Learning

A. What is Education?

 Education is a process of changing human behavior in a desired direction

B. What is learning?

 Learning is a lasting change in behavior that results from experience.

 Learning is the instinctive ability of the human mind to observe, process, and adjust to
information or experience.

 Learning is a modification of behavior through experience, observation, training and

the like.

C. Difference between Education and Learning

Sl. No. Education Learning
1. Process of intentionally imparting Process of unintentionally adopting knowledge,
knowledge, values, skills and attitudes, values and skills.
which can be beneficial to an individual.
2. Education is acquired by individuals. Learning is the basic instinct possessed by all
individuals.
3. Education is something that one gets at Learning is said to be an ongoing process.
some point in their life.
4. Education is a formal process. . Learning is an informal process.
5. Education is knowledge gained through Learning is knowledge gained through
teaching. experience.

6. Education is something that an individual Learning is something that evolves in the inner
gets from an outside source. self.

7. Both are methods of acquiring knowledge Learning tends to be a personal endeavor.

through experience but education tends to
be a social or group endeavor.
D. Types of Education and their Differences

Formal Education Non-formal Education Informal Education

1. Systematically organized, 1. Organized learning but not 1. Not organized, nor

Chronologically graded and chronologically graded, not systematically and not
hierarchically structured hierarchically structured. chronologically graded, nor
hierarchically structured

2. Specifically designed 2. Selected topics are followed 2. All learning under

structured curricula is followed that are considered immediately incidental process or
beneficial to the clientele happenings falls under
informal education

3. Conducted by an agency or 3. Conducted by an agency or 3. No teacher or agency

institution under the guidance of group outside of the formal guides learning
formal teachers in a school school system under the
system guidance of professional trainers
or facilitators

4. Attendance in formal schools 4. Attendance may recur many 4. Learning is incidental but
is required to prepare an times to meet the immediate continuing throughout the
individual for life-time career needs and interests of an adult life i.e. reading a newspaper
promotion or reading a novel while
riding a car/ bus or train.

5. Purpose is to develop people to 5. People are equipped with 5. No such purpose is

change their behaviors for relevant skills, knowledge and envisioned
becoming worthy citizen information of immediate
benefits

6. School, College, University 6. Various pre-service and in- 6. All types of incidental
education service training courses, Adult learning
education, Extension education

E. What is Adult Education?

Adult education is the process whereby adults engage in systematic and sustained learning activities
in order to gain new forms of knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values.

Who are adults?

Adults are those persons, regardless of age, may be adults, youths or adolescents, who are mentally,
physically and psychologically mature and can take decisions and also be responsible for those
decisions taken by them. It is more of mental rather than chronological in age and maturity.
Where adult educations take place?

Adult education can take place in the workplace, through "extension" school (e.g., Farmers’ Field
School of DAE). Other learning places include community colleges, folk high schools, colleges and
universities, libraries, and lifelong learning centers. The practice may also include "Training and
Development" which is often associated with professional development. Adult education has also been
referred to as andragogy (to distinguish it from pedagogy).

Educating adults differs from educating children in several ways. One of the most important
differences is that adults have accumulated knowledge and work experience which can add to the
learning experience. Another difference is that most adult education is voluntary; therefore, the
participants are generally self-motivated.
Purposes of adult education may vary. One of its goals may be to help adult learners satisfy their
personal needs and achieve their professional goals. Therefore, its ultimate goal might be to achieve
human fulfillment. The goal might also be to achieve an institution's needs. For example, this might
include improving its operational effectiveness and productivity. A more large-scale goal of adult
education may be to further the growth and progress of society by enabling its citizens to keep up with
societal change and maintain good social order.

Characteristics of Adult Learners

1. Self-direction
Adults learn by doing. Active participation is especially important to adult learners in comparison to
children. Adults feel the need to take responsibility for their lives and decisions and this is why it’s
important for them to have control over their learning. Therefore, self-assessment, a peer relationship
with the instructor, multiple options and initial, yet subtle support are all imperative.

