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BCC Module Business Logic - 060512

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Marc Jalen Relador

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Prelim Period

Burauen Community College Modular Home Instruction

First Year General Education Courses
Poblacion District 9, San Diego, Burauen, Leyte
2nd Semester, SY 2021- 2022
__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Outcomes- Based Learning Modules in

Business Logic
(for internal use only of Burauen Community College)

Prepared by:

Joel D. Comaling, MPM, MPRM

Faculty- General Education Department
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Burauen Community College Modular Home Instruction

Introduction to the Course Module

Logic is regarded as the indispensable foundation for all types of knowledge. This is so
because it is used not only in the acquisition and interpretation of knowledge but also in the
expansion and application of knowledge. People of ancient times considered logic as preparatory to
the study of all sciences which explains why they called it the organon, or instrument of science
(McCall, 1971). To the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322. C.), logic is not only a requirement for
the study of science but an instrument which facilitates the knowing of “intelligible connections in
concepts and in things.

Module 1
Birth of Philosophy and Logic

Learning outcome based on the

syllabus:
LO1. Differentiate the meaning of philosophy and logic.
Identify the relationship between Philosophy and Logic

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the module, the following learning objectives will be attained by the students with at
least 75% accuracy:
1. Understand the meanings of Philosophy and Logic.
2. Know the beginning and development of Philosophy and Logic.
3. Know the nature of Philosophy and Logic.
4. Understand the relationship between Philosophy and Logic.
5. Know the importance or values of Philosophy and Logic.

Direct Instruction

LOGIC
MEANING
Logic is regarded as the indispensable foundation for all types of knowledge. It is used not only
in the acquisition and interpretation of knowledge but also in the expansion and application of
knowledge.
 Oregon or instrument of science called by people of ancient times which they considered as
preparatory to the study of all sciences (McCall, 1971).
 Logic is broadly defined as the science and art of correct thinking and reasoning provides man
with tools and methods by which he gains knowledge and truth (Theroux, 1985).
 Logic is one of the various fields of philosophy and is considered the most fundamental
because it provides anyone with rational capability.
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PHILOSOPHY
Birth and Development
The beginning of formal philosophy is traced to Thales of the Greek colony in Miletus in the
late sixth century B.C. Early thinkers up to Socrates were primitive scientists whose interests were
focused on knowing the nature of the universe and the meaning of human experience.
 The development of philosophy had its great turning point at the time of Socrates (470-399
B.C.) and his most famous pupil Plato (428-348 B.C.).
 Socrates put much value on the study of man’s inner life over the external world around
him.
 The interests of Plato were on ethics, politics, psychology, sociology, mathematics and
science.
 He attempted to show how the individual should develop himself and how to have a
perfect social and political order.
 He emphasized the interrelatedness of the individual and society.

 Aristotle (384- 322 B.C.), considered as the brightest pupil of Plato.

 Concern for external world and nature
 History’s first great marine biologist and research scientist.
 He blended his philosophy of the external world with the philosophy that deals with the
nature of human being.

Meaning
 The word “philosophy” was coined by Pythagoras (580-497 B.C.), an early Greek scholar who
formulated a practical, ethical and religious philosophy which stresses the value of intellectual
pursuits.
 The term was derived from the two Greek words: philein which means “love of” or
“friendship for,” and Sophia which means “wisdom” (Theroux, 1985).
 Philosophy means the “love of wisdom” or the “love of truth”.
 To Aristotle, it means “thinking which means at maximum connected truth about all available
experience (Brightman, 1963).
 Explore the connections of relationships of all his experiences.
 To gain understanding of life, of his own self, and of the world external to him.
 Philosophy – “science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by
the aid of human reasons alone” (Bittle, 1984).
 It delves into the whys of the existence of things and the general truth or law from which
other truths about the existence of things proceed.
 Based its knowledge solely on the reasoning power of human mind, not on any
authority.
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Other definitions of Philosophy (Titus and others, 1974):

 A personal attitude towards life.
 A method of reflective thinking and reasoned inquiry.
 An attempt to gain a view of the whole.
 A logical analysis of language.
 A group of problems as well as theories about the solutions to these problems.

 Philosophy is the systematic and comprehensive study as well as the body of knowledge of
truth about life, the universe and everything therein – beings, events, relationships, meanings
and reasons – and beyond the physical world.

Fields
Philosophical fields can be grouped into two major categories;
1. Theoretical categories
2. Practical categories
 Theoretical Philosophy
Also known as pure or speculative.
Acquisition of knowledge without any thought of applying it for any practical use.
 Practical Philosophy
Composed of fields which are studied not only to gain knowledge and wisdom but for
practical purposes.

Major Fields of Philosophy (theoretical in nature)

 Metaphysics
 Ontology
 Cosmology
 Psychology
 Epistemology
 Theodicy

Cosmology is another field of philosophy which is closely associated with metaphysics. The term
“cosmology” was derived from the Greek words cosmos which means “order” and logos which means
“the study of”. Cosmology primarily deals with the study of the universe as a rational and orderly
system. Its concerns include the origin, structure, constituting elements, characteristics and the order
and laws which underlie the existence, maintenance and operation of the world. General and
pervasive concepts relative to the universe such as space, time, matter, change and motion are also
dealt with in cosmological studies. Cosmologists are divided into two groups as to the origin of the
universe. The evolutionists who believe that the worlds evolve into what is the present. The
creationists whose view is that the world is the result of the working of a creative cause or personality.
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Psychology is the philosophical field which is concerned with the soul, spirit, mind or consciousness
– its nature or constitution, characteristics a role of influence on the behavior of an individual person
and social groups. The term “psychology” originated from the Greek word psyche which means
“soul”, “mind”, or “spirit” and logos which means “the study of”. The popular understanding of
psychology is that it is the science of behavior but only such behavior which in its origin and effect is
influenced by mental factors. Once an integral part of philosophy, psychology is now an established
science and studied independently of philosophy.
Epistemology is the field of philosophy that examines the origin, presuppositions, nature, extent and
veracity (truth, reliability, validity) of knowledge. The word “epistemology” was derived from the Greek
episteme which means “knowledge”, and logos which means “the study of”. Epistemology is also
known as the theory of knowledge. It asks fundamental questions about knowledge in all its forms
and applications, how it is formulated expressed and communicated, whether or not there are limits to
knowing and the role sense experience and reason play in acquiring knowledge.
Theodicy is the field of philosophy that Inquires into the nature, being, kindness and justice of God;
relationship between God and man; and doctrines related to divinity. “Theodicy” originated from the
Greek words theos which means “God” and dike which means “justice”, or “right”. It is sometimes
referred to as “rational theology”, because it uses reason to attain its goals. This makes it distinctive
from Theology which studies the divine using revelations – the Bible and testimonies of the Saints –
and relies heavily on faith in its quest for the divine truth.
Philosophical fields which are classified as practical or applied in category are semantics,
logic, ethics, aesthetics, and axiology.
Semantics is the field of philosophy that studies the meaning of words and linguistic forms, their
functions as symbols, and the role they play in relation to other words, to human thoughts and
behavior. The term “semantics” was derived from the Greek word semantikos which means
significant, or semainein which means “to signify” or sema which means “a sign” “a mark”, or “a token
of identity”. The study of meanings has always been the concern of philosophers. Symbolizing is
considered “essential to thought, and prior to it” (Langer 1942); the study of it will provide clues to
man’s problems predicaments, perplexities, purposes and the nature of the mind itself.
Ethics is the field of philosophy that studies examine the right and wrong in man’s behavior as well
as the pursuit of good life. It asks questions on the nature of moral good and evil, their origin, their
bases and what they finally amount to. It also deals with issues on man’s choices based on what he
values which are translated to behavioral patterns the consequences of which he is responsible or
accountable. The word “ethics” was derived from the Greek word ethos which means “customs”,
“character”, “manners”, or disposition”. Ethics is sometimes used synonymously with the term
“morals” which was derived from the Latin term mos which means “custom” or “way of life”. Strictly
speaking, however the two terms are different, as the term “morals” refer to the conduct itself, or to
the application of ethical principles in daily living.
Aesthetics is the field of philosophy that deals with beauty and the value of works of art. The term
“aesthetics” has its origin in the Greek word aesthetikos which means “one who is perceptive of
things through his sensations, feelings and intuitions”. Aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and
examines the critical standards used in making judgement about what is beautiful and what is not. It
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delves into what make man appreciate the natural and the things which are the products of man’s
imagination and creativity. In aesthetics, beauty and art are well differentiated: art has to do with
man’s creativeness and skill in making or doing things that have form and beauty; beauty refers to the
quality attributed to whatever pleases the beholder such as form or shape, color, and behavior.

