SOCIOLOGY II

INDIAN SOCIETY

“Our ability to reach unity in diversity will be the beauty and the test of our civilization.” - Mahatma
Gandhi

INTRODUCTION

The Greek philosopher Aristotle has said, “Man is by nature, a social animal and society is something
that precedes an individual.” But what does being a social animal mean? What is the meaning of the term
‘society’, and what role does it play for an individual? Let us begin with some basics. Different scholars
have defined society differently, such as:

R.M. Maclever has defined society as “a web of social relations which is always changing.”

According to J.H. Fichter- “A society may be defined as a network of interconnected major groups
viewed as a unit and sharing a common culture.”

It has to be noted that society is not just a random collection of people. It is a highly functional aggregate
of individuals along with their interactions, relationships and various social institutions. Society is a group
of individuals sharing spatial territory, having cultural affinities and typically subjected to same political
authority. Further, society is not a monolith, but it is characterized by cooperation, tolerance and conflicts,
depending upon time and context. Society is a very dynamic abstract entity. It is an abstract concept in a
sense that it cannot be seen or perceived with senses; and dynamic in the sense that it evolves over time.

However, society has a deep impact on survival, development and wellness of humans. It is the ability of
humans to create a society and social institutions that has helped them emerge as the dominant specie on
earth. Society provides a safe environment for people to work and prosper. It has been widely accepted
that social capital is an important determinant of success of people. It provides a support system when
people are in trouble. Society also includes family and friends with whom a person can share their
happiness. Further, society has enabled humans to overcome limitations and constraints that a single
human cannot surpass. There are multiple services that we take for granted, but which cannot be provided
without society. For example, in case of education or agriculture, no single person can know everything
or produce food for him alone. These are outcomes of collective efforts.

India is one of the world’s oldest civilizations and it is continuously evolving. Our ability to absorb and
assimilate new ideas has made this continuity possible. During its long journey, Indian civilization has
evolved various practices and customs, which now have become salient features of our society. These
practices and customs are still undergoing continuous transformation. Due to her uniqueness and
distinctness, India has earned the sobriquet ‘the epitome of the world”.

• Indian society is an example of a grand synthesis of multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi-ideological

construct. Amid the complexities and diversities all the sections of Indian society carry the ethos of
Indianness.
• Since time immemorial, ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’ (the world is one family) has been the guiding
light for the Indian society and based on this perceptive phrase India has accommodated and integrated
many communities which has shaped the ethos and socio-cultural fabric of Indian society.

• Thus Mark Twain has rightly said, “India is the cradle of the human race”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY

• Multi-ethnic society: Since time immemorial, its society has evolved through the ages and has also
been affected by foreign influences giving it extreme diversity.

• Multi-lingual society: Multilingualism in India is a product of its rich history and a reflection of its
diverse cultures.

• Multi-class society: Indian society is segmented into multiple classes. This division can be on the basis
of birth as well as financial and social achievements during one's lifetime.

• Patriarchal society: Indian society is largely a patriarchal society where men hold primary power,
predominating in the roles of political leadership, moral authority, special privilege and control of
property.

• Unity in Diversity: Indian Society is a grand synthesis of cultures, religions and languages of the people
belonging to different castes and communities has upheld its unity and cohesiveness. However, beneath
this diversity, there is fundamental unity in social institutions and practices.

• Co-existence of traditionalism and modernity: The spread of education and technological advances
has played a major role in the increase of modern thinking among Indians.

• Balance between Individualism and collectivism: Individualism is a moral, political or social outlook
that stresses human independence, self-reliance and liberty whereas collectivism is the practice of giving
a group priority over each individual in it.
 UNITY AND DIVERSITY

Introduction:

India is a plural society. It is rightly characterized by its unity and diversity. A grand synthesis of cultures,
religions and languages of the people belonging to different castes and communities has upheld its unity
and cohesiveness. Inspite of several foreign invasions, Mughal rule and the British rule, national unity and
integrity have been maintained. It is this synthesis which has made India a unique mosaic of cultures.
India fought against the British Raj as one unified entity. Foreign invasions, immigration from other parts
of the world, and the existence of diverse languages, cultures and religions have made India’s culture
tolerant, on the one hand, and a unique continuing and living culture, with its specificity and historicity,
on the other.

Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Islam, Sikhism and Christianity are the major religions. There is diversity
not only in regard to racial compositions, religious and linguistic distinction but also in patterns of living,
life styles, land tenure systems, occupational pursuits, inheritance and succession law, and practices and
rites related to birth, marriage death etc.

Post-Independent India is a nation united against several odds and obstacles. The idea of unity of India is
inherent in all its historical and socio-cultural facts as well as in its cultural heritage. India is a secular
state. It has one Constitution providing guarantees for people belonging to diverse regions, religions,
cultures and languages. It covers people belonging to all socio-economic strata. The Five Year Plans and
several other developmental schemes are geared to the upliftment of the poor and weaker sections of
society.

Sources of Diversity in India:

The sources of diversity in India may be traced through a variety of ways, the most obvious being the
ethnic origins, religious, castes, tribes, languages, social customs, cultural and sub-cultural beliefs,
political philosophies and ideologies, geographical variations etc.

1. RACIAL DIVERSITY:

According to A.W.Green, “A race is a large biological human grouping with a number of distinctive,
inherited characteristics which vary within a certain range.”

Riseley’s Racial Classification: Sir Herbert Risely classified Indian population into seven racial types.
These seven racial types can, however be reduced to three basic races namely (1) The Dravidian (2) The
Mongolian and (3) Indo-Aryan. They are:

1. The Turko Iranian: People having this strain in their blood are mainly found in Beluchisthan and
Afghanisthan, which are now outside the political borders of India.

2. The Indo-Aryan: This strain is mainly found in East Punjab, Rajasthan and Kashmir, especially
among the people belonging to the castes of Rajput, Khatri and Jat.

3. The Scytho-Dravidian: It is a mixed racial type of Scythians and Dravidians. People having this racial
ancestry are said to be found in Saurashtra, Coorg and hilly tracts of Madhya Pradesh.
4. The Aryo-Dravidian: It is an ad-mixture of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian races. They are mainly found
in U.P and Bihar. While the Aryan element is more pronounced among the Brahmins and other higher
caste people, The Dravidian element is more prominent among the Harijans and other lower caste people
of this region.

5. The Mongolo Dravidian: This racial type formed lout of the intermixture of Dravidian and Mongolian
Races, is believed to be Brahmins and the Kayasthas of Bengal and Odisha.

6. The Mongoloid: This racial element is mainly found among the tribal people of North-East Frontier
and Assam.

7. The Dravidian: The people of South India and Madhya Pradesh are claimed to be of this stock.

2. RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY:

India is a land where almost all major religions of the world are found. Here we find Hinduism, Islam,
Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Zorostrianism and Animism. All of these main religions have a number
of sects of their own.

In India, religious affiliations appear to be over-emphasised. As such, people in India some times, seem to
be more loyal to their respective religions than to their nation. This religious diversity has been a factor
and a source of disunity and disharmony in the country. As is well known, these religious differences
were responsible for the development of the two nation theory and the consequent partition of the country
in 1947. But, unfortunately the partition has neither solved the Muslim minority problem nor it has
created a homogeneous population in India from a religious point of view.

1. Hinduism: It is an amalgamation of Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Pre-Dravidian religious elements. It is

the religion of the majority of the people of India. The followers of

Hinduism believe in the doctrine of ‘Karma’, ‘Dharma’, rebirth, immortality of soul, renunciation and
salvation. Hinduism allows a number of possible conceptions of God. It also prescribes various
alternative paths of attaining God. The Sakta, the Shaiva, the Satnami, the Lingayat, the Kabirpanthi, the
Bramho Samaj, the Arya Samaj etc. are different sects of Hinduism.

According to 1991 census, 697.4 million people (82.6%) in India practice Hinduism and provide a solid
base for national unity through common beliefs,festivals, customs and traditions.

2. Islam: Islam the religion of the Muslims, originated in Arebia. It came to India towards the last quarter
of the 12th century A.D, with the Muslim invasions. The Muslim rulers in India patronized it. They
established long dynasties over large chunks of the country and encouraged conversions from Hinduism
and Buddhism. Islam does not believe in idol worship. It professes the fatalistic acceptance of Allah’s
will and considers Prophet Mohammed as the greatest prophet. The ‘Quran’, sacred book of Islam,
ordains five primary duties of a true and devout Muslim, such as belief in God (Allah), prayers five times
a day, the giving of alms, a month’s fast every year and a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in the life
time of a Muslim.

3. Christianity: Christians in India constitute more than 2% of its population. They are very widely
scattered all over the country, but they are mainly concentrated in the south and especially in Kerala
where they form nearly 25% of the state’s population. In the North, Christianity has spread rather
sporadically and its influence is mainly confined to certain sections of the tribal population and the
depressed castes. There are mainly three sects in Christianity. They are (a) Roman-Syrians (b) Roman
Catholics and (c) Protestants.

4. Sikhism: It was founded by Guru Nanak in the 16th century A.D. The Sikhs were originally a part of
the Vaishnava sect before they converted to it. Sikhism was later developed by a line of Sikh Gurus, who
succeeded Guru Nanak. According to Rose “ The Sikh creed involves belief in one God, condemning the
worship of other deity; it prohibits idolatry, pilgrimage to the great shrines of Hinduism, faith in omens,
charms or witchcraft; and does not recognize ceremonial impurity at birth and death. As a social system,
it abolishes caste distinctions and as a necessary consequence, the Brahminical supremacy and usages in
all ceremonies, at birth, marriage, death and so on.”

The Sikhs are ideologically nearer to the Hindus than to the Muslims. They as a group can easily be
identified by anyone, because of the five “K”s they always wear. The 5 “K” s are Kesh (uncut long hair),
Kanga(wooden comb) Kaccha (shorts), Kara (iron bangle in the hand and Kirpan (short sword). Sikh
population in India is around 2% which is mainly concentrated in the Punjab and at the adjoining states.

5. Buddhism: It originated in India during the 6th century B.C. Its founder was Gautama the Buddha.
Buddhism enjoyed royal patronage for a long period beginning from the Great emperor Ashoka in the 3rd
century B.C. As a result, Buddhism spread not only in India but also in countries outside India. It has two
sects, namely the Hinayana and the Mahayana. At present Buddhists are found in Sikkim and the
adjoining hills, they are also found in Maharashtra as a result of the recent conversions under the
leadership of Dr. Ambedkar. However the number of the Buddhists in India is very meager and it
represents only less than 1% of the total population.