2. Practical and results-oriented

Adult learning is problem-based and these problems must be realistic. Adult learners like finding
solutions to problems. Adult learners are usually practical, resent theory, need information that can be
immediately applicable to their professional needs, and generally prefer practical knowledge that will
improve their skills, facilitate their work and boost their confidence. This is why it’s important to
create a course that will cover their individual needs and have a more utilitarian content.

3. Less open-minded
They are more resistant to change. Maturity and profound life experiences usually lead to rigidity,
which is the enemy of learning. Thus, instructional designers need to provide the “why” behind the
change, new concepts that can be linked to already established ones, and promote the need to explore.
4. Slower learning, yet more integrative knowledge
Aging does affect learning. Adults tend to learn less rapidly with age. However, the depth of learning
tends to increase over time, navigating knowledge and skills to unprecedented personal levels.

5. Use personal experience as a resource

Adults have lived longer, seen and done more, have the tendency to link their past experiences to
anything new and validate new concepts based on prior learning. This is why it’s crucial to form a
class with adults that have similar life experience levels, encourage discussion and sharing, and
generally create a learning community consisting of people who can profoundly interact.

6. Motivation
Learning in adulthood is usually voluntary. Thus, it’s a personal choice to attend school, in order to
improve job skills and achieve professional growth. This motivation is the driving force behind
learning and this is why it’s crucial to tap into a learner’s intrinsic impetus with the right thought-
provoking material that will question conventional wisdom and stimulate his mind.

7. Multi-level responsibilities
Adult learners have a lot to juggle; family, friends, work, and the need for personal quality time. This
is why it’s more difficult for an adult to make room for learning, while it’s absolutely crucial to
prioritize. If his life is already demanding, then the learning outcome will be compromised. Taking that
under consideration, an instructional designer needs to create a flexible program, accommodate busy
schedules, and accept the fact that personal obligations might obstruct the learning process.

8. High expectations
Adult learners have high expectations. They want to be taught about things that will be useful to their
work, expect to have immediate results, seek for a course that will worth their while and not be a waste
of their time or money. This is why it’s important to create a course that will maximize their
advantages, meet their individual needs and address all the learning challenges.

Theories of Learning:
Many theories about learning have been presented by the psychologists worldwide. Among them the
following theories are discussed below:

i. Classical Conditioning Theory developed by the Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov

(1904),
 ii. Operant Conditioning Theory,
iii. Insight Theory observed by Wolfgang Kohler (1925),
iv. Social Learning Theory

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Stages of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. In simple
terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. There are
three stages to classical conditioning. In each stage the stimuli and responses are given special scientific
terms:

Stage 1: Before Conditioning:

In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an
organism. In basic terms this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior /
response which is unlearned (i.e. unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been
taught. In this respect no new behavior has been learned yet.

This stage also involves another stimulus which has no affect on an organism and is called the neutral
stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place etc. The neutral stimulus in classical
conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Meat powder (US) .............................................................. Salivation (UR)

Bell (NS)……………………………………………………… No Salivation

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

During this stage a stimulus which produces no response (i.e. neutral) is associated with the
unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). Often
during this stage the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or trials, for
learning to take place.

Bell (CS) + Meat powder ................................. Salivation

Bell (CS) + Meat powder ................................. Salivation (Repetition)

 Stage 3: After Conditioning:

Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to
create a new conditioned response (CR).

Bell (CS) ................................ Salivation (CR )(Repetition)

Bel (CS) ....................................... Extinction of CR

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist B.F. Skinner. Early behaviorists focused their
interests on associative learning. Skinner was more interested in how the consequences of people's
actions influenced their behavior. Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that
operates upon the environment to generate consequences." His theory was heavily influenced by the
work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of effect.
According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be
repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by reinforcement will
be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. The term reinforce means to strengthen,
and is used in psychology to refer to any stimuli which strengthens or increases the probability of a
specific response. If you tell a funny story in class and everybody laughs, you will probably be more
likely to tell that story again in the future. If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher
praises your polite behavior, you will be more likely to raise your hand the next time you have a
question or comment. Because the behavior was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome,
the preceding action is strengthened.

Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less
likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs
this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. If you shout out an answer in
class and your teacher scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class again.

Thorndike’s Trial and Error Theory:

Thorndike’s Trial and Error a type of learning belongs to Operant Conditioning. According to this
theory individuals try to solve problems through unplanned and unreasoning activities marked by
successive trial of various responses to a situation, ostensibly at random, until one is successful and
attains the goal (Woodworth & Marquis, 1968). In repeated trials this successful movement comes
earlier and earlier until the learner can establish relationship between stimulus and response he will
proceed toward a set of goal through trial and error. His initial performance is supposed to be
erroneous but he modifies his every attempt or attack. However, at last he successfully learns to reach
the goal in single attempt.

In his experiment, Thorndike used a small chamber what he called a puzzle box. He placed a hungry
cat in the box, with a bit of fish lying just outside; the cat started plenty of actions to get the fish. It
extended its paw between the bars of the box but could not reach the fish, pushed its nose between the
bars but could not get through, shook anything that was loose and tried every part of the box. Sooner or
later it attacked the button which was holding the door shut and in manipulating it the cat could turn
the button. The door was opened. The cat went to its reward. Thorndike recorded the time needed in
the first trial, replaced the still hungry cat in the box with another bit of fish outside. Trial and error
behavior again, though probably less of it than before. In further trials the useless movements were
gradually eliminated, till finally, on being placed in the box, the cat promptly turned the button and got
out within a couple of seconds. To master the trick 10-20 trials were required.

Based on this experiment, Thorndike developed a principle he called the law of effect. This law states
that behaviors that followed by pleasant consequences will be strengthened, and will be more likely to
occur in the future. Conversely, behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be
weakened, and will be less likely to be repeated in future.

The Insight Theory of Learning:

One of the classic observations in psychology made by Wolfgang Kohler (1935) a German
psychologist described cognitive approach as insight learning. It refers to the solving of problems
applying cognition or intelligence. Kohler a pioneer in Gestalt psychology in his experiment put a
chimpanzee in a cage given the problem of using a stick to reach a banana outside the cage, too far
away to be reached by the head or arm; but a stick is lying conveniently near. The chimpanzee soon
learns to pull the banana in by using the stick. He was then given two-stick problem. As he already
learned to use a stick to pull in a banana, was given two sticks of bamboo, neither of them being long
enough to reach the banana, but one being small enough in diameter into the open end of the other.
After an hour of fruitless efforts with the single sticks the chimpanzee had thoroughly learned that
these were too short. He gave up and went to the rear of his cage. However, after a while he started
playing with two sticks and he accidentally discovered that the sticks could be fitted together to form a
stick long enough to reach the banana. The chimpanzee had gained an insight. He jumped with joy and
started to pull in the banana with his jointed sticks. First the loosely jointed pieces fell apart, but he
promptly put them together again and secured the banana. Without stopping to eat, be pulled in
everything else within reach of his new tool. The next day, he began with a few useless movements but
in a few seconds reconstructed his jointed stick and used it as before.

Difference between Trial-and-Error and Insight Theory of Learning:

1. Trial & error is a matter of S-R connection but insight learning is S-S type. The organism’s
approach in trial and error consists of random blind activities and the solution comes by chance.
On other hand, the organism in insightful learning, surveys, inspects, observes and examines
various aspects of the problem situation, and thereby takes an active role in learning.

2. Trial & error learning is a gradual process whereas insight learning occurs all on a sudden.

3. Physical and motor skill is required in trial and error learning. On the other hand, cognition
or intelligence is required in insightful learning.

