt (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. is licensed under a Pixabay (Links to an external site.)Links
to an external site. License. It is free to use and share.

Congratulations to all of you who have successfully completed out TESOL

Methods MOOC Course!
It was great to have you be part of our online learning community. During this course, we
discussed the cultural and teaching implications of English as an international language
and explored how local, target and international cultures can be drawn upon when
teaching English. You considered and tried various language teaching methods,
approaches, and principles, and learned about learner-centered teaching.
We truly appreciate your sharing your ideas, resources, and experiences with your co-
workers around the world and we hope you will continue to be a part of this online global
community of English language teachers. We also hope that you will continue sharing the
knowledge and experiences that you have gained through this course with your co-workers
and other teachers.
Once again, good luck on this wonderful and continuous journey of English Methodology
and we hope to see you in our other online courses!

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Module 5 Check

Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in
Module 5. You must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will
count as 1 point toward your grade.

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