6. Jainism: Lord Mahavir established Jainism in India in the 6th century B.C. It is very close to
Hinduism. Many of the Hindu doctrines are retained in it. Jains like the Hindus, venerate and worship the
cows, they often worship in the Hindu temples and also employ the services of the Brahmin priest in their
domestic rites. They are even more scrupulous than the Hindus in maintaining caste distinctions. But it
differs from Hinduism in its heretical views regarding the sanctity of the Vedas and in its strict insistence
on the principle of Ahimsa. Jains represent only a small portion of the Indian population. They comprise
about 0.45% of our population. Jains are divided into 3 sects: namely (a) The Digambaras, (b) The
Sevetambaras and (c) The Dhundias. Jains are mainly urban people and are found in the town and cities
of Punjab, U.P, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.

7. Zoroastrianism or Parsi: The Parsis or the followers of Zoroaster of Zorathushtra came to India in the
7th century A.D. from Persia in order to escape the forcible conversions to Islam. They worship fire. The
expose their dead on the so-called “towers of Silence” to be eaten up by vultures so that the elements-
earth, fire and water-are not defiled by the contact of the dead matter. Their number in India is negligible.
They are about one lakh in total half of which live in the city of Bombay alone. As such they are mainly
urban. They are the most literate and are on the top of the economic ladder of India.

8. Animism: It is mainly a tribal faith. In India there are about 25 million people who believe in
Animism. It is a primitive religion, according to which man is believed to be surrounded by a number of
impersonal ghostly powers. These powers are said to reside in rocks, rivers, trees, stones etc.
The above discussion makes it amply clear that India is a land of numerous religions. It is in view of this
religious diversity that independent India has declared secularism as one of the main principles of its State
Policy. Today India strives to integrate its people into a great nation on secular lines. But in spite of the
secular policy followed by the state, there have been occasional communal riots in India causing much
loss of life and property. It is to be seen how far we will be able to cultivate the ideal of secularism in the
minds of our people who are mainly religious minded.

3. LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY:

Indian languages can, however, be grouped into four different speech families such as:(1) the Indo-Aryan,
(2) the Dravidian, (3) the Austric and (4) the Sino-Tibetan.

Hindi, Urdhu, Punjabi, Assamese, Bengali, Odia, Gujarathi, Marathi and Kashmiri belong to the Indo-
Aryan speech family. The Dravidian linguistic group includes four southern languages namely, Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. The tribes of central India speak Austric languages and the tribes of the
North Eastern India speak the Sino-Tibetan languages.

At the time of Independence from the British rule in 1947, there were many princely states. The
Constitution of India was adopted on 20th November 1949 and came into effect on 26th January 1950,
which defined the Union of India comprising of different states and Union territories. In 1950, the states
were recognized on linguistic basis. As a result, the domiciles of a particular state speak a particular
language. Though the Constitution of India has recognized 22 major languages, as many as 1652
languages spoken in our country. Broadly these languages belong to three families of languages such as
Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and European. Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujurati, Odia, Punjabi, Bihari,
Rajasthani, Assamese, Sanskrit, Sindhi and Kashmiri are included in the Indo-Aryan family. The
Dravidian language includes Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada. English, Portuguese and French
are included in the European language family. Portuguese and French are mostly spoken by people in Goa
and Pondicherry respectively. Thus Linguistic diversity has posed a major threat to the unity and
existence of our country.

India is called a ‘veritable tower of Babel’ and according to A. R. Desai, “India presents a spectacle of
Museum of tongues.” The 1971 census reports the presence of 1652 languages in India. Most of the
languages are spoken in the North India. This multiplicity of languages creates new social cleavages in
the already divided population of India by caste and creed and renders the task of inter-communication in
the country difficult, if not impossible.

4. CASTE AND CLASS DIVERSITY:

As a form of stratification, the caste is peculiar to the Indian society. It may be called as an extreme form
of closed class system. The status of individuals in the social hierarchy is determined by birth. The caste
system is also found in other parts of the world, but not in a complete form as it is evinced in India. The
Indian caste system is divided into the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. It is not confined to
Hindus alone. We also find castes among other communities like Muslims, Christians or Sikhs. It is
believed that there are about 3,000 castes in India; out of this one can well imagine the extent of caste
diversity in India.
Every society classifies its population into different segments on the basis of occupation, wealth or
education, which are considered predominant characteristics of class. Persons belonging to particular
segment of society are pronounced as a separate class. They formulate their own values and aspirations
for the efficient functioning of their community. Stronger the class consciousness, greater are the chances
of social conflicts. In India which is also a closed society, the class consciousness has been intensified by
the pace of social and economic change and this has threatened the old social order.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE UNITY OF INDIA:

India is a vast country inhabited by people of diverse, religions, languages and customs. But, behind all
this apparent diversity, there is a fundamental unity which often eludes the eye of an observer, who is
more concerned with the external aspects only. It is these superficial observers, who often mistakenly take
the view that India, in the past, did not have cultural unity and that whatever unity we find in India today
is the product of the British rule. But, the fact is that the ideal of unity is not something new to India. The
concept of one unified India has always been the fascinating idea of many a great thinker of this land. The
idea is not imaginary either. Indian unity is the product of certain objective factors that are present in the
various fields of Indian social life.

1. Geographical unity: India, though very large in size, possesses geographical unity with natural
boundaries. It is surrounded on one side by the great Himalayas and on the other sides by the high seas.
These natural boundaries give the land geographical unity.

The term ‘Bharat Varsha’ i.e, India has always referred to this vast expanse of, the land expanding from
the Himalayas in the North to the Cape Comorin in the south and from the Brahmaputra in the East to the
Indus in the West. Religious thinkers, political philosophers, poets, statesmen and kings have always
conceived Bharat Varsha in this sense. Even today, Mother India means this vast expanse of land.

2. Religious Unity: India is a land of many religions. Even Hinduism is not a monolithic religion. Even
Hinduism is not a monolithic religion. There are a number of sects in it. But, in spite of all this religious
diversity, as Prof. Srinivas puts it, “the concept of unity of India is essentially a religious one”. Hinduism,
being the religion of the majority of the people of India, provides a basis for unity.

It is true that there are a number of sects in Hinduism. But all of them have something in common when
they preach, with slight variations, the same beliefs like immortality of the soul, transmigration of the
soul, rebirth, the law of Karma, Dharma, Moksha etc. Even Buddhism and Jainism are not very much
different from Hinduism in so far as these beliefs are concerned. Although Hinduism admits a number of
possible conceptions of God and also a variety of ways to attain union with God, it, nevertheless, stresses
the idea of unity when it declares, “there is one, they call by many names”.

The same myths, legends and deities are shared by all the Hindus in spite of their sectarian differences.
Epics like the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata are read as devotionally in the south as in
the North. All the Hindus, despite their differences in language, caste and customs, show equal respect to
the Hindu Scriptures like the Vedas, Upanishads, the Gita and the Puranas.

Religious Unity of the country is expresses through the existence of pilgrimage centres spread all over the
country. Pilgrimage centres of great religious value such as Badrinath in the north, Rameswaram in the
south, Dwarika in the west and Puri in the east eloquently speak the religious unity of this vast land of
Bharatvarsha. There are mountains like the Himalayas and the rivers like the Ganges, Yamuna and
Godavari which are sacred for every Hindu. These centres of religious merit, the temples, the mountains
and rivers spread all over the country make every Hindu feel that every inch of the land is sacred. That is
why, devout Hindus, even in Pre-British days, when means of transportation were little developed. To
these pilgrims language barriers, political boundaries and differences in customs and usages were not
great obstacles on their way to earn religious merit.

3. Cultural Unity:

Indian possesses cultural unity which runs through every aspect of Indian Social life. The fundamental
approaches to philosophy, art, literature and the traditions and customs are typically Indian in character.
Social institutions like caste and the joint family which are found throughout the length and breadth of the
country are typically Indian. Thus, for instance, the social institution of caste provides a common cultural
idiom to all Indians. The institution is so pervasive that it cuts across even religious boundaries. Every
Indian, whether he is a Hindu, a Muslim, a Sikh, a Jain, a Buddhist or a Christian finds himself in a
universe of caste. Similar is the case with joint family. Then there are the same rituals, samskaras and
festivals which are observed all over the country very much in a similar fashion.

4. Political Unity:

Political unity, an offshoot of religious and cultural unity, is not something unknown to Indians. The ideal
of bringing the whole country under one central authority has always been a pre-occupation with great
kings and statesmen in India. The concept of ‘Chakravarti’ clearly refers to this idea of political
unification of India under one authority. Many kings in the past have been fired by the ambition of
achieving the title of Universal Overlord or ‘Chakravarti’, waged wars and established hegemony over the
entire land. In the ancient Indian literature we come across stories referring to kings like Dilip, Sagar,
Yajati, Mandhata and Yudhisthira who actually achieved this much coveted position of being a
Chakravarti. Later kings like Chandra Gupta Maurya, Ashoka, Samudra Gupta and others also achieved
this distinction of being the universal overlord. In the past kings often declared wars on others with no
other purpose than to achieve this title. The prevalence of religious practices like the Aswamedha Yajna
only indicates the religious support extended to the idea of political unification of India under one central
authority.

5. Emotional Unity:

Finally there is an emotional bond in India that binds all the inhabitants of the land. The very name
‘Bharatamata’ brings all Indians emotionally closer to one another. The institution of national awards and
titles for acts of bravery, social service, spirit of unity concerts cut across the communal, linguistic or
regional bias and evokes the feeling of emotional unity. Emotional integration of the people as one nation
is also provided through various media like Radio, TV and the Cinema.

The above discussion clearly shows that in India there is an under-current of unity running through the
apparent diversities of race, religion, language, custom etc. India is thus, a fine example of unity in
diversity.
 THE CASTE SYSTEM
Every society is stratified. It has rightly been said that an “unstratified society, with a real equality of its
members is a myth, which has never been realised in the history of mankind. The form and proportions
may vary but its essence is permanent.”

The Indian social system rests on three pillars: the caste system, the joint family system, and the village
community. Among these, the caste system appears to be the most significant feature of the Hindu
Society due to its interdependence upon the social, economic and political systems. In fact, the Hindu
Society has been described as the caste society par excellence. In India we find a unique system of social
stratification based on birth, which is not found elsewhere in the world.

