Lecture 6
Engineering Geology & Geo informatics
By Eng. Abdul Manan
Geological classification and
identification of Rocks by geological
names
• Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or
more minerals. Such aggregates constitute the basic unit of which the solid
Earth is composed and typically form recognizable and mappable
volumes.
Geological classification
• Rocks are commonly divided into three major classes according to the
processes that resulted in their formation. These classes are (1) igneous
rocks, which have solidified from molten material called magma; (2)
sedimentary rocks, those consisting of fragments derived from preexisting
rocks or of materials precipitated from solutions; and (3) metamorphic
rocks
Igneous rocks
• Igneous rocks are those that solidify from magma, a molten mixture of
rock-forming minerals and usually volatiles such as gases and steam.
Since their constituent minerals are crystallized from molten material,
igneous rocks are formed at high temperatures. They originate from
processes deep within the Earth—typically at depths of about 50 to 200
kilometres (30 to 120 miles)—in the mid- to lower-crust or in the upper
mantle. Igneous rocks are subdivided into two categories: intrusive
(emplaced in the crust), and extrusive (extruded onto the surface of the
land or ocean bottom), in which case the cooling molten material is called
lava.
Sedimentary rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are those that are deposited and lithified (compacted
and cemented together) at the Earth’s surface, with the assistance of
running water, wind, ice, or living organisms. Most are deposited from the
land surface to the bottoms of lakes, rivers, and oceans. Sedimentary rocks
are generally stratified—i.e., they have layering. Layers may be
distinguished by differences in colour, particle size, type of cement, or
internal arrangement.
Metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are those formed by changes in preexisting rocks
under the influence of high temperature, pressure, and chemically active
solutions. The changes can be chemical (compositional) and physical
(textural) in character. Metamorphic rocks are often formed by processes
deep within the Earth that produce new minerals, textures, and crystal
structures..
Metamorphic rocks
• The recrystallization that takes place does so essentially in the solid state,
rather than by complete remelting, and can be aided by ductile
deformation and the presence of interstitial fluids such as water.
Metamorphism often produces apparent layering, or banding, because of
the segregation of minerals into separate bands. Metamorphic processes
can also occur at the Earth’s surface due to meteorite impact events and
pyrometamorphism taking place near burning coal seams ignited by
lightning strikes.