4. Trial and error learning is more or less temporary while insightful learning is long lasting.
 5. In trial and error, transfer of learning is poor but learning by insight is easily transferred from
one situation to similar other situation.

Social Learning Theory

Individual can learn by observing what happens to other people and just by being told about something
as well as through direct experiences. For example, much of what we have learned comes from
watching models- parents, teachers, peers, motion pictures and television performers, bosses, and so
forth. This view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience is called social –
learning theory.
Although social –learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning – that is, it assumes
that behavior is a function of consequences – it also acknowledges the existence of observational
learning and the importance of perception in learning. People respond to how they perceive and define
consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves.

The influence of the models is central to the social-learning theory viewpoint. Four processes
have been found to determine the influence that a model will have on an individual.

1. Attentional processes: People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its
critical features. We tend to be most influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly available,
important to us, similar to us in our estimation.

2. Retention processes: A model’s influence depends on how well the individual remembers the
model’s action after the model is no longer readily available.

3. Motor reproduction processes: After a person has seen a new behaviour by observing the model, the
watching must be converted to doing. This process then demonstrates that the individual can perform
the modeled activities.

4. Reinforcement processes: Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behaviour if positive
incentives or rewards are provided. Behaviors that are positively reinforced are given more attention,
learned better, and performed more often.
Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience:

In addition to understanding the principles underlying how adults learn, training/teaching must also
plan experiences and activities that maximize the learning of trainees. Edgar Dale's "Cone of
Experience", as modified by Sheal (1989), provides a linkage between learning, activity, and
participant involvement. Fig. 2 illustrates this cone of experience.

We tend to remember Our level of involvement

10% of what we read READING

LISTINING Verbal Receiving

20% of what we hear LOOKING AT

CHARTS/DIAGRAMS

30% of what we see

WATCHING A FILM OR VIEDO Visual Receiving

50% what we hear and see WATCHING A DEMONSTATION

70% of what we say PARTICIPATING IN DISCUSSION

MAKING A PRESETATION Receiving and

90% of what we Participating

both say PARTICIPATING IN A ROLE PLAY

and do Doing

SIMULATING/PRACTISING THE REAL THING

DOING THE REAL THING

Figure 2. Activity, Involvement and learning

Between the two extremes of "reading" and "doing the real thing" are a number of other ways through
which people learn. As one moves downward from the pinnacle of the cone, increased involvement,
and learning occur.
Principles of learning as applicable to extension work
There are some principles of learning which are very well applicable in extension. These principles
may provide good guidance for making learning in extension effectively. They are-

1. Principle of self-activity: Learning is an active process on the part of the learners. The kind of
learning which takes place is the result of the kind of experience one acquires. The experiences must
be compelling and direct on the part of the learners.

Conducting demonstration by the farmers in their own fields provides opportunity of self-
activity, i. e. learning by doing. This makes learning effective and permanent.

2. Principle of association: New learning may be associated with previous successful and satisfying
responses.

If the farmers have obtained profitable return by the application of nitrogenous fertilizer, they
may be motivated to use balanced fertilizer containing phosphate and potash, for still higher return.

3. Principle of application and transfer: Application of new knowledge to another situation strengthens
learning. Unless knowledge or learning can be applied in a new situation, it remains very much
restricted.

If the farmers have learnt the technique of water management in a particular crop, they should
be able to use this method in other crops as well. This shall spread the effect of learning.

4. Principle of dissatisfaction: For effective learning, undesirable responses are to be eliminated. This
may be done by setting up desirable substitutes which are more satisfying.
When planting a crop in lines gives better yield, the farmers may be advised not to practice
broadcasting.

5. Principle of attitude: An unfavorable attitude retards learning and a favorable attitude accelerates it.
Unless attitude becomes favorable, adoption will not take place.
When farmers develop a favorable attitude towards scientific treatment of cattle, they shall
learn the importance of this type of treatment for animals.