Meaning and Definition:

The term ‘Caste’ is derived from a Portuguese word ‘Casta’ meaning breed, race or group. As already
mentioned, castes are ascriptive groups. Thus basically caste refers to people belonging to the same breed.
An individual is born into a caste, and this status is usually permanent. Though the elements of castes are
found outside India, it is only in India that numerous castes are found. The term ‘caste’ has been defined
differently by different people.

According to G.S.Ghurye “Castes are small and complete social worlds in themselves marked off
definitely from one another though subsisting within the larger society.”

According to MacIver “When status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot without
any hope of change in it, then the class takes the extreme form of caste.”

According to A.W.Green, “Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility, movement up and down
in the status ladder, at least ideally, may not occur.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

1. Segmental Division of Society

Under caste system, society is divided into several small social groups called castes. Each of these castes
is a well developed social group, the membership of which is based on birth.

Since membership is based on birth, mobility from one caste to another is impossible. Each caste has its
own traditional social status, occupation, customs, rules and regulations. It has its own governing body
called the caste council or ‘jati panchayat’, which enforces the caste rules. Above all, members of a caste
are bound together by mutual obligations of help and co-operation in their day to day activities. Thus each
caste is a social world by itself.

2. Hierarchy

The caste system is always characterized by a hierarchical arrangement. It implies that there are some
castes which are considered superior to the others. Membership in the caste is based on birth and is more
or less fixed. Traditionally it is the hierarchical arrangement of caste according to different degrees of
dominance and subordination. The Brahmins in India are placed on the apex of the social ladder. A
Brahmin is entitled to whatever exists in this world. In the caste hierarchy the Brahmins are followed by
the Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas. At the bottom of the ladder are the Shudras.

3. Restrictions on Interaction

In the caste system, there are several restrictions on interaction. The members of one caste cannot mix or
move freely with the members of the other castes. This ban on interaction becomes still more rigid when
the question of mixing of a superior caste with an inferior one comes to the front. Every caste abides by
well-established customs and well-defined norms of interaction.

4. Social and religious disabilities

In caste system, the members of a higher caste impose certain disabilities and restrictions on other castes.
In the Hindu caste system, the Brahmins are the most privileged caste and the Sudras are the oppressed
ones. A Sudra cannot even touch an individual belonging to a higher caste. People belonging to the lowest
caste in the hierarchy are not allowed to dwell in the cities and purchase property in the localities
inhabited by the high caste people. They are not allowed even to go to the temples and worship there.
They are not even permitted to study religious books etc. they are not also allowed to use village wells or
ponds, used by the higher castes.

5. Imposition on restrictions on commensality

Each caste group has its own laws which govern the food habits of the members. Generally, there are no
restrictions on fruit, milk, butter, dry fruits etc. But there are some restrictions regarding unfried food.
Unfried food has been divided into two classes, ‘pacca’ and ‘kachcha’. This division is based on the use
of ‘ghee’ with or without water. The kachcha food can be accepted only from a person of one’s own caste
or of a higher caste.

6. The Ideology of purity and pollution

The higher castes are believed to be pure and the lower caste people as impure. A central point in Hindu
ritual is that it is necessary to make offering to the gods in order for human affairs to continue without
undue disaster. The Brahmin or the priest acts as an intermediary between the general society and the
gods. The lower castes are regarded as less pure and more polluted. This concept of dividing people in
terms of pollution and purity was given by the famous Anthropologist Louis Dumont.

7. Restrictions on Occupations

The different castes are usually associated with traditional occupations. Hindu religious texts determined
the occupations of all ‘Varnas’. One’s birth into a particular caste determines his occupation during his
life time. A Sudra cannot be engaged in the profession of a priest and a Brahmin is debarred to engage
himself in impure occupations like making shoes which is the occupation of the lower castes.

8. Marital restrictions

Caste endogamy is strictly enforced wherein the members of each caste marry only within their own
caste. Inter-caste marriage is prohibited.
9. Hereditary status

Caste system is based on the ascriptive pattern which implies that the birth of a person in a particular
caste decided his caste and his status in society. It is usually difficult or rather impossible to change one’s
own caste despite the acquisition of qualifications or disqualifications, the membership of a particular
caste continues and does not undergo any change.

ORIGIN OF CASTES

Many western and non-Indian scholars have described the origin of castes in their own ways. Whereas
Herbert Risley has attributed the racial differences to have been the cause, Nesfield and Ibbeston
explained its origin through occupational factors. Abbe Dubois stressed on the role of the Brahmins in the
creation of caste system. J.H.Hutton refered to the belief in ‘Mana’ as the origin of caste. In addition,
various theories of the origin of caste system have been formulated. Some important theories are given
below.

A. Traditional Theory:

A unique feature of Indian society is caste system. The term ‘caste’ is generally used in two senses,
sometimes as ‘Varna’ and sometimes as ‘jati’. Varna system finds its origin in the Purusha Sukta hymn
of the 10th Mandala of Rigveda which talks about the four-fold division of Indian society.

According to it- “From the mouth of Brahma, originated the Brahmins (generally priest and scholars),
Kshatriya (ruler and soldier) from the shoulders, Vaishya (merchant) from thighs and Shudra
(peasant, labour, servant) from feet.”

This division was based on occupations of members of society. However, from Post-Gupta age onwards,
the Varna system grew rigid and became based on birth implying no outside person could enter any
Varna. ‘Jati’ refers to the institution of caste system and it is a form of social stratification (hierarchy),
which governs the pattern of social interaction among various social groups.

Jati can be defined as a hereditary endogamous group, having a common name, traditional occupation
and culture. It is relatively rigid in matters of mobility due to distinctiveness of status, thereby resulting in
the formation of a single homogeneous community.

‘Jati Panchayats’ were held for punishing people who changed their caste. Jati/caste groups were
traditionally linked to occupations. Each caste had a specific occupation and could not change the
occupation. Thus, there was lack of unrestricted choice of occupation. The precise relationship between
varna and jati has been subjected to much debate among scholars.

Some of the key differences between them are as follows:

The ‘Karma’ and ‘Dharma’ doctrines also explain the origin of caste system. Whereas the karma
doctrines hold the view that a man is born in a particular caste because of the result of his action in the
previous incarnation, the doctrine of dharma explains that a man who accepts the caste system and the
principles of the caste to which he belongs, is living according to dharma. It is believed that the person
living according to his dharma is rewarded. On the contrary, the violation of one’s own dharma yields
punishment. Confirmation to one’s own dharma also remits on one’s birth in the rich high caste and
violation gives a birth in a lower and poor caste.

Attempts have been made to explain the caste on the basis of qualities or ‘gunas’ which are interpreted in
terms of two sets ‘Gotrika’ and ‘Namika’. The ‘Gotrika’ quality is concerned with heredity. The
individual on the basis of his birth, inherits from his lineage,which is commonly found among all other
consagunious kins. The ‘namika’ qualities are the individual’s own specific qualities. Thus the’gotrika’
relates an individual with a particular group and determines his ascriptive status. This ascriptive status
accords him membership in a particular jati or caste.

This traditional theory has been criticized on three counts.

i. First it attributes the origin of human beings as four Varnas to a divine being and thus considers it
as a supernatural phenomena which is biologically wrong.
ii. Secondly, it treats four Varnas as four castes, which implies that caste system and Varna system
are all the same. This conception is wrong. In this regard M.N.Srinivas holds that the idea of caste
as the four-fold division of society represents a gross oversimplification of facts. The real unit of
caste system is jati denoting an endogamous community with more or less defined ritual status
and occupations traditionally linked to it.
 iii. Thirdly, the tracing of the origin of caste to miscegenating or Varna Shankar is also misleading. It
is possible that some castes have been formed as miscegenation, but it is not correct to say that all
the castes have been formed due to miscegenation.

B. Occupational Theory:

Nesfield regarded caste system as the natural product of the occupational division of Hindu Society. In his
own words “Function and function alone is responsible for the origin of caste system”. He holds the view
that in the beginning when there was no rigidity, each individual was free to have occupation of his
choice. But gradually with the rigidity in the system, occupational changes came to a halt. Castes were
identified on the basis of fixed occupation. Persons in noble occupations, such as educating the people,
fighting in the battle field, trade etc, were considered as members of superior castes. The others were
traced as persons belonging to inferior castes, such as Sudras. In support of his theory, Nesfield cited the
example that the occupation of artisans working in metals is ranked higher than basket makers or some
other primitive occupations which do not involve the use of metals.

However, this theory is not free from criticism. The line of attack is that occupation is not the sole basis of
causing caste differences. Wide variations are also marked in respect of the position of agricultural castes
which are rated lower, they are regarded as relatively higher and respectable in North India.

C. Political Theory:

Some thinkers are of the opinion that not race but political convenience and manipulation by those
wanting to retain authority resulted in the origin of caste system. The Brahmins were solely responsible
for creating and maintaining this system so as to retain authority. In the words of Dr. Ghurye, “caste is
the Brahminic child of Indo-Aryans culture cradled in the land of Ganges and hence transferred to other
parts of India by Brahminic prospectors.”

Abbe Dubois argues that caste system is an ingenious device made by the Brahmins for Brahmins.
Brahmins imposed restrictions on food and social intercourse to preserve their purity necessary for the
sacerdotal functions. They also accorded high status to themselves and declared all others inferior to
them. The salvation of individuals or society lied in the performance of religious rites by the Brahmin
only. The Brahmins even added the concept of spiritual merit of the king, through the priest or purohit in
order to get the support of the ruler of the land.

However, Hutton has made scathing attack on the Brahminical theory of the origin of caste on two
counts.

 First, it is not possible to accept this theory unless it is confirmed that Brahmins must have got the
political power to implement such a scheme.
 Second, such a deep rooted social institution, like caste, could hardly be imposed by an
administrative measure. Of course, both the arguments of Hutton appear to be illogical because
Kshatriyas have ruled over the land through the entire period of history and furthermore
imposition of superiority over others by the Brahmins may not be possible through administrative
measure.
 D. Racial Theory of Caste:

Herbert Risley is one of the ardent advocates of racial theory of the origin of caste system. Other
supporters of this theory are the scholars like Ghurye, Majumdar, Westermarck and others.

According to this theory, caste system came into existence due to clash of cultures and the contact of
races. The Aryans came to India as conquerors, because of their better complexion, physical appearance
and built up of the body. In comparison with the non-Aryans, the Aryans placed themselves as a superior
race over the non-Aryans. Thus the Aryans considered the natives as inferior to them and maintained their
own ideas and ceremonial purity. The Aryans got married to the non-Aryan women, but refused to give
their own daughters in marriage to the non-Aryans. The Chandals had the lowest position in society. Thus
the irregular union between races and racial superiority were held responsible for the origin of caste
system in India.