Axiology is the field of philosophy that studies the origin, nature, types, meaning, criteria and
knowledge of values. The term “axiology” was derived from the Greek word axios which means
“worthy” and logos which means “the study of”. Also known as the theory of value, axiology examines
the reasons or bases that make a person, an object or an act valuable or desirable. It studies the
implications of an act of valuing on the thinking, reasoning and behavior of a person and the social
group.
Logic is the philosophical field that study the nature and problems of clear and accurate thinking and
systematic or orderly argument or reasoning. The term “logic” was derived from the Greek word
logike or logikos which means “ordered” or “systematized” and “intelligible”. Logic studies
systematically the relation of ideas, and ideas of things or events. It investigates, discovers and
applies the laws of correct thinking and reasoning. With these laws or rules a person is able to
distinguish between valid and invalid arguments.
In tabular form, these various philosophical fields are presented according to their division
category and subject matter.
Divisions Categories Fields Subject Matter

Epistemology knowledge,
Pure Cosmology physical world,
Metaphysics reality, existence, particular
Theoretical Otology existing things, mind,
Psychology consciousness, God, divine
Theodicy doctrines

Aesthetics art, beauty values behavior,

Practical Axiology good life, thinking, reasoning,
Ethics linguistic meanings
Logic
Semantics
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Philo. of Education Education

Philo. of History History
Applied Philo. of Literature Literature
Philo. of Politics Politics
Philo. of Religion Religion
Etc.

To reiterate logic is the most fundamental field of philosophy and regarded by Aristotle as the
indispensable foundation of all types of knowledge to understand the other fields of philosophy
described earlier and other fields of study a person needs to have a logical mind to analyze and
reflect systematically and objectively whatever he studies or investigates. Man, and society would not
have advanced in knowledge and culture, particularly, in technology, if not for the ability of man to
think, reflect and analyze and reason systematically and objectively which are the hallmarks of a
philosophical mind.
Values
Why should anyone be interested in philosophy? What good or benefits will a person derive
from its study? It was Pythagoras who gave one of the earliest answers to this question. He said that
we should study philosophy for knowledge’s sake, not for any material gain or usefulness. Philosophy
will not only give us knowledge but will also broaden and deepen our understanding of it.
Like fine arts, philosophy has an intrinsic value. A person sings or listens to music, reads
poetry, sees a movie or studies paintings and sculpture because these things are enjoyable for their
own sake and not just for practical reasons. In similar manner, men philosophize not just for practical
reasons but because it gives them pleasure and satisfaction. The same feeling is experienced when
one gains knowledge or when one is able to reflect on high themes which ordinary men are not
capable of or have no interests at all.
Philosophy promises its faithful students a better understanding of himself, his fellow human
beings, the universe and life itself, an understanding that is capable of infinite expansion. Such an
understanding will enable a person to accept himself as he is, relate himself harmoniously with
others, adjust effectively with his environments, and find meaning in his existence. The immortal
words of Socrates ring true even up to this time of complexity and uncertainty: “An unexamined life is
not worth living”. To this Greek philosopher, riches and pleasures are useless and even dangerous
unless they are carefully examined and known to contribute significantly and positively to the life of a
person.
The study of philosophy will expose a person to the philosophies of great thinkers of the past
and of his time. From these philosophies he can develop a philosophy of his own which will give
direction to his life and will help determine the goals that will be worth his resources and efforts.
Philosophy will provide a person a strong foundation which will prove available in meeting the
demands of his profession and in the facing the problems, challenges and exigencies of everyday life.
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It will also guide him in making day-to-day decisions from a broader perspective because philosophy
provides a person an integrated and holistic view of human experience and of life itself. According to
Popkin’s and Stroll (1967), philosophy makes a man think about the basic foundation of his outlook
his knowledge his beliefs. It makes on inquire into the reasons for what one accepts and does, and
into the importance of one’s ideas and ideals, in the hope that one’s final convictions, whether they
change as a result of his examination, will at least be rationally held ones.
The values of philosophy were summed up by Barry (1983) as follows:
1. Philosophy assists us to satisfy high-level needs (such as self-realization) which often arise
when a maintenance, food, clothing and shelter have been met.

2. It integrates our experience into a coherent, systematic world view. It integrates thoughts,
feelings and actions in a meaningful way.

3. It exposes us to history of thought by portraying the evolutionary nature of intellectual

achievement. It portrays a perspective of the continuing development of human thought.
It helps us realize our powers of analysis, our abilities to think critically, to reason, to evaluate,
to theorize and to justify. Exposure to great ideas of extraordinary thinkers is likely to hone our
own powers of analysis, hopeful enough to apply them constructively to our own affairs.
Nicholson (1939) emphasized the value of philosophy when he declared:
There is no other that so widens our intellectual horizon and that deepens thereby both our
understanding and sympathies. It breaks up that “intellectual crust” of which Wordsworth
speaks, the “yoke of conventional custom” that thinking tends fatally to impose upon itself; and
by setting thought free it permits that full functioning of the life of the spirit that alone
constitutes the food life.
The thinking man needs a philosophy and will inevitably develop one, purposely and carefully
thought of or otherwise. In the words of McCall (1969):
The thinking man indeed never has the choice whether or not he shall philosophize. His choice
is rather whether shall philosophize openly and critically on the one hand or in a naïve and
surreptitious and half-baked fashion on the other.
A wise man, according to Cahn (1971), is one who possesses philosophical understanding.
Such a man. he reasoned, “cannot be intimidated by dogmatic statements, and he is prepared
to strive against those who would control his thoughts”. The study of philosophy thus serves as
a defense or protection against mental servitude and provides the framework within which we
can think and act intelligently.
Birth and Development
Logic is one of the courses offered in colleges and universities with long history. It was taught in
schools of ancient Greece, and in Western Europe. It has been offered to students ever since first
universities were established some 800 or 900 years ago (Barker,1989).
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Aristotle of Stagira in Thrace (384-322 B.C.)

“Father of Logic”
 The Birth of logic is attributed.
 Son of Physician Nichomachus.
 Became a student of Plato at the age of 18.
 He studied with Plato for 20 years and known as the most gifted student of Plato.
 Initiated the formal study of logic among Greeks in the fourth century B.C.
 He first devised logic as a system for analyzing and evaluating the correctness of an argument.
 His Logic is known as syllogistic logic the fundamental elements of which are terms.

Zeno of Citium (336-264 B.C.)

 Founder of the Stoic School.
 Gave the name “Logic” to the formal study started by Aristotle.

Chrysippus (279-206 B.C.)

 A Greek philosopher and one of the founders of the Stoic School
 Developed a logic in which the fundamentals elements were whole propositions.
 Developed rules on the bases of which the truth and falsity of the proportion is determined.

Middle Ages
Peter Abelard (1079-1142)
 First major logician of the period.
 Constructed and refined the logic of his predecessors, Aristotle and Chrysippus.
 Originated the theory of universals traced by universal character of general terms to concepts
in the mind rather than to “nature” existing outside the mind.
 He held that only formal validity is the “perfect” or conclusive type.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716)

“Father of Symbolic Logic”
 Developed a symbolic language or “calculus” that could be used to settle all forms of disputes
in argumentation
 In middle of nineteenth century, interest in inductive logic returned, initiated by British
philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
 In the beginning of twentieth century, British philosophers Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947)
and Bertrand Russel (1872-1970) whose goal is to reduce the whole of mathematics to logic.
 Kurt Goedel (1906-1978), introduced a famous theorem, that in any formal system adequate
for number theory there exists an undecidable formula.

Meaning
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Logic
 Derived from the Greek word logike which means “systematized and intelligible”.
 Logike was closely related to logos Greek word for “thought, reason and discourse”.
 Systematic study of matters pertaining to thought and discourse.
 Science and art of correct thinking.
 Science for three major reasons:
1) Body of certain and proven knowledge,
2) Body of knowledge is obtained and arranged in a systematic manner,
3) It is objective and possesses “general principles of argumentation and proof,
which can be formulated precisely and communicated to others”,
 An art because with the knowledge of the principles or laws of correct thinking one can think
and reason easily, spontaneously and correctly.
 “Art of Arts”, directs reason which is the prime cause and mover of any art of whatever form.

Thinking
 In logic, it is a mental activity which is intended to attain the truth of any concern or
issue, and/or which elaborates or explains whatever the truth or knowledge a person
already possesses.