6. Principle of motivation: Motivation means stimulation towards action. Without motivation an

organism does not behave and hence does not learn. The practice recommended must be motivating for
learning to take place.
Favorable experiences of planting trees motivate social forestry farmers to collect saplings from
the forest nursery.

7. Principle of timing: Other things being equal, learning takes place more readily when there is
introduction of a topic or skill at a time when it can be used in some serviceable manner.

Cultivation technologies of winter vegetables should be taught farmers just before starting
winter season rather than summer season.
Laws of Learning as applicable to extension work

The psychologists and educators experimented a lot to find out how people learn. They successfully
identified some means and ways of effective learning which are popularly known as laws of learning.
From the theory and laws it is evident that learning occurs when relationship can be established
between stimulus and response. Below seven laws of learning are discussed most of which have been
adopted from Thorndike’s experiment. Laws of leaning are: i) Law of desire, ii) Law of understanding
the task, Law of exercise, iv) Law of effect, v) law of association, vi) law of understanding of success
and failure, vii) Law of mind-set.

1. Law of Desire: It is also called law of readiness. For effective learning individual must have interest
to learn. Al the same time he must be ready mentally and physically. If he has interests and ready for
learning he will be able to learn with pleasure. That is learning with pleasure will retain for long time.
Thorndike says, ``When an individual is mentally and physically ready to perform an act he gets
pleasure and satisfaction in performing that kind of act. But if he is not ready to learning he will be
annoyed to that kind of learning.’’ This law of learning is very much applicable to adult learning. If
the individual finds possibility of solving his problem (s) by a particular learning definitely he will be
inclined to that learning. It is evident that everybody is not ready to learn everything always.

Implication: Agricultural extension worker teaches farmers modern agricultural technology. The
foremost duty of extension worker is to arouse desire and interest among farmers so that they become
mentally ready to learn certain technology. For example, ribbon retting is an improved method of
striping out of jute fiber. This method has some advantages. If the extension workers can describe the
advantages of ribbon retting of jute fiber perfectly farmers will become interested and ready to learn
this technology with pleasure. A remarkable relationship will be observed between ribbon retting and
farmer’s response.

2. Law of Understanding the Task: The individual learns best if he understands the topic of the
subject and objective of learning. If he has no understanding of the subject and does not know the
objective(s), no relationship will occurs between stimulus and response. As a result the individual will
not be able to learn. So an individual must know what he going to learn and what is the benefit of
learning. Preconception of the topic will expedite individual’s learning capacity.

Implication: IPM is an improved plant protection measure. IMP keeps environment pollution free at
one head and controls harmful insects and pests as well on the other. So it is essential to learn its
application by the farmers. The extension worker has the responsibility to publicize all about IPM so
that farmers understand the subject and its objective(s).

3. Law of Association: learning takes place and lasts long when learners are taught showing compare
as well as contrast between two symmetrical things. Both children and adults like to learn from the
suitable examples. The geography teacher gives a concept of the world saying. `` The world is round as
like as an orange’’ Teacher gives relevant examples in their teaching activities. This law is frequently
used by planners, organizers, and non formal teachers. Farmers are taught attributes of innovation
through result demonstration of new one and old one side by side.
Implication: HYV is characterized by more production. This phenomenon is to be taught to the
farmers in such a way that they can see themselves the differential results of two varieties of a crop –
one is high yielding and other is low yielding. If high yielding and low yielding are cultivated in two
plots side by side under similar condition except the varieties and production of high yielding found
better over the low yielding then it is expected that farmers will learn cultivation practices of high
yielding with pleasure. This learning will retain for a long time. Similarly grafting practices are also
taught in association with carpentry practice like joining two pieces of woods.

4. Law of Effect: This law states that behaviors that followed by pleasant consequences will be
strengthened, and will be more likely to occur in the future. Conversely, behaviors that are followed by
unpleasant consequences will be weakened, and will be less likely to be repeated in the future.

Implication: Follow Class Lecture.