Risley has mentioned six processes of development of caste system.

(a) Changes in traditional occupation: when a caste or a sub-caste changes its traditional occupation
and adopts a different one, it ultimately develops into a distinct caste.

(b) Migration: In the past the transport and communication system was not developed. Therefore
whenever a section of caste migrated from one region to the other, it faced difficulties in maintaining
contacts with the earlier place.

(c) Customary changes: From the earliest times, the formation of new castes was based on the rejection
of old custom and usages and acceptance of the new practices and habits.

(d) Preservation of old practices: Some caste groups are interested in maintaining their old traditions
and on those bases they separate themselves from the rest of society who follow relatively new customs
and traditions. The caste groups preserving old patterns may take up new names.

(e) Getting into the folds of Hinduism: Certain tribes or the section of the tribes enter into the rank on
Hinduism by changing their lineage, by accepting the tenets of any school of Hindu religion, by joining
Hindu religion and by establishing relations with the Hindus without changing its name. Thus, the tribes
transform themselves into castes. The examples of the Rajbanshies of Bengal and Muria Gonds of MP
may be taken in this regard.

(f) Role of religious enthusiasts: Separate sects are created by the religious enthusiasts. They preach
their doctrines and attract people towards them. Gradually, their followers develop into a new group.
Kabir may be taken as an example in this regard.

Ghurye’s View:

G.S. Ghurye also traces the origin of caste system to race. He has associated caste system with Brahmanic
system. The system originated in the Gangetic plains due to the conquest of the Aryans. According to
him, the conquered race began to be considered as Sudra. The Sudras were excluded from all religious
and social activities of the Aryans. The Aryans did not allow them to participate in Indo-Aryans social
activities. According to him “the Brahminic variety of this Indo-Aryan civilization was developed in the
Gangetic plain”. Ghurye believed that it is this multiplicity which has resulted in the formation of castes
and sub-castes. In this regard, he adds, “the various factors that characterize caste society were the result
in the first instance of the attempts on the part of the upholders of Brahminic civilization to exclude the
aboriginals and the Sudras from religious and social communication with themselves.”

Risely’s view:

Herbert Risley held the view that the caste system originated due to the emigration of Indo-Aryans from
Persia. In Persia, the Indo-Aryans were divided into four classes and the migrants in India wanted to
retain the same class structure. At the same time they wanted to maintain distance from the non-Aryans
because they considered the non-Aryans inferior to them, both in cultural and racial features. They
practiced hypergamy with the non-Aryans, but did not allow hypogamy with them. Even then more stray
cases occurred.

Thus three distinct classes emerged in society:

(a) Endogamous marriage of the Aryans

(b) Hypergamy and

(c) Stray cases of exogamy.

Such marriage practices resulted in the origin of castes.

Criticism:

Racial theory cannot be accepted as the exclusive theory of the origin of caste system in India.

 Caste system should not be confined to India. It should be found in all such societies which have
experienced the conquest by other racial groups.
 Secondly, it is quite natural that whenever two or more distinct races come into contact, some sort
of segregation results. But this may not always lead to untouchability.
 Thirdly, the practice of hypergamy may be a reasonable factor contributing to the formation of
caste system. But this is not the sole reason. If we relate the origin of caste exclusively to the race,
it will neglect many other possible factors.

FUNCTIONS OF CASTE:

1. It helped in maintaining purity of blood: Members of each caste follow endogamic restrictions
in marriage and as such purity of blood is maintained. This is perhaps the reason that even today pure
Aryan race is found in India.
2. Determines social status: As caste is based on the principle of birth, an individual, by virtue of
his birth in a particular caste, automatically becomes a member of it and gets, by ascription, the
traditional status of that caste in society. This ascriptive status of the individual is fixed. Thus caste
gives the individual psychological security as far as his position in society is concerned.
3. Provides social security: Besides the psychological security in the form of a fixed social status,
caste offers social security to the individual from his birth to death. It provides him with an
occupation, acts as a trade union, a benefit society, health insurance and also provides for his funeral,
if it is needed.
4. Guides the individual’s behavior: caste, like any other social institution, guides the behavior of
the individual by providing readymade behavior patterns in matters like diet, ceremonial
observances, rituals at birth, initiation, marriage, death etc.
5. Preserves culture: Every society must be able to pass on its patterns of skill, knowledge, and
behavior- in short its culture- from one generation to another generation, if it is to survive as a
distinct social system. Caste system is specially fit for such a task of handing over cultural patterns
from one proceeding generation to the other succeeding generation with little change, because craft
secrets and caste customs are zealously safeguarded and perpetuated by the occupational castes.
6. Integrates society: caste system has acted as an effective means of integrating the diverse racial,
religious, national and ethnic groups into a vast variegated community. But for their integration into a
community by the system they would have either been completely absorbed by Hindu society or been
remained as un-adjusted and possibly subversive elements in society. Caste system is capable of
incorporating groups - be it racial, religious, national or occupational - in such a way that it becomes
a part of the social whole and yet retains its own distinctive character and identity. It is for this reason
that thinker like Furnival has described India as “an outstanding instance of a country,” where “a
plural society has proved stable’.
7. Establishes stability in society: Caste system has also been responsible for the stability in the
society. It saved Hindu society from being disrupted under the pressure of alien invasions, famines
and upheavals of all kinds in her long and chequered history. Hindu society has proved stable
because it is firmly based on caste system, which survives even conversion to Islam or Christianity.
For example, we have Muslim castes like the Momin, Jolaha, Lakhhani, Gaddi etc.
8. Brings political stability in society: the caste system acted as the political stabilizer in the sense
that despite several changes and political upheavals, no significant influence could be exerted on the
Hindus. The cultural pattern was preserved irrespective of the changing political set up and S.C. Hill
has said in this regard that the caste system prescribed and determined a form of social order which
was entirely independent of the form of political government. Another reason for political stability
was the fact that there was no motive on the part of the ruled to seek an alternation.
9. Serves as a device for division of labour: caste system has acted as a unique system of division
of labour in Hindu society. It has made provision for all functions ranging from education to
scavenging. But what is unique about the system is that the provision is made under a religious
dogma namely the belief in karma, which makes the apparently in-equitable division of labour
acceptable to people. It is said that the present position and occupation of a person in the society are
the consequences of his actions in his previous lives and that if he performs his caste duties faithfully
in this present life, he will have a better position in his next life.
10. It developed the spirit of cooperation: The members of each caste develop a sense a unity for
their own caste group. The feeling that any invasion by other castes on their superiority or any
attempt at degrading their customs, rituals and traditions etc. will be disastrous for the caste urged
them to work in close cooperation with one another. In this manner, the caste system developed a
sense and spirit of cooperation and this provided the infrastructure for the advancement and
betterment of the society.
11. Raised the standard of living: Due to the caste system members belonging to different castes
made great efforts to maintain their superiority and position and thereby the caste system raised the
standard of living of the people belonging to a particular caste. This, in turn, raised the standard of
living of each caste which was of great help the society.
DYSFUNCTIONS OF THE CASTE SYSTEM:

1. Hinders social progress: caste system is a hindrance to social progress because it does not allow
changes to be easily introduced in society. Under caste system, the individual is not free he is to conform
to the age old customs of his caste. Slightest deviation from them is severely dealt with. This rigidity of
the system has almost paralyzed Hindu society. Innovation has no place in it. Sherring is right when he
says, “caste makes no compromises, the most ignorant Hindu is able to compel the obedience of the most
intelligent.”

2. Stifles economic progress: caste system acts as a stumbling block on the path of economic
development. As occupations are determined by status rather than contract in caste system, the worker is
denied of his freedom to choose and occupation of his liking. This leads to immobility and inefficiency of
labour and thereby to economic backwardness.

3. Leads to political disunity: under caste system an individual is required to be more loyal to his caste
than to any other group. As such, it fosters casteism rather than nationalism among the people. It is for
this reason that the Indians could not develop nationalism and combine against foreign invasions. In fact,
disunity and lack of patriotism among the Indians encouraged many foreigners to invade India.

4. Perpetuates social inequalities: caste system has served as an instrument in the hands of the upper
castes to maintain their own privileged position in society. It has led to the despotism of the upper castes
and created permanent feelings of inferiority and insecurity in the minds of lower caste people.

5. Imposes hardships on women: Another drawback of the system is that it imposes hardships on
women. Under caste system, a caste wishing to raise its status in the caste hierarchy should follow certain
customs like child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriages and seclusion of women, which entail
hardships for women.

6. Creates untouchabilty: The system keeps a large number of people in a state of virtual slavery. They
are the unfortunate untouchables, who suffer from all kinds of disabilities. Untouchability is the ugliest
expression of caste system.

7. It stood against democracy: The caste system ran contrary to the democratic spirit. Democracy
presupposes human equality, but the caste system believed in inequality and there was a hierarchical
arrangement wherein the Brahmins were at the top, whereas the Sudras were at the lowest rung of the
ladder.

CHANGES IN THE CASTE SYSTEM:

1. Decline in the supremacy of Brahmins: In the traditional caste system, the Brahmins were at the apex
of the social and religious sphere and thus they enjoyed supremacy over others. But due to the processes
of secularization and westernization, the authority of the Brahmins gradually declined and they ceased to
enjoy the traditional respect and honour in the society.

2. Changes in the caste hierarchy: Traditionally, each caste was maintaining its own style of life and the
higher castes maintained a better life than the rest. But in course of time the process of Sanskritization
started. Sanskritization is a process in which a status group aspiring for upward mobility in the system of
social stratification tends to emulate the life style of the higher castes. The lower castes followed
Sanskritization to bring about a change in their social status.

3. Changes in status: The status-indicating function of castes has undergone changes due to the process
of secularization, westernization and materialistic attitude of individuals.

4. Occupational changes: In a caste-ridden society, occupations were hereditary and an individual’s birth
into a particular caste determined his occupation forever. But when the rigidity of the caste system broke
down, occupational changes were also marked.

5. Changes in the sphere of culture: It has changed the life style of different caste groups, their modes
of living, patterns of worship and performance of rites and rituals, customs and traditional practices.

6. Changes in commensality: People are no more confined to their places of origin. They have migrated
to different places and so it becomes very difficult to stick to the restrictions relating to the food habits.
Particularly in the urban places where the strangers dine in hotels, it is impossible to maintain restrictions.
In various offices and work-organizations, the same relaxation is evident. The employees assemble
together for inter-dining.

7. Attitudinal changes: Changes in the attitude towards castes have been noticed within the system. This
relates to loss of faith in the ascriptive pattern and jurisdiction of the system itself.