Importance
7 Practical uses of Logic:
1) With an understanding of the principles and methods of logical inference, a person can reason
out clearly, spontaneously and correctly.
2) Logic will enable a person to recognize good from bad reasoning; it will enable him to point out
the defects of bad reasoning which he will avoid in his own argument.
3) Knowledge of logic will help a person to evaluate persuasions which use more mere
propaganda, psychological means (such as emotion and majority pressure) rather than
supporting evidence or reason.
4) Logic will enable a person to develop critical attitude towards his and other’s assumptions and
presuppositions which serve as bases of one’s argument.
5) Logic will provide a person a good grasp of logical terminologies useful in understanding works
or writings in philosophy, in physical and in other social sciences.
6) Logic will make a person aware of ambiguity of words and of various functions of language,
and will encourage him to be more exact and hence, more effective in the use of linguistic
symbols.
7) Logic will motivate a person to value the systematic and objective approach in analyzing issue
and in doing things.

Logic contributes significantly to the critical and reasoning of anyone who is either engaged in
personal thinking (contemplation, meditation, analysis, evaluation)
Types
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1) Based on validity of reasoning

 Logic is either formal or material.
 Formal, when the basis of validity of reasoning is conformity with the structure,
pattern or arrangement of the constituent parts of correct argument.
 Material, when the basis of statement involved in thinking and reasoning.

Example:
An argument which states that “stone is a hard object”, is materially valid because in reality,
stone is, in fact, hard. To argue, however, that “stones” are” soft objects” or “elephants are small
animals” is wrong because the arguments are materially invalid because the ideas do not conform
with what are true in reality. All three statements or arguments are formally valid because they all
follow the subject-predicate pattern or a structure of a declarative science.
2) Based on approach to attaining knowledge
 Logic is either deductive or inductive.
 Deductive logic. A system of reasoning whereby a person argues from universal or
general truth to the particular or from the more to the less universal (particular or
specific), by way of middle term.

Example:
1) All men are rational beings, but Filipinos are men

Therefore, Filipinos are rational beings.

 middle term “men”
2) “Dr. Jose Rizal is a Filipino”, he is also a rational being, arriving to a still less
universal, by way of middle term “Filipino”.

 Inductive logic. Direct opposite of deductive logic. Reasoning starts from sufficiently
enumerated individuals or specific cases or observations and moves to universal or
general truth.

Example
1) Ilonggo’s are courageous; so are Negrenses, Cebuano’s, Tagalogs, Warays,
Maranaos, Tausug’s, and all other ethnic Filipinos. Therefore, based on observation
all ethnic Filipinos, all Filipinos are courageous.

Divisions
Three major parts:
1) Terms –the basic and indivisible elements of inference.
2) Propositions- statements which affirm an attribute.
3) Inference- whole reasoning
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Thinking Activity Logic Parts

Apprehension Term
Judgment Proposition
Reasoning Inference

Terms compose of proposition

Propositions form an inference
Inference is made up of propositions
Proposition is composed of terms

Analysis:
Asians are hardworking people,
but Filipinos are Asians,
therefore, Filipinos are hardworking people

Learning Activities:

Activity 1. Knowledge Level Assessment

Direction: Identify the concept that is based described by each statement. Write your answer in ALL
CAPITAL letters.
1. __________ is the philosophical field which is concerned with the soul, spirit, mind or
consciousness – its nature or constitution, characteristics a role of
influence on the behavior of an individual person and social groups.
2. __________ is the field of philosophy that examines the origin, presuppositions, nature,
extent and veracity (truth, reliability, validity) of knowledge.
3. __________ is the field of philosophy that Inquires into the nature, being, kindness and
justice of God; relationship between God and man; and doctrines related
to divinity.
4. __________ is the field of philosophy that studies the meaning of words and linguistic
forms,
their functions as symbols, and the role they play in relation to other
words, to human thoughts and behavior.
5. __________ is the field of philosophy that studies examine the right and wrong in man’s
behavior as well as the pursuit of good life.
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6. __________ is the field of philosophy that studies the origin, nature, types, meaning,
criteria
and knowledge of values.
7. __________ is broadly defined as the science and art of correct thinking and reasoning
provides man with tools and methods by which he gains knowledge and
truth (Theroux, 1985).
8. __________ put much value on the study of man’s inner life over the external world around
him.
9. __________ “science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by
the aid of human reasons alone” (Bittle, 1984).
10. __________ composed of fields which are studied not only to gain knowledge and wisdom
but for practical purposes.

Activity 2. Reflective Questions

Directions: Answer the questions extensively and write it a complete and cohesive manner (10 pts.
each)

1. What use will a person have of knowledge gained from the study of Logic?

Activity 3. Essay
Directions: Discuss briefly and concisely the question.

1. What is there about logic that it deserves to be taught for so many centuries?

References:

Ardales Venancio B. Logic Towards Critical Thinking and Reasoning” 3rd Edition 2008.
Cotter, Anthony C. Fundamentals of Logic. St. Louis: B. Herder, 1949.
Cruz, Corazon. Introduction to Logic. Manila; National Book – Store, 1983.
Bittle C. N., O.F.M. CAP. The science of Correct Thinking, Logic. Revised Edition Milwaukee: Bruce
Publishing, 1990.
Joven, Jose, R., Teaching and Learning Logic. Published and Distributed by Rex Book Store 856
Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St. 1977 C.M. Recto Avenue Manila Philippines.
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Module 2
Simple Apprehension and Term

Learning outcome based on the

syllabus:
LO2.Differentiate comprehension and extension of terms
LO3. Identify the importance, purpose and rules of definition

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the module, the following learning objectives will be attained by the students with at
least 75% accuracy:
1. Know the meaning and properties of simple apprehension
2. Identify the various categories of concepts
3. Be familiar with the meaning, forms and classification of terms are related
4. Be familiar with the rules governing definition of terms

Direct Instruction

SIMPLE APPREHENSION

Before the mind can proceed to determine the truth from falsity of anything it has first
apprehend that something. And this is called simple comprehension which is an act whereby the mind
understands the essence or general meaning of a thing without affirming or denying anything about it
(McCall, 1971). To understand the concepts “man”, “book”, “friend”, “horse” and “car”, is a simple
apprehension. But when a person thinks about the apprehended man in “Man is a rational being,” or
book in “This book is not good for children,” he does not only apprehend but moves judgment. The
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result or product of simple apprehension is referred to as a concept, motion or metal term. Among
these three concepts is frequently associated with simple apprehension.

Properties of Simple Apprehension

Comprehension concepts. Comprehension is one property of apprehension. It refers to the

completely expressed some of the understandable aspect or elements represented by a concept. For
example, the definition that man is a “rational animal” does not fully and clearly recall all the elements
in the essence of man. This is because in the definition, the concept “animal” itself is not simple. To
have a comprehension of man requires understanding the basic elements of the concept “animal”, it
is a material substance living, and sentient of capable elements rational (the ability to reason and
understand), then we arrive to a comprehension of man.

Extension of concepts. Extension of concepts is another property of simple apprehension. It is

the property by which the concept refers to the sum of real things actual and possible thing. The
extension of the concept “man” refers to its scope or coverage which includes all men. Those who not
exist, those who live in the past and now gone, and those going to be born. For example, Americans,
Canadians, Asians, Malaysians, Indonesians, Indians, Filipinos, Tagalogs, Abraham Lincoln, Indira
Gandhi, Billy Clifford and Corazon Aquino are all extension of concept “man”.

Inverse relation of comprehension and extension of concepts. The comprehension and

extension of concepts are inversely related. This means that as the persons comprehension of the
concept increases its extension decreases, and vice versa.

This classic illustration will help understand this kind of relationship.

Comprehension Elements Extension

Man substance, material, living, All possible men.
sentient, rational
Animal Substance, material, living All possible men plus all
possible other animals, plus
all possible plants.
Body Substance, material All possible men plus all
possible plants, plus all
possible non-living bodies.
Categories of Concepts

Concepts can be classified into various categories. Only four classifications which have
bearings on logic are presented here (Bach Huber, 1996).

First and second intentions. Intentions are an act of the mind whereby things are represented
by it. In its first reflective act, the mind comes to know the essence or nature of a thing. In its reflective
act, the mind recognizes the attributes that an essence or nature has exist in the mind but not in
reality.
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The concept is concrete when it creates in the mind both a form (qualities, attributes or
characteristics) and a subject in which the form is inherent. The concept “man” is representation of
the meaning of subject and is concrete. So, with the concept “bird,” “flower,” “house,” “chair” and
“car,” If the concepts present itself as a form in a subject, as in “the red car” the concept “red” is also
concrete. So, with the concept “loyal” in “a loyal friend,” “loyal” being a characteristic attribute to the
concrete concept “friend”.

The concept is abstract only when we think of form separated from the subject. Examples of
abstract concepts are “honesty,” “attention,” “stupidity” and “devotion” when they represent meaning
which connote as though they were things or subjects themselves existing independently of subjects.