5. Law of Exercise: Exercise reinforces the learning. The learning subject that is practiced repeatedly
can be learned quickly and more or less permanently. This law supported by research affirms that the
topic whether it be acquisition of a bit of knowledge, an understanding or a special skill, will be best
learned and retained when there is opportunity to practice and apply it. More practice more learning. If
the learners practice for a single time there may not be relationships between the learning subject and
the learners’ behavior. Dr. Seaman A. Knapp organizer of Farmers’ Cooperative Demonstration Work
of the USA said, What a man hears he may doubt; what he sees he may also doubt; but what he does
he can never doubt.’’ This indicates practice, practice and practice.

Implication: Grafting is a propagation technique of horticultural crops. To learning grafting technique

an individual has to learn some skills. By method demonstration an extension worker can teach those
skills. By single practice on cannot learn grafting skills. In the learning session he exercises until he
becomes master of it. Moreover, he has to continue its practice off and on. Thus be becomes skilled in
grafting and a strengthened relationship develops between grafting and propagation practices.

6. Law of Knowledge of Success and Failure: Every attempt of learning produces two types of
results – i) success and ii) failure. Learners must know about the outcome of learning. The significance
of this law is the acquiring of such knowledge to get rid of frustration emerging from failure. The
successful learner will be continuing his learning. The unsuccessful learner must take challenge. He
must analyze the whole situation and find out the causes of failure.

Implication: Cultivation of HYV of rice yields more. Farmers know it. When a farmer gets desired
yield he will continue its cultivation until another more yielding rice variety appears. But when he
becomes failure to achieving the desired yield he must find out the causes of failure. There may be
three causes – 1) natural calamity, ii) Lack of skill, and iii) unsuitable land. If farmers can analyze the
situation he can be ready for further learning.

7. Law of mind-set: Follow class lecture

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification
of Learning Objectives, generally known as Bloom’s Taxonomy: They categorized learning objectives
into three broad domains:
a) Cognitive is for mental/intellectual skills (Knowledge)
b) Affective is for growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude)
c) Psychomotor is for manual or physical skills (skills)
During the 1990’s a new group of cognitive psychologist, lead by Lorin Anderson (a former student of
Bloom’s), updated the taxonomy reflecting relevance to 21st century work.
Cognitive (Modified)
a) Recall or Remember: Ability to recall or recognize items of information, ideas etc. Verbs assessing
recall objective includes define, recall, find, write, record, select, match, name, list, underline, draw
etc.

b) Understand or comprehend: Ability to show understanding of ideas, e.g. by expressing ideas in own
words or transposing into alternative forms. Verbs assessing understand objective includes classify,
group, explain, outline, summarize, compare, contrast etc.

c) Apply: Ability to apply knowledge and ideas in order to meet the demands of situations or problems,
which are new to the learner. Verbs assessing apply objective includes predict, demonstrate, compute,
find, discover, solve, modify, convert, operate, perform, contrast, prepare etc.

d) Analyze: Ability to deal with situations where elements have to be analyzed and restructured before
relevant ideas can be applied. Verbs assessing analyze objective includes break down, categorize,
generalize, criticize, differentiate, estimate, determine classify, separate etc.

e) Evaluate: Ability to judge the quality or value of material by reference to appropriate criteria. Verbs
assessing evaluate objective includes argue, criticize, compare, conclude, discriminate, judge, justify,
verify, defend etc.

f) Create: Ability to put ideas together in new ways that reach beyond what has been specifically
taught.

Verbs assessing create objective includes argue, combine, compose, construct, create, design, plan,
formulate, re-arrange, revise etc.

The cognitive area includes cognitive learning arranged from simple to complex. The level of learning
required determines teaching strategies and method of evaluation. Teaching strategies include lecture,
discussion, examples, outlines, question/answer sessions, and acronyms.