FACTORS AFFECTING CASTE SYSTEM:

1. Modern Education: Modern education being secular in nature, is indifferent to, if not against,
religion. It is, on the one hand, based on such democratic values like equality, liberty and fraternity and on
the other hand, grounded on such scientific values like reason and observation. Therefore, with the spread
of modern education, the beliefs like divine origin of caste, karma and ‘karmaphala’, which provided
ethical justification for caste system, are growing weaker and weaker in the minds of people. As modern
education is usually imparted in co-educational institutions, it encourages inter-caste marriages, based on
love, among the educated young men and women. Thus, modern education acts as a very powerful force
against caste system in India.

2. Industrialization: Caste, like the joint family, is based on rural economy. As such, industrial economy
cuts across the roots of both caste and joint family. Occupational castes cannot survive in the face of large
scale industrialization. For example, the members of the weaving castes are finding it extremely difficult
to follow their traditional caste occupations as it is not possible for them to compete with the textile mills
in the open markets. As a result, of industrialization, the tradition of following caste occupations has
come in to disuse. Today, members of all castes have sought and got employment in the modern factories.
A Brahmin, who works by side of an untouchable in a factory, cannot avoid his touch or shadow.

3. Urbanization: Under urban conditions of life, the ideas of pollution by touch of a shadow cannot be
translated into action.

4. Modern means of transportation: Modern means of transportation have increased spatial mobility of
the people and thereby put an end to the geographical isolation, which was a favourable condition for the
creation and continuation of caste system in India. Moreover, while travelling by the modern means of
transportation like buses, trains, it is impossible to observe caste rules regarding food, drink and social
inter-course.

5. Increase in the importance of wealth: In our present age, wealth is replacing birth as the basis of
social prestige. Consequently, caste, which is based on birth, is no longer the basis of social status. As a
rich Sudra is more respected than a poor Brahmin in our modern society, people while choosing their
occupations, give more consideration to income rather than anything else.

6. New social movements: In the past, a number of movements were launched against caste system, but
none of them succeeded, as they were mainly reformist in their mission. They never questioned
orthodoxy. But the social movements started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayananda Saraswati and others
were unlike the earlier movements, for they were based on the authority of reason rather than the
orthodox texts. As such, their ideas could influence the intelligentsia of the country against caste and
other evils of Hindu society.

Under the impact of all these powerful forces, wide cracks have already appeared in the walls of the
citadel of caste in India. But it would be a gross mistake to think that it has completely collapsed.
 PROCESSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Change is a significant domain of sociological analysis. Every society undergoes changes. No society is
static. Indian society is no exception. The important processes of social change in India include
Sanskritization, Westernization, Secularization, Industrialization, Urbanization and Modernization.

SANSKRITIZATION

Sanskritization is a culturological concept which means the process of endogenous change in the culture-
structure of Indian society. M.N.Srinivas is acclaimed as the founder of it. While preparing his
dissertation under Radcliffe Brown and Evens Pritchard at Oxford University, M.N.Srinivas evolved the
concept of Sanskritization. He finally used the concept in his book “Religion and Society among the
Coorgs of South India” to describe the process of cultural mobility, in the traditional social structure of
Indian society.

While conducting his study of the Coorgs in Mysore, Srinivas found that Amma Coorgs, in adopting
some of the customs of the Brahmins, gave up meat eating, consumption of liquor, and animal sacrifice.
To denote this process of cultural mobility, Srinivas coined the term ‘Brahminization’. Later on, he
replaced it by another term ‘Sanskritization’. Of course, several reasons can be attributed to this
conceptual shifting. One of such reasons Srinivas realised was that Brahminization was too narrow a
concept to explain the whole process of change.

Further, Srinivas realized that in Brahminization only one model namely Brahminic model was referred to
at the neglect of the other models such as Khastriya model, Vaishya model, Shudra model at the
existential level. Furthermore, at some points, Brahminization and Sanskritization are at variance with
each other. For instance, Brahmins of the Vedic period drank Soma (an alcoholic drink), ate beef and
offered blood sacrifices.

Under the impact of Buddhism and Jainism these were given up in the post-vedic period. All Brahmins
except Saraswat, Kashmirand Bengali Brahmins became vegetarian. In short, customs and habits of the
Brahmins changed after they had settled down in India. Had the term Brahminization been used, it would
have been necessary to specify which particular Brahmin group was meant and at which period. In view
of these facts, Srinivas opted for a comprehensive term called Sanskritization.

Initially, Srinivas defines Sanskritization as the tendency among the low castes to move higher in the
caste hierarchy “in a generation or two” by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism.

In this sense, Sanskritization is identified with the imitation of the Brahminical customs and manners by
the low castes, Srinivas redefines Sanskritization as “a process by which a low Hindu caste, or tribal or
other group changes its customs, ritual, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high, frequently
“twice born caste’. Thus, Sanskritization connotes a wider meaning being neither confined to the
Brahmins as a reference group nor to the imitation of mere ritual and religious practices.

It now also means imitation of ideologies such as Karma, Dharma, Papa, Punya, Maya, Samsara,
Moksha etc. which find place in Sanskrit literature. These words also frequently occur in the talk of the
Sanskritizing castes. Besides, the Sanskritizing castes also follow some of the secular elements.
Sanskritization has historical as well as contextual meanings.

 In its specific historical senses, Sanskritization refers to those processes in Indian history which
led to changes in the status of various castes or their cultural patterns in different periods of
history. History tells that in this process the lower castes could move to the rank of the higher
castes as a result of their chivalry, rise in economic and power status and political alliance. This
type of vertical mobility (change in position in the upward direction) was legitimatized by the
consensus of the dominant castes and kings through royal decrees and other formal means as
recognized by the priestly castes. historian pannikar holds that the non-kshatriya caste could
manage to become the kshatriya caste by way of conquering political power. Nandas were the last
kshatriya rulers thereafter all the rulers belonged to the lower castes. Thus, Sanskritization in its
historical connotation conveys a wider implication.
 Contextually, on the other hand, Sanskritization is confined to the micro level. It refers to the
universal motivation towards anticipatory socialization of the culture of an immediate higher
group by a lower group in the hope of gaining its status in future. Sanskritization, in this form, is
a very slow and non spectacular process of cultural mobility of castes. Without any wider
political implication, very often it fails to obtain legitimacy from the dominant caste.
Sanskritization at the local level assumes various patterns.

MODELS OF SANSKRITIZATION

1. Cultural Model

Castes have been assigned high or low status according to the cultural characteristics of Hindus. The
wearing of sacred thread, shunning the use of meat and liquor, observing endogamy, prohibition of
widow-marriage, observing the restrictions imposed by caste system, worship according to the modes and
methods described in the religious text books daily, an inclination and respect for religious texts and
mythological stories, giving alms and gifts, use of increase, lamp, flowers, grains and oblation at the time
of worship, going to temples and on pilgrimages etc. have been given sanctity in traditional culture. They
are considered to be the measuring standards of sacredness and purity. Therefore adopting in one’s life
style the way of higher castes and accepting the mandates of Varnas, Ashramas, Karma and Rebirth etc.
and showing faith in the thoughts given in Sanskrit literature regarding religion, vice and virtue, salvation,
maya and Brahma are a form of Sanskritization. In short accepting the behaviour and code of highness
and purity as described in religious texts is a form of Sanskritization.

2. Varna Model

In the Varna system the highest status is that of a Brahman followed by Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
Antyaj (or the lowest) is the fifth varna which is the lowest and untouchable. At different places
Brahmans, Kshatriyas or Vaishyas acquire high respect in the society. The lower castes copy the ideals
and life styles of the superior class, where Kshatriyas enjoy of ‘superiority’ their ideals are copied.
Similarly where Vaishyas enjoy superiority the lower castes copy their life-style and ideals. Only the
lowest castes (Antyaj) copy the Shudras. There is to say emulating the life-style or ideals of a varna on the
basis of honour and superiority enjoyed by that class is called the varna model of Sanskritization.
3. Local Model

In every community, some castes are considered to be more respectful than others on account of their
numerical or economic power. Not caring for the caste hierarchy, people rest of the community as
superior or higher. This caste may be called the “master-class” or in the language of Srinivas “the
dominant caste”. In a village community, agriculturists castes get the dominance. The lower castes copy
the life style of this Dominant-caste and try to rise in status. The local dominant castes serve as the
reference group model for the aspirant caste. If the locally dominant caste is a Rajput or a Baniya it will
transmit the Kshatriya or Vaishya model. Thus, models of Sanskritization vary according to the dominant
caste.

Role of the Dominant Caste in Sanskritization

Dominant castes play an important role either advancing or retarding the process of Sanskritization. For a
caste to be dominant, it should own a sizeable amount of arable land locally available, have strength of
number and occupy a high place in the local hierarchy.

New factors of dominance include western education, jobs in administration and urban source of income.
These dominant castes stimulate in the lower castes a desire to imitate their prestigious style of life and
thereby improve upon their social status. In some places the dominant castes were reported to have
harassed the lower castes and dissuaded them from following their life styles by means of force and
threat. The census of India (1921), for instances, states that in North Bihar the high caste Rajputs and
Bhumihar Brahmins prevented the Ahris from assuming the symbols of the twice born caste.

Motivation for Sanskritization

One of the motivating factors behind the process of Sanskritization is the raising of one’s social status in
the local caste hierarchy and enjoyment of the same political and economic power which the higher castes
used to enjoy. This motivation to raise one’s own standard comes from a sense of relative deprivation,
because the Hindu society has been rigidly stratified by caste system. Life-chances, social opportunities,
economic positions and political privileges- everything was determined by caste system. Rigid caste
norms created a wide distance between castes.

The higher castes used to enjoy all kinds of social privilege whereas the lower castes were deprived of
getting the same; it therefore, was considered the best way of increasing one’s social position by taking to
the customs and ways of life of a higher caste. Another motive behind Sanskritization is the manifestation
of suppressed inter-class hostility. The victims wish to have control over caste system and thereby expiate
their frustration on the same battlefield where they acquired them.

FACTORS FACILITATING SANSKRITIZATION

Some factors have been singled out as contributory to the process of Sanskritization in modern India.
Some of them are discussed below:

1. British Rule: With the establishment of the British rule in India, the lower castes got more
opportunities to Sanskritize themselves and subsequently raise their status as the Britishers were
unmindful to this phenomenon and were least involved in the dynamic of caste system.
2. Development of Communication: Development of road and transportation in the areas previously
inaccessible accelerated the process of Sanskritization. The railways and other improved means of
communication enabled people to visit religious centres like Mathura, Dwaraka, Gaya, Kashi, Puri etc.