Absolute and connotative concepts. Absolute concepts are those that present their objects to
the mind as independent realities, either as substance or as though they were substances. They
indicate the subjects such as “animal,” “man” and “plants” or the forms extracted from the subjects
like “morality,” “honesty” and “biodegradability.”

Connotative concepts are presented to the mind as accidents which are inherent to a
substance. They are forms which merely suggest but do not indicate the nature or essence of the
subject. Adjectives like “friendly,” “graceful,” “writer” and “strong” are connotative concepts. Some
nouns which are used as adjectives like debater, announcer, operator and teacher are connotative
concepts.

Positive and Negative Concepts. Positive concepts present to the mind what the things are or
what they possess. In “Dogs are four-legged animals.” What is presented to the mind is the nature
and characteristic of dog which are animality and their being four-legged.

Negative concepts are those which present to the mind what the thing is not or what it lacks.
Examples of these concepts are “unhealthy,” “irrational,” “lifeless,” and “deaf.” Negative concept can
be formed by the use of articles “no” and “not” in a statement, like “The boy is not healthy.” And “No
man is immortal.”

Term
As mentioned in the preceding chapter, a term signifies or a representation of an idea or
concept which is a product of simple apprehension. It is the basic and indivisible element of an
inference (also known as an argument or reasoning) which is the primary concern of logic in the
tradition of Aristotle. For example, in the following argument;
Flowers are plants,
but orchids are flowers,
therefore, orchids are plants.
The terms in the argument are “flowers,” “plants,” and “orchids.” They are considered basic
elements of arguments because without them no statements or propositions can be constructed and,
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consequently, no argument or reasoning can be formed. They are indivisible elements of an inference
because each term cannot be split into parts and which on their own have meanings.
Meaning
“Term” is from Latin terminus which literally means the “last element to which a proposition
may be resolved.” It is a sign or representation of an idea or concept. The term “cat,” for example, is a
sign or representation of the real thing – an animal which is four-legged, meows and can be
domesticated as pet and anti-rat measure of a household. In relation to inference or argument, the
term is a word or arrangement of words that can serve as the subject or predicate of a proposition
which, basically, is a statement of denial or affirmation about something.
For example, in this proposition, “A cat is an animal,” the words “cats” and “animal” are terms:
“cat” serves as the subject-term and “animal” as the predicate-term of the proposition. In effect, the
term is the most basic element of an inference because without it no proposition can be constructed
and without proposition no argument can be made.
In logic, terms should not be taken as similar to words because not all words are terms. Only
words which signify a concept are terms. Adverbs, propositions, conjunctions, demonstrative
pronouns and articles are words, not logical terms. Examples of words are: “all,” “some,” “since,”
“because,” “the,” “those,” “that”. Proper names are words, not logical terms. A person who is named
Juan Labrador does not suggest that Juan is a farmer, or that Norman White is fair-complexioned,
because family names “Labrador” and “White” in the examples are proper names which do not
denote the essence or kind of man their bearer is.
Forms
There are two forms with which the term can be expressed. It can be expressed in oral form
when a human voice utters a sound defined by the use of vowels and consonants. According to
Bachhuber (1966), “Only an articulate sound can be a term; that is, a sound formed in the mouth and
consisting of one or more distinct syllables.”
A term is expressed in written form when a group of characters or letters are inscribed with the
use of an instrument (as a pen) on a surface or paper. Whatever form the term is expressed, oral or
written, it symbolizes an entity (an idea, object, relationship or event) which gives it meaning. Any
arrangement of letters which does not signify an entity is not a term; rather, it is a mere scribbling
which does not convey meaning.
Classifications
Terms may be grouped into classes on the basis of certain criteria. Here, five criteria are
considered, namely, components, meaning, quality, comprehension, quantity or extension, and in
relation to the object.
Components. On the basis of the number of words which constitute the term, terms may be
classified as sample or compound. A term is simple when it is made up of only one word representing
an idea or thing. Examples are “child, “house,” “horse,” “car,” and “tree.” A term is, however,
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compound when it is made up of arranged group of words which refers to one thing or kind of thing
taken together as a unit. For example, “The tall, dark, handsome and sociable gentleman is my son.”
The noun “tall, dark, handsome and sociable gentleman” is a compound term since it is an arranged
group of six words taken as a single unit.
Meaning. A term is a word which conveys a meaning. Without any meaning, a term is a non-
sensical sound or scribbling. A term must, therefore, transmit a meaning in order for it to be useful in
the communication of ideas or thoughts which it represents.
On the basis of meaning, terms are classified into univocal when the words are different in
spelling and sound but have the same meaning. Examples are “beautiful” and “pretty,” “physician”
and “medical doctor,” “little” and “small.”
A term of the same spelling and sound is also univocal when its meaning is the same in at
least two occurrences, as in the case of “man” in the following inference:
Man is a mortal being,
but Andre is a man,
so, Andre is a mortal being.
Terms are classified as equivocal when they have the same spelling and sound but different in
meanings in at least two occurrences. The case of “star” in the following argument is an example.
A star is a heavenly body,
but Ms. Lea Salonga is a star,
therefore, Ms. Lea Salonga is a heavenly body.
In its first occurrences, “star” refers to part of the celestial constellation or system, but in its
second occurrence it refers to the celebrity in the entertainment world.
Terms are analogous when they have partly the same and partly different meaning in at least two
occurrences. This is best illustrated by the terms ‘’see’ in the following statements:
1. His eyes see the beauty of nature.
2. His mind can still see the nature’s beauty long gone.

In its first occurrences, the term ‘” see” means “to behold,” but in its second occurrence the
appropriate meaning of the term is “to recollect” or “to remember.”
QUALITY
Positive Terms
-when they express what is real, true or essential of a thing such as life, health, courage
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-when they signify or affirm the existence or presence of desirable qualities such as beauty, honesty,
cooperation and persistence
Negative Terms
-when they indicate the absence or lack of form, ability or quality
Ex: disorder, blindness, death, awkward, dishonest and sickly.
It should be noted that affirmative terms can be made into negative by adding the prefix dis,
thus, “disorder” and “dishonest.” Positive terms such as “life’ and” love” are change to negative by
adding the suffix less resulting to these negative terms “lifeless” and “loveless”
Caution must be taken because the use of prefix or suffix does not always result to change the
positive quality of “price “to negative but in made someone’s love of much value that it cannot be
given any price. In “Her beauty is indescribable,” and in ‘His assistance is invaluable,’’ the prefix “in”
did not change the positive quality of the terms ‘’describable” and “valuable.” One must, therefore, be
familiar with terms and their meaning to avoid deceptions due to the use of prefix and suffix.
In relation to the object. Terms can be classified further on the basis of their relation to their
object, that is, they are either real, conceptual, imaginary, or metaphorical.
Real
When they indicate what is true in nature or in reality. Example “Night’’ and “day”
‘‘Life’’ and ‘’death’’ are real terms because they are part of nature, whether our minds perceive
them or not.
Conceptual
When they express products of mind such as “class,” “race,” “Golden Mountain,” “superman,”
and “raining cats and dogs.”
Imaginary
When they signify result of imagination, fantasy and illusion. Example are “talking tree,”
“golden Buddha,” and “dancing lights” which are not used to denote something other than their literal
meaning but having some similarity to them, such as bird-brained person, snail-paced worker,
tomboy, and henpecked husband.
Comprehension and Extension
Comprehension
In logic, comprehension of a term refers to the understanding by the person of a term on the
bases of the nature or essential characteristics of an entity- an idea, thing, relationship or event- it
represents. It includes all that a person can perceive or know objectively of a thing. The
comprehension of the term “dog” for example, is that it is a four legged, conscious, living and material
substance that barks, can be domesticated and trained to become man’s faithful friend.
Extension
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The extension or quality of a term refer to all the individuals or groups to which the term can be
applied. It is either absolute or functional. It is absolute when the term is used to cover all the
individuals or groups referred to by the term. It functional when it only includes those referred to in a
conversation.
In the proposition” Man” is a rational being,” the term “man” is used in its absolute extension for
it is applied to all men in the past, the present and the future. But in the conversation where someone
declares that “The man of today is sociable and practical,” the extension of the “man” is functional for
it is limited to the men of the present age. The range or scope of application of the term is restricted
or narrower when use in its functional extension, but broader when used in its absolute extension.
Three kinds of functional extension of the term
1. Singular
A term is singular if it is used to refer to one individual or group of persons or things
which it designates specifically and definitely. The following are singular terms:

a. Proper nouns such as “Manila,” “Hawaii,” and “Jose Rizal,” are singular terms.
There may be another person with the name of “Jose Rizal,” but when this name
is used it refers to a specific person.
b. Superlatives such as “best,” “brightest,” “poorest,” “lowest,” and “most active” are
singular terms. Superlatives denote an extreme or unsurpassed level, degree or
extent that by their very nature are singular in extension.
c. Demonstrative pronouns such as “this,” “that,” and “those” are singular terms
because they refer specifically and definitely to a singular individual or group of
persons or things.
d. Personal pronouns such as “I,” “you” and “he” as long as they definitely stand for
one specific person.
e. Common nouns the extension of which become singular because of the use of
certain modifiers such as demonstrative adjective and superlative. Examples
“this book,” “that building,” “the brightest pupils in class,” and “the red car parked
in front of the City Bank.”
f. Collective nouns such as “team,” “flock,” and “clan” provided they are used to
designate a group specifically and definitely. Nouns that are grammatically plural
ate singular terms when they refer to one specific group. For example, in the
proposition “those eleven fine young men compose our university football team,”
“those eleven fine young men” is grammatically plural but logically singular.