AFFECTIVE
a) Receiving: Phenomena like awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.
b) Responding: Phenomena like active participation on the part of the learners.
c) Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomena or behavior.
d) Organization: Organizes values into priorities, emphasis is on comparing, relating and synthesizing
values.
e) Characterization (internalizing values): Has a value system that controls their behavior.
Examples of verbs used for learning objectives include chooses, initiates, justifies, shares, uses,
participates, and follows.
The affective area deals with the expression of feelings/emotions and involves the acceptance of
attitudes, opinions, or values. Teaching strategies include case studies, simulation, role-play, and
discussion.

PSYCHOMOTOR
a) Imitation: Observing and patterning behavior after someone else.
b) Manipulation: Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing.
c) Precision: Refining, becoming more exact.
d) Articulation: Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency.
e) Naturalization: Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about
it.

Examples of verbs used for learning objectives include arranges, assembles, calculates, creates,
demonstrates, measures, and organizes.
Teaching strategies include sequencing of sub-skills, demonstration, lab practice, and clinical practice.
Example of Setting Learning Objectives/Outcomes (LOs):
The Behavioral
The Condition The Criteria
Verb
Upon completion of the instructional describe Two signs of rice stem borer
session, the learner will able to infestation
Upon request, the learner will able to compare Symptoms between rice stem borer
and rice hispa infestation

Teaching – learning process

Teaching is an active process in which one person shares information with others to provide them with
the information to make behavioral changes.
Learning is the process of assimilating information with a resultant change in behavior.
Teaching-learning process is a planned interaction that promotes behavioral change that is not a
result of maturation or coincidence.

Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn.

Steps of Teaching –Learning Process:

1. Assessment:
Assessment of the audience includes:
 Current knowledge base;
 Past work experiences;
 Learning styles;
 Readiness to learn;
 Level of education; and
 Reading level.
Understanding Learning Styles: Learning style is person’s biological and developmental
characteristics that make identical instruction effective for some students and ineffective for others.
A person's individual learning style explains how he/she processes new information:
 Learns it;
 Concentrates on it;
 Understands it; and
 Retains it.
To be effective in the classroom, educators must understand learning style differences among the
learners.
Learning styles involve perceptual strengths and processing styles.
Perceptual Strengths
The 4 major perceptual strengths are:
 Visual people learn by seeing (30% - 40% of learners);
 Auditory people learn by hearing (20% - 30% of learners);
 Tactual people learn by touch (20% - 25% of learners); and
 Kinesthetic people learn by doing whole-body or real-life experiences (20% - 25% of learners).
Selected Teaching Strategies:
 Visual learners prefer seeing new information (overhead transparencies, charts, diagrams,
pictures, videos) and study best with visual aids (flash cards, diagrams, posters).
 Auditory learners prefer hearing new information (lecture, videos) and study best with auditory
aids (tape recordings of lectures, audio resources, reciting concepts out loud.)
 Tactual learners prefer hands-on experience and learn best with manipulative, simulation,
demonstration/ return demonstration. In addition, tactual learners learn by writing important
concepts down several times.
 Kinesthetic learners prefer learning by doing and learn best by role play activities, charades,
skits, and activities involving movement using giant wall charts and flip charts.

Processing Styles
Most people use one of two processing styles to learn:
• Global learner (55% of learners); and
• Analytical learner (28% of learners).
The remaining 17% of learners process information either way and show no preference to style.

Global learners prefer:

 Knowing what they need to know and why they need to know it, then they will
concentrate on details;
 Introductions to training session that capture their attention, such as a funny story, a
short story, a quote, or an illustration;
 Sound while working and soft lights;
 Informal seating, such as sofas or chairs;
 Working on several tasks at one time with breaks in-between;
 Snacking while working on tasks;
  Working alone or with someone in authority;
 Following standard directions; and
 Assignments that use graphs and illustrations to map out new information.