3. Development of the Mass Media of Communication: The radio, the cinema, the microphone,
newspaper, religious journals have been contributing to the popularization of Sanskritic values and
ideologies.

4. Political Factors: The political institution of parliamentary democracy in free India has contributed to
increased Sanskritization. Prohibition, a Sanskritic value, has been endorsed in our constitution. The ideal
of equality of all men before the law and the abolition of untouchability have spring up a culture which
was the monopoly of the higher castes beforehand. 62

5. Educational Factor: As a result of western education, socio-religious movements like the Arya
Samaj, the Brahma Samaj and the Prathana Samajcame into being and which, in turn, contributed much to
the process of Sanskritization. Besides, spread of literacy among the low caste groups made
Sanskritization feasible.

6. Cultural Institution: Every temple and pilgrim centre also acts as a source of Sanskritization. During
the periodic festivals and other occasions when pilgrims gather at the centre they get opportunity for the
spread of Sanskritic ideas and beliefs. Several other cultural institutions such as the sanyasis and other
religious mendicants also help spread ideas and beliefs of sanskritic Hinduism.

7. Economic Factor: Better economic conditions also facilitate enhancement of the status of a caste in
the local caste hierarchy. But acquisition of wealth is not always a necessary pre-condition to
Sanskritization. Srinivas has rightly cited the case of untouchable caste of Mysore who got itself
sanskritized even though its economic position remained almost fixed. However, the fact is that
Sanskritization becomes easy if economic power is acquired.

8. Sectarian Movements: Sectarian movements also acted as agents of Sanskritization and when they
attracted members from the low castes, they helped raise their status. For example the Bhakti movement
geared by the saints embraced all people into its fold ignoring diversities of cults and castes and thereby
proved a great sanskritizing force.

EFFECTS OF SANSKRITIZATION ON SOCIAL CHANGE

If Indian culture is chiefly confined to the cultural ideals of twice-born Varnas (Brahmans, Kshatriya and
Vaishyas), then we may say that the process of Sanskritization is going on for a thousand years, because
foreign invaders instead of spreading their own culture adopted the twice-born culture of India. That is the
reason that there is no sign of Salukas who was the successor of Sikander the Great coming from Greece.
The Shuk and Huns foreigners who were considered to be low caste or class either by religion or by
culture, adopted Indian culture and become Sanskritized. Muslims and Britishers got political hold hence
they had no need to Sanskritize.

1. Sanskritization in Religious field: Lower castes have erected their own temples like twice born castes
they have put the status of their own Great men along with the idols of God and Goddess. Many of them
put on sacred thread. They go to their temples regularly and perform Arti and Bhajan. They have engaged
priests of their own caste. In temples belonging to the middle castes, even Brahman priests are engaged.
They perform ceremonies like twice-born castes. Sacrifices and Hawan are performed on the naming
ceremony of children. The custom of observing fast has increased. They celebrate all festivals like twice-
born varnas. They are advancing towards cleanliness. They have left prohibited food. They also do not
like dirty occupations. They take care of the cleanliness of their clothes and utensils. The Hinduization of
Tribal castes is an example of religious Sanskritization. The members of middle castes have become
office holders of different religious institutions. They have specialized in performing ceremonies like
Brahmins.

2. Sanskritization in Social field: The social aspect of Sanskritization is more important from the
viewpoint of change. Sanskritization appears to be more closely related to religious system but the chief
aim of Sanskritization is social. The low caste individuals are inclined towards Sanskritization because
that way they can elevate their social status and get higher up and caste-hierarchy. They want a place
equal to that of Brahmans and Kshatriyas. Not only that some castes claim to be twice-born but some of
them have practically acquired that status.

3. Sanskritization in Economic field: Sanskritization can be observed in the change of occupations also.
Clean trades are a symbol of social height. In the cities of west Uttar Pradesh, Bhangis are working as
vegetable and chat hawkers. Members of backward classes are entering into higher posts. Scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes get reservation in services. Twice-born or Brahmin clerks and peons work
under officers belonging to scheduled castes.

4. Sanskritization in Living: The conditions of living have also been sanskritized. Lower castes get
Pucca houses built for them. They have got a drawing room like twice born castes. They are attracted
towards chair. Now they sit along with higher castes on the cots without is a sense of fear or hesitation.
They also keep their houses clean. They put the pictures of leaders and Hindu gods and goddesses on the
walls. They take regular bath and put on clean clothes. Formerly they remained semi-naked due to
poverty or were compelled to remain so. Now they put on dresses like higher caste and talk in the same
language.

WESTERNIZATION
Like Sanskritization, the term Westernization is a culture-logical concept used by Srinivas to denote the
process of social and cultural change in Modern India. Srinivas maintains that the British rule produced
some radical and lasting changes in the Indian society and culture. Unlike any previous period in Indian
history, the British brought with them new technology, institutions, knowledge, beliefs and values. The
new technology and revolution in the means of communication enabled the British to integrate the
country as never before in its history.

The term ‘Westernization’ conveys two meanings. One is global and the other is exclusively relating to
the Indian society. From a global perspective, westernization refers to the process of social change
brought about in non-western countries as a result of their prolonged contact with Western culture. In the
Indian context, Westernization refers to changes brought about in Indian social life as a consequence of
its contact with the British.
For a thorough understanding of the term, it is necessary to distinguish between westernization and
Sanskritization. Sanskritization and Westernization are linked processes in modern India and it is not
possible to understand one without a reference to the other. This does not mean that both are synonymous.
No doubt, they are complementary to each other. Westernization is not hostile to the process of
Sanskritization rather it contributes to the spread of Sanskritization. Western technology in the form of the
railways, the internal combustion engine, the press, the radio, and the telephone has aided Sanskritization.
In spite this complementarity,

Sanskritization differs from Westernization in certain respects.

 Sanskritization implies mobility within the caste system whereas westernization implies mobility
outside the frame work of caste.
 Compared to Sanskritization, westernization is a simpler concept. Sanskritization occurs among
the lower castes, whereas it is the high castes who first turned towards western culture.
 Sanskritization puts a ban on meat eating and alcohol consumption whereas westernization
promotes meat-eating and consumption of alcohol, Sanskritization promotes a sacred out-looks
whereas westernization promotes a secular world view.
 Lastly, Sanskritization would mean a process of endogamous change while westernization would
mean exogamous change.

Features of Westernization

1. The process of westernization subsumes changes occurring at different levels of technology,

institutions, ideology and values. Broadly, it includes all changes that any non-western country like India
or any other colonial country, undergoes as a result of prolonged contact with a western culture.

2. The most important area of change was the value preferences of the non-western societies. A
most important value which in turn subsumes several other values, is what may broadly characterized as
humanitarianism which means active concern for the welfare of all human beings irrespective of social
inequalities based on caste, economic position, religion, age or sex. Equalitarianism and secularization
also form part of the value of humanitarianism. Humanitarianism refers to many of the reforms introduced
by the British in the first half of the 19th century such as civil, penal and procedural laws which put an
end to certain inequalities that were part of the Hindu and the Islamic jurisprudence. The principle of
equality found expression in the abolition of slavery, in the opening of new schools and colleges- which
were, in theory at least, opened to all irrespective of religion, race and caste. The new economic
opportunities were also open to all, although in practice caste and other elite groups who traditionally
lived in the big towns, enjoyed considerable advantages over others.

3. The introduction of reforms and new laws by the British led to several changes in the Indian
customs which were earlier enforced as part of one’s religious duty. A religious custom had to satisfy the
test of reason and humanitarianism if it was to be allowed to survive. As the British rule gained roots in
India, the values of rationality and humanitarianism also became firmly entrenched in the caste-ridden
society. The formal system of education introduced by the British played an effective role in perpetuating
these values.
4. Westernization is an all inclusive term. It covers a wide range of changes from western technology at
one end to the experimental method of modern science and modern historiography at the other. In the
field of technology it has revolutionized the process of mass communication, transportation,
industrialization and improved health care facilities and has made available new comfortable gadgets for
better living conditions. These changes are intimately linked with the life of the common man and have
proved consequential.

5. The process of Westernization in India was uneven. Only a tiny fraction of Indian population came
into direct, face to face contact with the British. And those who came in contact with the British officers
did not always become a force for change. Indian servants of the British, for instance, probably wielded
some influence among their kin groups and local caste groups but not among others. They often came
from the low castes as well. Their westernization was of a superficial kind as the upper castes made fun of
them.

6. The process of westernization has neatly intensified in many ways since 1947. The first and most
critical step in westernization was the establishment of Pax Britanica and the revolutions in
communications that followed. Extension of the administrative and trading frontiers broke the centuries
old isolation of the different groups inhabiting the remote parts of the country. Similarly the means of
transportation and communication opened up avenues for new contacts. Thus, development of
communications and the removal of internal custom barriers integrated the economics of various regions
in the country. In a word the political and administrative integration of India as well as the development
of communication and the beginning of industrialization and agricultural development, increased spatial
and social mobility of both the elite and the rural poor which laid the foundation of subsequent
nationwide westernization.

7. The form and pace of Westernization of India varied from region to region and from one section
of population to another. For instance, one group of people became westernized in their dress, diet,
manners, speech, sports and in the gadgets they used while another absorbed western science, knowledge
and literature, remaining free from external attributes of westernization. For example, Brahmins accepted
the western style of dressing and appearance, sent their children to westernized schools used gadgets like
the radio, car etc. but they did not accept the British diet, dancing, hunting, and the casual attitude of the
British about population.

8. Another feature of Westernization is that it creates many inter contradictory forces which, instead
of consolidating, contradict each other. In the political and cultural fields, westernization has given birth
not only to nationalism but also revivalism, communalism, casteism, linguism, regionalism etc.

Types of Westernization

On the basis of influence on the little and the great tradition, westernization can be categorized into two:
primary westernization and secondary westernization.

 By primary westernization Prof. Y.Singh means, “changes induced by the western impact on
Indian little tradition.” Such changes generally are of two types: first, the emergence of a
westernized sub-cultural pattern through a minority section of Indians who first came into contact
with western culture. This includes the sub-culture represented by those Indian intellectuals and
 scholars who not only adopted many western cognitive patterns and styles of life but also
supported its rapid expansion. Thus westernization in its first stage was sub-cultural in nature. It
existed only in the marginal sphere.