A term is particular when it signifies an indefinite part of an absolute extension. Even if the
term refers to one individual or group but if it does not specifically designate said individual or group
the term is still particular in extension. Nouns which have indefinite adjectives as modifiers (some,
many, several, few, most), or are preceded by indefinite articles “a” and “an” are particular terms.
Example:
Some men are hardworking.
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Several students are taking examinations.

A man is running down the street.
An egg is worth 40 centavos.
A term is universal when it is used to designate all the individuals or kinds to which the term
can applied. Nouns are universal terms when they are introduced by universal modifiers such as “all,”
“each,” “every,” “everything,” “anything,” “whichever,” and “anyone.” Terms which stand for universal
ideas are universal in extension. Examples:
All men are mortal beings.
Cats are not dogs.
Anyone is welcome in this church.
Everything possesses certain value.
It should be noted that terms that are grammatically singular are not necessarily singular when
they are applied in logic; they may either be particular or singular in extension. The definite article
“the” is used as prefix to both singular and universal terms. The “horse” is singular in the proposition
“The horse is running wildly,” but universal in “The horse is an animal.” Indefinite articles “a” and ‘’an”
can be used as prefix to both particular and universal terms. In the proposition “A horse is running
wildly,” “a horse” is particularly for it does not refer to a specific horse, but it is universal in “a horse is
an animal” because it stands for every horse.
Inverse relationship of comprehension of terms. The comprehension of a term is inversely
related. This means that as the comprehension of a term increases, its extension decreases, and vice
versa meaning, as the extension of the term increases, its comprehension decreases.
To illustrate, the term “man” when used to signify all men has an absolute extension. However,
when qualifiers or modifiers are added to its extension diminishes. Thus, when the noun “man” is
added to modifiers are added, as in the following: “The tall, lean, good-looking and sociable Asian
man is a multi-awarded athlete.” Here, the extension of the word “man” is reduced to a single person
specified by the modifier “tall,” “lean,” “good-looking,” and “sociable.”
The following classic illustration will make clear the inverse relationship of the comprehension
and the extension of terms;

EXTENSION
Substance: Substance Spirits, minerals, plants, brutes, men
Body : Material substance Minerals, plants, brutes, men
Organism : Living material substance plants, brutes, men
Animals : Sentient living material substance brutes, men
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Man : Rational sentient living material substance Men

COMPREHENSION

The distinction between the comprehension and the extension of terms is further illustrated by the
following series of items:

Increase comprehension : animal, men, Asian, Filipino, Pedro

Increase extension : Pedro, Filipino, Asian, me, animal

Decrease comprehension : Pedro, Filipino, Asian, men, animal

Decrease extension : animal, men, Asian, Filipino, Pedro
Analysis of the series of terms, above, reveals that the series is in the order of increasing
comprehension when each term in the (except the first) means more characteristics than the one
preceding it. this is to say that each term in the series (except the first) is more specific than the one
preceding it. The order of decreasing comprehension.
The series of terms is in the order of increasing extension when each term in the series
(except the first) implies a class having more members than the class gets larger with each
successive term. The reverse of this order results to a decreasing extension.
Definition
In many arguments particularly in those where no agreement was arrived at or when the
parties involved are separated with a feeling of resentment or ill will, one often hears a wish or a
comment that certain words covered in the argument should have been clearly defined. The definition
of terms critical to the argument would have facilitated in reaching a consensus or in a settling issue.
This proves the truth of the saying that “a lot depends on how we define our terms. “According to
Facione and Scherer (1978), “How we define our terms determines what we are going to say the
“facts” are, and in turn, what ethical and personal decisions we will make on the basis of what we
perceive the facts of to be.”
Importance
Definition is important to the study of logic for several reasons. First, understanding the
meaning of a particular word is often a critical part of analyzing and evaluating a statement or
argument. Second, definitions often appear as premises or need to be added as premises, in all types
of arguments, so there is a need to be able to recognize them when they occur, to supply the proper
ones when needed, and determine whether they are good or bad.
Meaning
The word “definition” was derived from the Latin word definire, which means “to enclose within
limits.’ The original meaning of definire is “to mark boundaries or limits” as of a field. Later, it is known
to mean the act of stating the meaning of term (Bachhuber,1957).
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Purpose
The purpose of definition is to explain in detail the meaning of words, or to indicate what a
word or phrase signifies. Considering this objective, Hurley (1985) defines definition “as a group of
words that assigns a meaning to some word or group of words. “Cope 1982) summarized the
functions of definition into five, namely:
1. to increase vocabulary,

2. to eliminate ambiguity,

3. to reduce vagueness

4. to explain theoretically, and

5. to influence attitudes.

Parts
Definition consists of two parts which are the definiendum and the definiens. The definiendum
is the word or group of words that needs to be defined. The definiens is the word or group of words
that is meant to give meaning or specific explanation to the definiendum. For example, in the
definition “Compassion’ means sympathetic consciousness of others’ distress together with a desire
to alleviate it,” the word “compassion” is the definiendum, and the phrase after the word ‘means” is
definiens, thus”
Compassion sympathetic consciousness of others’ distress together with a
desire to alleviate it.
______________ _________________________________
(Definiendum) (Definiens)

Kinds
The kinds of definitions that are actually used include the stipulative, lexical, précising,
theoretical, and persuasive definitions.
A stipulative definition is that which assigns a meaning to a word for the first time. Such
definition is used when a new word is coined or when an old word is given a new meaning. It is also a
useful definition when being defined is “novel, vague, ambiguous or technical” (Facione and Scherer,
1978).
In stipulative definition the assignment of a meaning to a word for the first time is arbitrary, that
is, according to the preference or convenience of the individual doing the defining. Because of this,
stipulative definition is neither “true’ nor “false.” There is nothing against which one can check the
truth or falsity of the stipulative definition. The only concern is the kind of definition is its convenience
or appropriateness. To illustrate, the successful crossbreeding of the offspring of these two species of
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animals. Calling the new specie “offspring of male tiger and female lion” would be inconvenient but
appropriate.
A lexical definition is that which reports a meaning of a word which is already used in a
language. Definitions found in dictionaries are examples of lexical definition. Unlike the stipulative
definition which cannot be true or false, a lexical definition maybe true or false on the basis or the
meaning of a word as it is actually used.
A précising definition is that which is used to reduce the vagueness of a word. A word is vague
if it is not specific or clear, as such as it is difficult to determine its applicability to a specific situation.
For example, the word “poor family” is vague. To find out who among the families in the community
are poor, there is a need to provide a précising definition which specifies exactly which families are
poor and which ones are not. The précising definition then would be: “Poor family” is that which has
six members whose income is less than six thousand per month.
A theoretical definition is that which presents an abstract picture or characterization of the
entity or entities signified by the definiendum. As such, it allows a kind of viewing or conceiving of
entities that “suggests deductive consequences, further investigation (experimental or otherwise), and
whatever else would be entailed by the acceptance of a theory governing these entities” (Hurley,
1985). The definition of the word “heat” is a good example: “heat” means the energy associated with
the random motion of the molecules of a substance.” This definition not only assigns meaning to a
word but it also provides a way of conceiving the physical phenomenon that is heat. Said definition
further suggests deductive consequence, namely, that as the molecules of a substance speed up the
temperature of the substance increases. Moreover, it suggests some experiments that can be
conducted out of the physical phenomenon that is heat.
A persuasive definition is that which is used to generate or cause a favorable or unfavorable
attitude or reaction toward what is signified by the definendum. This intention is to attain by using “an
emotionally-charged or value-laden meaning to a word that making it appear the word really has (or
ought to have) that the meaning in the language in which it is used” (Hurley, 1985). The purpose of a
persuasive definition is to influence the attitudes of the reader or listener. Below are examples of
opposing pairs of persuasive definition.
“Abortion” means the ruthless murdering of innocent human beings.
“Abortion” means a safe and established surgical procedure whereby a woman is a relieved an
unwanted burden.
“Taxation” means the procedure by means of which our commonwealth is preserved and
sustained.
‘‘Taxation” means the producer used by bureaucrats to rip off people who elected them.
Rules Governing Definitions
In constructing a good definition, the following rules should be observed:
1. A definition should be clear. To ensure clarity in definition there are three rules to remember.
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First, one must avoid the use of metaphors or figurative language. The language are
examples of metaphors passed on as definitions. “Bread is the staff of life,” “Loyalty is the
flame of the lamp of friendship.”
Second, a definition should not be circular. It should not be so stated that one cannot
understand it unless he already understands the term being defined. Examples; A “governor” is
“one who performs gubernatorial functions,” a “star” is “a stellar body.” “peace” is “the absence
of war,” and “war” is “the absence of peace.”
Third, a definition should not contain excessively difficult terminology, unless the
definition so requires. Example: a “net” as “a reticulated fabric, decussated at regular intervals,
with interstices and intersections.”
To determine the clarity of a definition one must also consider the status of a person for
whom the definition is meant. What is clear to an adult may not be understand to a child.
2. A definition should be coextensive with the term or thing defined. A definition should