Analytical learners prefer:

 Having information introduced to them step by step, fact by fact, and will listen to facts
as long as they are goal directed;
 Quiet while working and bright lights;
 Formal seating, such as hard chairs and desks;
 Working on a single task at one time, completing it, and then beginning a new one;
 Snacking after completing the task;
 Working with peers;
 Immediate feedback;
 Having copies of assignments, directions, test dates, and objectives written down on
paper and passed out to each student.

Male and Female Preferences:

Women
 Tend to be more auditory;
 Self-motivated;
 Conforming;
 Authority-oriented;
 Are able to sit at a conventional desk with chair with minimal movement; and
 Tend to need a quieter environment.
Men
 Tend to be more visual. tactual, and kinesthetic;
 Need more mobility and have difficulty sitting still for long periods of time in
conventional desks and chairs;
 Prefer a more informal environment;
 Typically are more nonconforming; and
 Are peer-motivated.

2. Planning:
A) Establishing Priorities
Determining teaching priorities allows the educator to organize and rank order his/her responsibilities.
Teaching priorities are derived from the previous assessment and are based on both facility needs and
staff needs.
Other individuals, such as administrators or regulatory representatives, may influence teaching
priorities.
Once the educator determines the top teaching need and establishes the broad idea or topic, he/she can
then continue with the planning phase of the teaching-learning process.
B) Establishing Learning Objectives
C) Choosing Content
The content is the material that the educator will teach and is determined by learning objectives.
Sources for content include in-house data, in-house policy/procedure manuals, resources from
regulatory agencies, textbooks, handbooks, journals, periodicals, the Internet, and experts in the field.
Content should be accurate, current, and adjusted for characteristics of the learner (age, educational
level, employment background, culture, reading level). Time constraints and availability of resources
should also be considered when selecting content.

D) Selecting Teaching Strategies

During planning, the educator selects appropriate teaching methods to deliver content to the learners.

E) Ordering Learning Experiences

When developing a teaching plan, the educator should be attentive to the ordering of behavioral
objectives and the organization of content and learning experiences. Guidelines include the
following:

 Opening remarks should include an example, quote, story, etc., to engage the global learners.
 Begin with information that the learner knows and proceed to information that is unknown.
 Teach basic information first and then proceed to variations or adjustments to the norm.

3. IMPLEMENTATION:
Environment An optimal learning environment includes the following: adequate space to
accommodate the numbers of learners present, comfortable chairs and a table or tables (so the learners
can take notes), adequate lighting free from glare or bright sunshine, comfortable temperature, pleasant
smell, and functioning audio-visual equipment.
Characteristics of an Effective Teacher
• Is interesting and holds the learner’s interest;
• Is optimistic, positive, and non-threatening;
• Presents content that is accurate and current;
• Provides positive reinforcement;
• Uses a variety of teaching strategies to accommodate a variety of learning styles;
• Uses the learning objectives to guide his/her teaching efforts; and
• Uses time and resources wisely.
4. EVALUATION
Teaching:
It is important to have the learner evaluate all aspects of the teaching-learning process. Evaluation
should include consideration of the following – the timing, the teaching strategies, the amount of
information, the environment, and whether the objectives were met.
It is also a good time to determine perceived learning needs of the learners. This information will serve
as valuable input for future teaching activities.

The teacher should use feedback from learner evaluations to modify the present teaching activity and
consider the feedback when developing future teaching activities.
Learning
Learning is measured against the learning objectives selected during the planning phase of teaching-
learning process.
The best method for evaluating whether cognitive learning occurred is by direct observation of
behavior, written tests, oral questioning, and self-reporting.
The best method for evaluating psychomotor skills acquisition is direct observation of performance.

The best method for evaluating whether affective learning occurred is by direct observation of
behavior, oral questioning, and self-reporting.

5. DUCUMENTATION

At a minimum, the following information should be kept for each education session:
• Participant information (for example, name, social security number, etc.);
• Attendance records;
• Contact hours of instruction;
• A syllabus or course outline (that includes objectives); and
• Method of evaluation.