The second type of primary westernization in the little tradition refers to the process of general
diffusion of western cultural traits such as the use of new technology, dress, food and changes in the
habits and styles of life of people in general resulting from the cultural contact with the British.

 Secondary westernization, on the other hand, was linked with the great tradition of India and it
refers to the changes which have contributed to the growth of various forms of cultural structure
extending over the whole of the country. Some examples of such cultural structures are education,
law, science, technology, new forms of politicization, urbanization, industrialization and finally
new media of cultural transmission through the press, printing and facilities of transport and
communication. This form of westernization has all Indian character and has contributed to the
emergence of a new Great tradition of Modernization in India. 68

Impact of Westernization on Indian Society

The encounter between the Indian tradition and western culture was of immense sociological significance.
The western tradition had a meaningful impact upon the cultural, political and social systems of India to
such an enormous extent that it has been told that such a contact had initiated a new era of change in the
Indian cultural tradition. The mode of the western cultural impact on the Indian tradition had distinctive
features. Historically, various western traditions came to India with differing political and cultural
orientations and exerted variegated influences upon Indian society and culture. The following are some of
the areas in which the western impact was visibly noticed.

1. Growth of a Universalistic Legal System: The process of westernization brought in its wake new
legal norms which contributed to the growth of a universalistic positive form of law in India. Formerly
the legal system was founded on the principles of hierarchy and holism. Accordingly justice was meted
out on the basis of the status of various castes and classes in the local hierarchy. Thus, following the
prescription of Manu, a Brahmin slandering a Kshatriya had to pay a fine of fifty Panas, but for slandering
a Vaishya or Shudra he had to pay twenty five and twelve panas respectively. If the lower castes
slandered the high castes, the penalties were more severe. The principle of hierarchy was strictly followed
in matters of dispensing justice. Our traditional legal system continued to be group-oriented and non-
equalitarian. With the establishment of the British power in India, there came a new turning point in the
legal system of the country. Various forms of legal innovation based on the principles of universalism,
rationalism and individualism were introduced and thereby to making the new judicial system individual
oriented and universalistic. It enacted legislations introducing social reforms in many sensitive areas such
as marriage customs the age of marriage, the age of consent for marriage. It established the principle of
equality and generated a consciousness of positive rights among the down-trodden castes.

2. Impact of Westernization on Education: Contemporary education is of western origin. Traditionally,

the content of education was metaphysical. It was confined to the upper classes or the twice born castes.
Its structure was hereditary and closed. The roles of both the teachers and the taught were qualitative-
ascriptive. But Modern education has a fundamentally different orientation and organization. Its content is
liberal and it preaches scientific world-view. Freedom equality, humanism and denial of faith in
dogmatism are the major themes of modern education. Its professional structure is not ascriptive. It can be
achieved by merit by anyone in the society.

3. Impact on the Communication network: The media of communication have been introduced in India
through the western contact. Printed news papers came into existence only after India’s contact with the
West. The British introduced the telegraph, railways and modern postal system in India. Similar
improvement has also been made in the other media of communication and transport. The expansion in
transport by the railways, roadways, airways and waterways has contributed to the intensification in the
volume of interaction and contact between one region and another. The concept of purity and pollution
has been given discount since the people of all castes are travelling in the same railway coach or bus.

4. Growth of Nationalism: Both Nationalism and democracy in the contemporary form are the gifts of
westernization. Nationalism implies consciousness of one’s nationhood. Its sociological manifestation is
the idea of nation-state. Democracy is a special form of political organization and system of values on
which nation-state can be founded. The feeling of nationality and respect for democratic norms is a
consequence of westernization. It was the fervent patriotic zeal of the western people that made our
leaders to think of developing India as a united country. Most of the nationalist leaders of the freedom
struggle in India got inspiration from western literature and thought. Indian nationalism, however, was not
modeled completely on the western pattern.

5. Impact on Food habits and Mode of eating: Westernization has reached the level of food habits and
way of eating. Traditionally, Indians ate their meals sitting on the floor. Food was served either on the
leaves or on brass, bronze or silver plates. Among the upper castes, and especially among Brahmin, eating
was a religious act. The food had to be cooled while the women in charge of cooking and serving it must
be in a ritually purer state. Food was being served to children and adults in order of seniority. At the end
of the meal, the dining leaves became impure and were thrown out and the places where the leaves rested
were purified with a solution of cow dung. But now the westernized groups increasingly prefer to eat at
tables with stainless steel utensils, spoons etc. thus the new mode of eating has contributed to an increase
in secularization as the table is not likely to be purified with cow dung after meals and the ritual acts
traditionally performed before and after meals and almost dropped.

Changing food habits has brought people nearer to modern food technologies. The use of ghee has
increasingly been replaced by vegetable oil both in rural and urban areas. Tea shops are now common in
most road side villages and persons of all castes take tea in china cups, glasses or earthen-cups, even if tea
might be drawn by a lower caste person. Eating meat and eggs by higher caste members is on the
increase. Poultry farms which were previously considered polluting are opened in large numbers.

6. Impact on the Dress Pattern: Under the influence of westernization even people living in villages
have opted for factory-made clothes like nylon, Terylene, terycot etc. in place of home-spun clothes,
readymade garments have become popular. The mode of dress has also under gone a drastic change. The
old style of shirt has been replaced by the modern style shirts. It marked a gradual weakening of ideas of
ritual purity. The western clothes became more popular even Brahmins sat at dinner with their shirts on.

7. Change in Language: Many terms from the English language have entered the dialects of the rural
folk. The expansion of civil administration popularized the terms like court, collector, judge, barristers
etc. similarly the expansion of transport facilities has rendered the terms like rail, station, signals etc.
matters in daily usage. Politicization of villages since Independence has introduced villages to terms like
party, socialism, communism, ministry etc. and similarly, spread of medical facilities now makes
expressions like injections, mixture, penicillin etc. also household words.

8. Weakening of Traditional Culture: Modern education and increased utilitarian and rational values of
the Indian elite led them to make sharp criticisms of their own culture. They began casting aspersion on
the evils of our traditional culture which used to make submissive. The loathing of and longing for a new
culture, the raising aspirations of population for better future made them sort out what was desirable and
vice versa. Indians today are more individualistic, free thinking and lead relatively a more free life.
Modernization of the tradition is taking place in India today under the impact of the process of
westernization.

9. Impact on Marriage: Westernization has also brought about noticeable changes in matrimonial
relationship. Marriage today is no longer seen as a relationship between two families rather it has
transformed to the relationship of two individuals i.e. husband and wife. Husband and wife do not treat
each other as superior or inferior but as friends and companions. Love and marriage has sidelined
religion. Even marriage ceremony itself has changed.

10. Impact on Family: Western culture preaches the individualistic ideology of family which is
diametrically opposite to the collective ethos on which the joint family system is founded, imbibing the
individualistic philosophy people give importance to the individual over the group there by they
encourage self-men. This has cut the joint family from its very root for which it has started crippling
down. Members in a family today prefer freedom to enjoy marital life. Today’s brides do not like to
remain under the control of laws. New democratic conventions find their place in household affairs too.

11. Impact on the Status of Women: A strong influence of the west is tangible on the status of women
today. The medieval period in Indian history is witness to the status of women sinking to the nadir and if
we find today women getting their due in almost all the fields, a major part of the credit goes to
westernization. Education on the one hand generated and encouraged liberal ideas among men while on
the other hand it prepared women to strive for natural status of equality.

12. Impact on Religion: Impact of science and western education did bring about a significant change in
our perception of religion. Uncritical acceptance of religious ideas is being replaced by logical
interpretation and acceptance. The social value of religion has gone down. From a collective activity
religion has become an individualistic activity. The activity pace of religion is gradually decreasing.
There was a time when social, economic, political scenes were all dominated by religion but now it is
evolving more or less as an independent institution.

13. Impact on Customs: Indian masses which were a bit reluctant initially in accepting the ways of the
west are now jumping to their ways. From clothes to houses we live in, all bear the stamp of western style
and it has become a status symbol. Cosmetic, decoration of pieces, crockery and even the methods of
greetings have all become westernized. In fact, in every activity of life, the impact of the west is easily
seen as far as customs are concerned.

14. Impact on Art and Literature: The literally sub-culture of India was too influenced by the English
literary tradition. ‘Romanticism’ and ‘Psychiatrism’ of the west can be found in almost every kind of
literary expression of today. Experimentalism, Hedonism and Romanticism have found place in Indian
poetry. Equality, environment, freedom, social movement and other related topics have also got place in
Indian art and literature. Modern art is definitely a by-product of westernization which could not be easily
adopted because of its radically different concepts.

15. Eradication of Social Evils: Social evils which had plagued the society and in a way were
responsible for making Indian society so much vulnerable to foreign annexation, could only be given a
determined fight after the process of westernization took its root. No doubt, a few social workers had
raised their fingers against these social evils before but it was the process of westernization which
prepared a broad base through which efforts against these evils could bear fruit. The practice of widow
burning, infanticides, stealing of children for slavery, child marriage, ban on widow marriage,
untouchability are some of those social evils which are still being fought. Science and technology from
the west have done some demystifying effect on these types of practices.

MODERNIZATION
Modernization is a complex process of social change. Modernization is one of the few terms that have
come to be the keywords in contemporary discourse on the dynamics of social change. Social scientists
use modernization in three senses: first, as a criterion to distinguish between traditional transitional and
modernized societies. Second, as an ideal desired by the national elite of the third world countries and
lastly as a process of movement of a traditional society or culture, to a modern state. Some other terms
such as Anglicization, Europeanization, Westernization, Urbanization, and Industrialization were in
vogue before the term ‘Modernization’ was born. The new term ‘Modernization’ was evolved by the
American Scholars and it gained currency throughout the world in the 1950s and the 1960s. In spite of its
popularity modernization lacks a clear-out meaning. It may be due to the misconceptions encircling it and
these need demystification at the outset.

The Concept of Modernization:

The word ‘Modernization’ derived from the Latin root ‘Modo’ meaning just now. In chronological
sense it means, the latest. The Oxford Dictionary defines the term modern as of the present and recent
times, new fashions, not concerned with classic. Thus literally the term modern refers to anything which
is new or latest in the style of dress, art or thinking. There are three senses in which we may comprehend
the idea of modernization. The first one is most general and synonymous with all kinds of progressive
social change when society moves ahead along with some accepted scale of improvement. This usage is
not confined to a particular time and can apply to all historical periods. Getting out of caves and building
the first shelters was clearly a case of modernization, just as abandoning bullock-carts for automobiles
and the radio for T.V. The second meaning is more historically specific. It connotes the idea of a complex
of social, political, economic, cultural and psychological transformations occurring in the west from the
sixteenth century onwards and reaching its apogee in the nineteenth and twentieth century. It involves the
process of industrialization, urbanization, rationalization, bureaucratization, democratization, the rise of
capitalism, the spread of individualism and achievement-motivation, the affirmation of reason and
science, and many other processes. Modernization as such means attaining modernity. It refers to the
process through which a traditional or pre-technological society passes as it is transformed into a society
characterized by machine technology, rational and secular attitudes and highly differentiated social
structures.