distinguish the thing define from all other things. To attain this, the term being defined ant the

definition should have identical extension and should be perfectly convertible. For example, If

“rational animal” is a correct definition of “man,” then every man is rational animal and every

rational animal is a man.

3. A definition should be positive, when possible. A definition should state what a thing is rather

what is not. Negative terms, however, are defined negatively as in the case of “blindness”

defined as ‘the absence of sight in a subject that ought to have it,” and “death” as the cessation

of life.”

4. A definition should be brief. A definition should avoid excessive use of words. in the definition

of “man” as “a rational, social, speaking, moral animal,” the word “social,” “speaking,” and

“mortal” are not necessary since they are implied in, and deductible from, “rational animal.” An

ideal definition should not give the fullest knowledge of the term defined but merely to state its

essence.

5. A definition must not contain the term that is being defined. A definition does not explain what

a term is when it uses the very term that is being defined. The rule of definition is violated

when someone defines “physical science” as a “science of physical things.”

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Techniques in Defining Terms

Techniques in defining terms are into two categories: denotative and connotative.
A denotative definition is the type which indicates the members of the class that the
definiendum signifies. Its three subtypes include demonstrative definition, enumerative definition
and definition of subclass.
A Demonstrative definition is made by merely pointing to the object signified by the term being
defined. This type of definition is either partial or complete, depending on whether or not all or only
some of the member of the class referred to by definiendum are pointed to. Below are two
examples:
“Cow” means that (as you point to an animal in the pasture).
“Flower” means this, this, this, and this (as you point to a member of flowers in the
garden).
An Enumerative definition resorts to naming the members of the class the term signifies. As
with demonstrative definition, enumerative definition is either partial or complete. Examples:
“Professional” means a person such as teacher, doctor, lawyer, accountant or an engineer.
“Country” means something such as the Philippines, Japan, Thailand, Malaysia and the United
States of America.
A definition by subclass is made naming subclasses of the class signified by the term. Like the
two previous types of definition, this type is either partial or complete.

Examples:
“Plant” means a tree, a flower, a shrub, a cactus, a vine, and the like.
“Animal” means a cow, a carabao, a goat, a horse, a pig, a monkey, and the like.
A connotative definition is that which indicates the qualities or characteristics that the term
implies. It has three types namely, synonymous definition, operational definition, and definition by
genius and difference.
A synonymous definition is the type which uses a single word that implies the same attributes
or characteristics as the definiendum.
Examples:
“Utilize” means use.
“Beautiful” means pretty.
“Objective” means goal.
“Observe” means see.
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“Physical” means doctor.

An operational definition is the type which specifies certain procedure or usage that determine
whether or not a word implies to a certain thing or situation.
Examples:
A solution is an “acid” if and only if litmus paper turns red when dipped into it.
In this study, “income” refers to the monthly cash earnings from employment.
A definition by genus and difference is that which identifies a genus term and one or more
difference word that, taken altogether, implies the meaning of the term being defined. For clarity there
is a need to define “genus,” “species,” “specific difference” as they are used in logic.
In logic, “genus” means a relatively large class and “species” means a relatively smaller
subclass. For example, flower as the genus and rose as the species. The “specific difference,” or
“difference” for short, is the attribute or the attributes that distinguished roses from the other species
in the genus plant would include the attributes having thorns, of various colors, of certain fragrance,
and so on. When a genus is qualified; this is the basis upon which definition by genus and difference
is made. More examples:
Species Difference Genus
“Son” means a male offspring.
“Wife” means a married woman.
“Calf” means a very young cow.
“Narra” means a hard wood.
Summary
Simple apprehension is an act of mind to understand the essence of a thing without
making any affirmation or denial of anything about it. Its properties include the comprehension and
the extension of concepts which are inversely related.
In relation to logic, concepts are classified as first and second intentions, concrete and
abstract, absolute and connotative and positive and negative.
Terms are signs or representations of ideas or concepts. They can be in either oral or
written forms. They can be classified on the bases of components, meaning, quality, and in relation to
an object. Comprehension and extension are two properties of terms which are inversely related. The
extension of a term is either absolute or functional, the latter may either be singular, particular or
universal.
Definition of terms is important in logic. In actual usage, definition may either be
stipulative, lexical, précising, theoretical and persuasive. A good definition of terms should be clear,
coextensive with the term or thing defined, positive and brief, and does not contain the term being
defined.
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Learning Activities:
Activity 1. Knowledge Level Assessment
Direction: In the space provided, write True if the statement is right; if it is wrong, change the
underlined word or words to make it right.
_________1. A term is simple when it is made up of only one word representing an idea or thing.
_________2. Terms are equivocal when they are different in spelling and sound but have the same
meaning.
_________3. Terms are univocal when they partly the same and partly different meaning in at least
two
occurrences.
_________4. Terms are positive when they express what is real, true or essential of a thing.
_________5. Terms are conceptual when they signify fantasy and illusion.
_________6. Terms are imaginary when they indicate what is true in reality.
_________7. Comprehension of term refers to all the individuals or groups to which the term can be
applied.
_________9. The extension of a term is functional when it includes individual or group referred to in a
conversation.
_________10. A term is universal when it signifies an indefinite part of an absolute extension.
Activity 2. Reflective Questions
Directions: Answer the questions extensively and write it a complete and cohesive manner (10 pts.
each)
1. What good or benefits will a person derive from the study of Simple Apprehension?

Activity 3. Essay
Directions: Discuss briefly and concisely the question.
1. What use will a person have of knowledge gained from studying Simple Apprehension?

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Bittle C. N., O.F.M. CAP. The science of Correct Thinking, Logic. Revised
Edition Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing, 1990.
Joven, Jose, R., Teaching and Learning Logic. Published and Distributed by Rex
Book Store 856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St. 1977 C.M. Recto Avenue Manila
Philippines.

Module 3
Proposition

Learning outcome based on the

syllabus:
LO4.Construct the proposition and distinguish its kind

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the module, the following learning objectives will be attained by the students with at
least 75% accuracy:
1. Understand the proposition and distinguish its kinds.
2. Know the components and standard forms of the categorical proposition.
3. Classify the various kinds of categorical propositions using alphabet symbols.
4. Tells the distribution of terms in various kinds of categorical proposition.
5. Construct various kinds of categorical proposition.
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Direct Instruction
The discussions on terms in the preceding chapter should have prepared the learner for the study
of the present topic – the categorical propositions. As with terms, knowledge on proposition,
particularly the categorical type, is a requisite to the study and understanding of inference.