Finally, there is the most specific meaning of the term ‘Modernization’ referring only to the backward or
underdeveloped societies and describing their attempts to catch up with the most developed countries,
coexisting with them in the same historical period within the world society. In other words, it describes
the movement from the peripheries to the core of modern society. 73

Characteristics of Modernization Process

1. A revolutionary process: In the process of modernization a radical change takes place in human life.
Black has compared the transition from tradition to modernity with that of the change from pre-human to
human existence and from primitive to civilized societies.

2. A complex process: Modernization is complex process. It cannot be reduced to a single factor or

single dimension. It involves changes in all areas of human thought and behaviour. Some of the
components of modernization are: industrialization, urbanization, social mobilization, differentiation,
secularization, media expansion, increasing literacy and education and expansion of political
participation.

3. A systematic process: Modernization is a systematic process. In its wake it changes the total social
system. Change in one factor tends to produce a complimentary change in another factor. Various
elements of modernization have been highly associated together because they had gone together.

4. A global process: Modernization is a universal process. It originated in the fifteenth and sixteenth
century Europe, but now it has become a worldwide phenomenon. It has been brought about primarily
through the diffusion of modern ideas and techniques from the European centre to almost all parts of the
world. The endogenous development of non-western societies has also contributed to this; in any event,
all societies which were at one time traditional are becoming modern.

5. A lengthy process: Modernization takes much time to occur. It does not occur overnight rather it is
evolutionary in nature. Much time is required to bring about total changes in society. For example,
western societies took several centuries to modernize. It may take generations for societies to move from
tradition to modernity.

6. A phased process: The process of modernization proceeds in phases and sub-phases. All the societies
have to move through some stages. They have to begin with a traditional stage, pass through a transitional
stage and reach the stage of modernity. The patterns of modernization may vary from society to society
but all societies will move essentially through the same stages.

7. A homogenizing process: Modernization produces tendencies towards convergence among societies.

It involves movement towards integration of societies in the long run so that the formation of a world
state can be contemplated.

8. A progressive process: Modernization is inevitable and desirable. Initially modernization causes pain
but in the long run it contributes to human well-being, culturally and materially.
9. An adaptive process: Modernization puts before individuals and groups the need to adapt themselves
to the new changes taking place in society. In the process of rapid socio-economic changes, individuals
are likely to aspire for various positions and are supposed to perform different roles. Those who fail to
keep pace with these changes, perish in the process of modernization new institutions emerge in order to
meet the demands of the rapid changes and fulfill new aspirations of the people.

10. A dynamic process: Modernization implies an ongoing process of change. With the advancement of
scientific knowledge and technical skills, the conditions of life undergo a radical change. A society based
on subsistence agriculture, clan or village government is traditional as compared to modern society which
is regulated by inanimate sources of power and governed by complex organizations and formal
institutions. Likewise the latter is likely to give way to a post-modern society articulated by nuclear
fission and sustained by test-tube babies.

MODERNIZATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

The process of modernization has brought forth some significant changes in the structural and cultural
spheres of the Indian society. These changes can be discussed under the following heads:

A. Structural Change:

Modernization has introduced typical forms of social change in the structure of Indian society. By
structural change we mean the growth of new roles and group structures. It analyzed at two levels: the
macro-structures and micro-structures.

Micro-structures are autonomous in nature. They provide a social space for primary relationships. Their
organization is less formal; the relationships are more affective and particularistic. The net-work
relationship is limited. Family, community, clan, tribe, caste or sub-castes are examples of the micro-
structures of the Indian society.

Macro-structures refer to those organized roles and relationships which are more extensive, more formal,
and which are organized on universalistic principles and which have to do with the integration or
regulation of the larger system of society and involve secondary and higher orders of relationships. Some
examples of macro-structures are: political and other types of elite, administration and bureaucracy,
industrial workers, and other urban and industrial groups and social classes.

Modernization has also brought forth eye-catching changes in the micro structural phenomena such as
caste, family, and village communities. Under the impact of modernization, caste has given up its
traditional occupation and dissociated itself from traditional obligation, for example, jajmani relation.
Caste endogamy has crumbled down and the incidences of inter-caste marriages are on the increase. Caste
activities are gradually expanding. The power structure of caste is also changing.

As the modernization proceeds, the transition from the extended or joint families to conjugal forms or
nuclear families has become much more accelerated. Consequently, the socialization of children in the
family takes on a new direction. The child grows an independent, imaginative and innovative personality.
In the Indian society joint families break up into nuclear families. There is not only a structural change in
the family system but also a change in its functions.
Village communities are another important micro-structure of the Indian society. Villages are changing in
respect of economic institutions and power structures and inter-caste relationships. The jajmani system is
disintegrating. The introduction of statutory panchayats has transformed the structure of village
leadership. The emerging leadership consists of young people. It has to face the factions and opposite
interest groups. There has been a break in the world-view of the castes and classes. There is a rising
motivation for education, status mobility and share in local, regional and national power structures.

B. Cultural Change:

Modernization has initiated a profound change in the Indian cultural tradition.

Broadly, we can categorize the Indian cultural tradition into two: the Great Tradition and the
Little Tradition. The Great Traditions refer to those traditions which grow because of outside contact
and are found at national level whereas the little traditions are local in origin and are found at the folk or
peasant level.

Some examples of the Great traditions are industrialization, urbanization, expansion of modern education,
growth of universalistic legal system, transportation and mass communication, mass politicization and
science and technology.

1. Industrialization:

Industrialization in India has been the cause and consequence of modernization. Though the process of
modern machine based industrial model of production started during the British rule, its volume was
hopelessly less. It could not have any significant effect on India’s age-old socio-cultural institutions. After
independence the real process of industrialization has started. The process of industrialization has
changed the whole social system based on the principle of ascription and a subsistence agricultural
economy. As a result, the economy, the polities, the social institutions, the system of stratification of the
country and the way of life of people and their standard of living have changed appreciably. Industrialism
has fostered rational and secular attitudes. Traditional thoughts and actions gradually lose their hold. 76

2. Urbanization:

Modernization leads to urbanization and urbanization also leads to modernization of culture. The higher is
the degree of modernization in a society, the higher is its degree of urbanization. Urban centres are the
centres for the diffusion of modern values to the villages. Urban returnees carry the ways of life and
habits from the cities to the villages. Urbanization brings about transformation in various social
institutions such as the family, social stratification, patterns of social interactions, value preference of the
people etc. the interrelationship among urban people is directed towards meeting some specific needs.
Secondary group relationships always predominate in the urbanized societies. In the context of Indian
society urbanization not only fosters modern values but also reinforces traditional values and institutions.

3. Expansion of Modern Education:

Modernization in Indian society brings about a radical change in the orientation and organization of
education. Contrary to the traditional education, its content becomes liberal and it propagates modern
scientific world-views. It imbibes modern themes like humanism, liberalism and secularism. It
incorporates the courses in sciences, medicines and engineering. The organizational structure of education
also has undergone a significant change. Teachers are being recruited on the basis of educational
achievement irrespective of their caste creed and religion. Education is also imparted to all without caste
bar. By educating the people, a sense of unity, the feeling of nationalism, liberalism and freedom and an
urge for effective political participation have been created in the mind of people.

4. Change in Legal Structure:

Modernization also brings changes in the customs and laws of the Indian society. It leads to the
emergence of a universalistic legal system based on the principle of universalism, rationalism and
individualism. Through law many forms of cultural changes, such as the abolition of Sati, the introduction
of widow remarriage etc. were brought out. New legal system challenged the traditional system of
hierarchy and holism. It contributes to the growth of multiple legal professions and establishment of rule
of law.

5. Spread of Transportation and Communication:

Modernization has led to the growth and expansion of nationwide net-work of transport and
communication. As a result of transportation and communication, the barriers between regions have
broken down. People become both physically and mentally mobile. The large-scale circulation of
newspapers and periodicals and other easy means of communication have a double edged impact on the
Indian society. On one side, it has modernizing effects on the other, traditionalizing effect. Mass
communication has accelerated the process of industrialization and urbanization and the same time it has
strengthened primordial ties like caste, religion, race etc. Cheap printing presses and easy means of
communication have contributed to the intensification of caste solidarity. 77

6. Mass Politicization:

Only due to the process of modernization in India, the enlightened Indian elites could think of introducing
political institutions based on values of democracy, equality, liberty, freedom and justice. As a result, the
government of India could set up a constitution based on the democratic system. In a democratic system,
the Government is responsible to people and people normally express their preference for a party through
elections. The decision making, no more, remains an elite affair, but masses also become politicized.
They are politically very much conscious; they participate in political gatherings, hold political discussion
and evaluate the decisions of authority.

7. Change in Little Tradition:

Besides, change in the little tradition i.e., daily life, customs, and habits of people at the grass-root level
also takes place. Especially changes in Dress, food habits, rituals, vocabulary, material culture, mode of
travel and types of conveyance and customs become manifested. Home-made clothes have been replaced
by factory-made clothes. Observation of rules relating to eating of food and drink has been abandoned.
Meat eating and use of eggs have been popular among the high castes. The coat-suit, dining table, spoon
eating is rapidly coming into the Indian way of life. English language, western food and dress habits are
considered to be status symbols. All these changes resulted from the introduction of a fluid political
structure, adult franchise and a decentralized process of decision making.
8. Technological Changes:

With the process of modernization, the Indian society has experienced tremendous changes in the
technological sphere which involve development of new techniques, new inventions, new modes of
production and new standards of living. These changes have resulted in the decay of old traditional
craftsmanship, and diversification of occupations and it has brought men and women to factory and
office. New industrialism also brought in modern value patterns. Similarly, mechanization of agriculture
in India has resulted in increased agricultural production and has affected farm economy and farmer’s
household life. Technological advancement resulted in greater functional inter-dependence and
differentiation between parts and greater mobility of the members with respect to location and occupation.

Undoubtedly, the process of modernization has brought in significant changes in political, social,
economic and cultural spheres of the Indian society. But, it is not without stresses and strains.