Proposition
Meaning
Basically, a proposition is a sentence or statement which affirms or denies something. For
instance, in the proposition, “Venna is pretty,” “pretty” is affirmed of “Venna,” while in “Venna is not
ugly,” “ugly” is denied of “Venna.” The “something” affirmed or denied is either simple existence of
a subject, as in “God exists” and “The Titanic is long gone,” or attribute, as in “Baguio is cool,” and
“Darwin is tall,” or relationship or connection, as in “If you study well, then you will pass this
course,” and “You will be promoted because she will be retired.”
The affirmation or denial of something is either true or false on the basis of its relation to fact
or reality. Thus, one basic characteristic of logical propositions is that is expresses truth or falsity
in whatever judgement it makes. The assertion or denial, and the element of truth or falsity are two
reasons why all propositions are sentences but not all sentences are propositions. Commands
(e.g., Study your lessons.), payers (e.g., Lord please grant the desire of my heart.), wishes (e.g., I
hope to work in Thailand this year.), and doubts (e. g. I am not sure you will be hired.) are
sentences which are not propositions. In other words, only declarative sentences which can either
be true or false on the basis of their assertions, pronouncements or judgements about certain
facts or reality quality as propositions.
In the words of Aristotle (Searles, 1968):
(Every sentence has a meaning… yet every sentence is not a proposition; only such are
propositions as have in them either truth or falsity. Thus, a prayer is a sentence, but is neither true
nor false.)
Kinds
There are four major kinds of propositions, namely, categorical, conditional, disjunctive, and
conjunctive propositions.
Categorical proposition. The categorical proposition is that with either affirms or denies
something without any qualification or condition. Its truth or falsity is based on its own content, not
on the content of any other statement. It expresses an unconditional affirmation or negation
(denial) of something which is either true or false. Its basic structure is made up of three elements
which are the subject-term which is stated first, followed by the copula, and the predicate-term
stated last. Below are some examples:
1. Manuel is tall and big.
2. The weather is not good.
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* “term” is added as suffix to the “subject and “predicate” to distinguish them from their usage of a
sentence in grammar.
3. Few men are not conscientious.
4. Orchids are expensive flowers.
5. Some houses are painted white.
In the first example, “Manuel” is the subject-term, “is” is the copula, and “tall and big” is the
predicate-term. “Tall and big” are attributes which are affirmed of Manuel.
The categorical proposition is considered the proposition proper. This is so because it is in the
application of categorical proposition that the purpose and rule of logic (which is to draw certain and
definitive conclusions that necessarily follow the premises) is realized. Further, it is this type of
proposition which allows for the evaluation of the validity of an inference or reasoning.
Conditional proposition. The conditional proposition is the kind which makes an assertion but
qualified by a condition. Structurally, it is a compound proposition made up of two simple categorical
propositions so arranged that the first component, called the antecedent, states the condition while
the second component, called the consequent, states the consequence, outcome or result. The two
components are so related that the truth of the consequence is dependent on the truth of the
antecedent. To make this point clear, examples are given below.
1. If the weather is fine, then we shall go boating.
2. If mother approves, then I will go to the dance with you.
3. Election of officers will be held but only when over half of all members are in attendance.
4. It is only after he resigned that I will file my application for his position.
5. If he will study hard, then he will pass this course.

In the first example, “then we shall go boating” is the consequence which is true or will be done
when the antecedent which is the condition “if the weather is fine” is met.
It should be noted that while ordinarily the condition or antecedent is stated ahead of the
consequence, this may not be the case always. The third illustration is a case in point. Here, the
consequence “election of officers will be held” is stated before the condition “only when over half of all
members are in attendance.”
Disjunctive proposition. The disjunctive proposition is the type which presents two or more
alternatives but only one of which is true. It is also known as the alternative proposition. In this
proposition the alternatives are usually joined by the conjunctions “either… or “but not always, as the
last of the following illustrations exemplifies.
1. He is either asleep or awake.
2. Andre will take up either engineering, architecture or medicine.
3. Either we have a national language or we do not.
4. Venson is either in Canada, Switzerland or Japan.
5. It is not possible that the orbit of the planets are circles and ellipses.
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Conjunctive proposition. The conjunctive proposition is the kind of proposition which presents two
alternatives which cannot be true simultaneously or at the same time. For illustration the following will
suffice.
1. She cannot be single and married too.
2. Mothers cannot be caring and uncaring at the same time.
3. It is impossible for a day to be sunny and at the same time rainy.
4. He cannot be in Singapore and in Malaysia at the same time.
5. It is not possible for a country to have both the presidential and the parliamentary system of
governance.

In using places as illustration, as in the case of the fourth example, care must be taken that the
places used are not adjacent; if they are, it is possible for a person to stand astride over the boundary
and render the argument, that one cannot be in two places at the same time, false.
Categorical Proposition
In Aristotelian logic, it is the categorical proposition which is most useful in determining the validity
of an inference. It is considered the proposition proper because its assertion about something is
absolute, meaning, it is either true or false without any qualification or condition. The categorical
proposition is very useful in settling issues, as in debates, for it asserts the unconditional validity or
falsity of the conclusion of one’s argument. It is for this reason that the discussions that follow focus
on the categorical proposition.
Basic Components
The categorical proposition, as an unconditional statement of assertion or denial, consists of three
basic components or parts which are the subject-term, the predicate-term, and the copula. The
subject-term is something which is asserted or denied. This is usually accompanied by a quantifier
such as “all,” “some,” “few,” “many,” “no,” “none,” “several,” etc. The predicate-term is that which is
asserted or denied of subject-term. The copula which is a form of verb “to be” and used in its present
indicative mood – is, are, am, is not, are not, am not- is considered the “soul” of the proposition
because it expresses verbally the affirmation or negation, which is the essence of the proposition. Its
function is either to join the subject- and the predicate-term as in “Birds are animals,” or separate the
subject- and the predicate terms as in (“That lawyer is not a member of the academic council.”)
In the proposition, “All patients are given medical treatment,” the subject-term is “patients,” the
quantifier is “all,” the copula is the verb “are” and the predicate-term is “given medical treatment.” It
should be borne in mind that in logic the “subject-term” and predicate-term” do not mean the same as
“subject” and predicate” in grammar. In grammar, the subject of the statement, “All patients are given
medical treatment,” includes the quantifier “all,” but in logic the subject-term is “patients,” only.
Similarly, the predicate includes the copula “are,” but the predicate-term does not.

Components In Logic
in Grammar
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Quantifier all
Subject-term/Subject Copula patients
all patients
Predicate-term/Predicate are
Given treatment are given treatment

Standard Form
The standard form (or structure) of the categorical proposition refers to the pattern or
arrangement of the essential or basic components of the proposition into a logical unit which is
schematically presented as follows:
Subject-term ----------- Copula ------------ Predicate-term
Some categorical propositions are not in standard form because they do not have all three basic
components, or the ordering of the basic components does not follow that in the standard form, that
is, recasting them so as to have all the three basic components present ordered accordingly.
To illustrate:
Original Form Standard Forms
1. a. Ven writes books. Ven is a person who writes books.
b. The person who writes books
is Ven.
2. a. Mothers love their children. Mothers are those who love their children.
b. Those who love their children
are mothers.
3. a. Cats have whiskers. Cats are animals that have whiskers.
b. Animals that have whiskers
are cats.

Analysis of the above illustrations reveals that to transform the original propositions, on
the left column, to their standard forms some additional words may be required. For instance,
in the first proposition the phrase “is a person who” was added such that the transformed
proposition has now a copula “is” which is not part of the original proposition.

Quality
Quality is one inherent characteristics of the categorical proposition. Affirmative and
negative are two qualities that a proposition can have. The quality of the categorical
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proposition is affirmative if its predicate-term is asserted or affirmed of its subject-term. The

following examples illustrate this:
1. My wife is meticulous.
2. The children are home.
3. I am a Filipino.
4. Men are rational beings.
5. My daughter is graceful.

The categorical proposition is negative when its predicate-term is denied of its

subject-term. The denial is affected by the use of the negative particle “not” which
accompanies the copula, as in “is not,” “are not,” “am not.” In some cases, however,
instead of “not,” “no” is used but which precedes the subject-term rather than the copula, as
in the case of example 4.

Negative Proposition
1. My wife is not meticulous.
2. The children are not at home.
3. I am not a Filipino.
4. No men are irrational beings.
5. My daughter is not boastful.

From the examples it will be noted that the quality of the categorical proposition is the function of
the copula. In other words, the quality of the categorical proposition can be determined by examining
the copula, that is whether the “verb to be” in the present tense is preceded by the negative particle
“not” or “no” precedes the proposition rendering the proposition negative in quality; otherwise, it is
affirmative.
Quantity
Quantity is another essential characteristic of the categorical proposition. It refers to the extension
of the proposition which is determined by the quantity of the subject-term. Thus, the quantity of the
proposition is singular when the extension of its subject-term is singular, that is, it signifies a single
definitely-designated individual or group. It is particular when its subject-term denotes an indefinite
part of its absolute extension, but it is universal when the subject-term designates all members of
what it signifies. Quantifiers and modifiers of subject-term are helpful in determining the quantity of
the propositions. Examples of quantifiers are “all,” “every,” “anyone,” “whoever,” whichever” for
universal quantity; and “some,” “few” “many,” “several” particular quantity.
The quantity of the proposition should not be confused with the quantity of the predicate-term.
Unlike the quantity of the proposition, the quantity of the predicate-term is based on the quality of the
proposition, unless it is singular. If the quantity of the predicate-term is singular, that is, it refers to a
single, definitely-designated individual or group, then it is singular, regardless of the quality of the
proposition. However, if the predicate-term is not singular, then the quality of the proposition should
be used as the determinant of its quantity, following these rules:
1. If the proposition is affirmative, then the predicate-term must be particular.
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2. If the proposition is negative, then the predicate-term must be universal.

The following examples will be help differentiate the extension or quantity of the proposition and
that of the predicate-term.
Proposition Quantity
Proposition Predicate-term
1. Socrates is the most famous philosopher. Singular Singular
2. Some houses are made of light materials. Particular Particular
3. Men are not immortal beings. Universal Universal
4. Everyone is welcome to the party. Universal Particular
5. Some animals are not carnivorous. Particular Universal
6. Our basketball team is the champion. Singular Singular
7. Those children are from our school. Singular Particular
8. No soldier is a coward. Universal Universal
9. Not everyone in this is a crime suspect. Particular Particular
10. The lone honoree is a political leader. Singular Particular
Validity
The categorical proposition is valid either on the basis of form (or structure) or matter (thought
content). On the basis of form/structure, it is valid when it adheres to the standard form, as follows:
Subject-term --------- Copula ------------ Predicate-term
(ST) (C) (PT)
“Birds are animals that can fly,” is a formally valid categories proposition, so is the proposition
“Stones are soft objects,” because both propositions contain the basic parts which are the subject-
term, copula, and predicate-term arranged according to the standard structure/form: ST – C- PT.
The categorical proposition is valid on the basis of matter or thought content when the idea
therein conforms to what is true in reality. “Birds are animals that can fly,” is materially valid because
the idea asserted in the proposition is in accordance with what is true in reality. But the proposition
“Stones are soft objects,” though formally valid is materially invalid because in fact, stones are hard
objects.
For the proposition to be genuinely valid it should be valid both in form structure and/thought
content. In actual reasoning, both form and thought content are involved. One cannot carry a
conversation on the basis of form or thought content alone; to do so may result to misunderstanding
or confusion.
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Kinds
Taking into account both the quality and the quantity of the proposition at the same time results to
four kinds of categorical propositions. These are the (1) universal/singular affirmative, (2)
universal/singular negative, (3) particular affirmative, and (4) particular negative. Since the early
Middle Ages these four kinds of categorical proposition have commonly been designated by letter
symbols corresponding to the first four vowels of the Roman alphabet A, E, I, O. Symbol A stands for
the universal/singular affirmative proposition, E for the universal/singular negative proposition, I for
the particular affirmative proposition, and O for the particular negative proposition. The four letters
were said to have been derived from the first two vowels in the Latin words affirm (“I affirm”) and
nego (“I deny”) thus:
n
Universal A E
f
f g
Particular I O
r
m
o

Using the letter symbol, four types of the categorical proposition can name as follows:
QUALITY
Q
Affirmative Negative
U

A
Universal/
N
Singular A
E
T

I
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Y Particular
I
O

In tabular form, the proposition can be presented according to their quality and quantity as follows:
Proposition Quality Quantity
A Affirmative Universal, Singular
I Affirmative Particular
E Negative Universal, Singular
O Negative Particular

The following are examples of categorical propositions with certain quality and quantity
represented by symbols A, E, I, O.
Proposition Symbol Quantity Quality
1. Men are rational animals. A Universal Affirmative
2. Dr. Jose P. Rizal is a Filipino. A Singular Affirmative
3. Every Filipino is hospitable. A Universal Affirmative
4. That dog is not mine. E Singular Negative
5. No one is allowed to leave. E Universal Negative
6. Men are not immortal beings. E Universal Negative
7. Most men believe in God. I Particular Affirmative
8. Not everyone is welcome to the party. I Particular Affirmative
9. Some roses are white. I Particular Affirmative
10. Several students are not in uniform. O Particular Negative
11. Few plants are not edible. O Particular Negative
12. Many animals are not carnivorous. O Particular Negative
Distribution of Propositional Terms
While quality and quantity are inherited characteristics of proposition distribution is the
characteristic of the terms (subject and predicate) of propositions. The subject- and predicate-terms
of a categorical proposition are not distributed in and of themselves; rather, they are distributed by the
propositions in which they occur.
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Terms in the categorical proposition are either distributed or undistributed. They are distributed
when they stand for or make an assertion about all members of a group signified by them. They are
undistributed when they stand for or make an assertion about an unspecified portion of the totality of
that which they signify. In other words, distributed terms are those which are universal or singular* in
extension/quantity; undistributed when particular in quantity.
The subject-term is distributed when the proposition is universal or singular, whether it is
affirmative or negative; it is undistributed when the proposition is particular, whether it is affirmative or
negative. The predicate-term is undistributed when the proposition is affirmative, may it be universal
or particular; it is distributed when the proposition is negative, whether it is universal or particular.
The predicate-term is also distributed when it is singular. The diagram below will help clarify the
distribution of terms in categorical propositions.
S PREDICATE-TERM
U T
B E
J R
E M
C
T
- Undistributed. Distributed
(Particular) (Universal/Singular)

Distributed
(Universal/Singular A E

Undistributed
(Particular) I O

*Singular terms actually stand for the only individuals or groups they can be applied to and are
therefore used for their entire extension. In this sense singular terms are equivalent of universal
terms.
Another way of summarizing the distributions of terms in the four types of categorical proposition is
given in the following table.
Distribution of Terms
Proposition Letter Symbol Subject-term Predicate-term
ALL ST are PT A distributed Undistributed
No ST are PT E distributed distributed
Some ST are PT I undistributed undistributed
Some ST are not PT O undistributed distributed
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The following mnemonic device by Hurley (1964) will also help in remembering the distribution of
terms in categorical proposition:
ANY STUDENT EARNING Bs IS NOT ON PROBATION.
Focusing on the first letter in each word should help one remember that A propositions distributed
the subject-term, E proposition distribute both terms (subject and predicate), I proposition distribute
neither term, and O propositions distribute the predicate term.
Summary
Proposition is a statement which affirms or denies something the material validity of which is
determined by what is true in reality.
The four kinds of propositions include the categorical, conditional, disjunctive and conjunctive. The
categorical proposition is the most useful in determining the validity of an inference or reasoning.
The basic components of the categorical proposition are the subject-term, the copula and the
predicate-term which in that order constitutes the standard form or structure of the categorical
proposition.
The qualities of the categorical proposition are affirmative and negative, while its function qualities
or extension are singular, particular and singular. Taking its quality and quantity at the same time,
categorical propositions can be symbolized by alphabets A, E, I and O.
Terms in the proposition are either distributed or undistributed depending on the quality as well as
the quantity of the proposition.
Learning Activities

Activity 1. Knowledge Level Assessment

Direction: Identify the categorical propositions with certain quality and quantity represented by
symbols A, E, I, O. (Copy and answer)
Proposition Symbol Quantity Quality
1. Some men are not rational animals. ______ ______ ______
2. Dr. Jose P. Rizal is a Filipino. ______ ______ ______
3. No Filipino is hospitable. ______ ______ ______
4. Some dog is not mine. ______ ______ ______
5. No one is allowed to leave. ______ ______ ______
6. Some men are not immortal beings. ______ ______ ______
7. Most men believe in God. ______ _______ ______
8. Not everyone is welcome to the party. ______ _______ ______
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9. No roses are not white. __

10. Few students are not in uniform. ______ ______ _____
Activity 2. Reflective Questions
Instruction: Transform the Original form to Standard form by using the basic components.
Original Form Standard Form
1. a. Mothers love their children. __________________________
b. Those who love their children
are mothers.
2. a. Cats have whiskers. _________________________
b. Animals that have whiskers
are cats.
Activity 3. Essay
Directions: Discuss briefly and concisely the question.
1. How importance to understand the proposition?

References:
Ardales Venancio B. Logic Towards Critical Thinking and Reasoning” 3rd Edition
2008.
Cotter, Anthony C. Fundamentals of Logic. St. Louis: B. Herder, 1949.
Cruz, Corazon. Introduction to Logic. Manila; National Book – Store, 1983.
Bittle C. N., O.F.M. CAP. The science of Correct Thinking, Logic. Revised
Edition Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing, 1990.
Joven, Jose, R., Teaching and Learning Logic. Published and Distributed by Rex
Book Store 856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St. 1977 C.M. Recto Avenue Manila Philippines.

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