LECTURE 2

Atomic, Structure & Bonding

~Dr. Norfhairna Baharulrazi
 Learning Outcome
2.4 Elements in
periodic table

2.1 Atomic
2.2 Structure

2.5 Primary Bonds 2.6 Secondary Bonds

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 Important terms
carbon has three isotopes

6.023 x
One gram 1023
12 Grams
Mole of
of Carbon 12 amu* Carbon
Carbon Atoms

*AMU = atomic mass unit

One gram
Mole of
Nitrogen

-3- Example: Problems 1

 Activity – Part 1a

1. Underline your answer: When the atom lost its

electron, it is (neutral, positive, negative)

2. Based on this figure: 7 and 14 represent

for:
3. Isotopes are_________________
4. Name two elements that have three isotopes. List
down the isotopes of each element.
proper way to
5. Does 1 kmol equivalent to 1 kgmol?
represent element
6. The mass (in g) for 1 gmol of Nitrogen element is:
7. The atomic mass (in amu) for 1 mol of Nitrogen Keep in mind with isotope
element is:
for unit
8. Write down the electronic configurations for Al, Ar,
K and Ca √
conversion

20
need to write
down the atomic
number for each
-4- element also.
 Activity – Part 1b
1. Chemical Periodicity refers to Trends in Properties of the chemical elements. What are
four major properties that can be obtained from the Periodic Table?
2. The size of an atom is measured in terms of its radius; give three different ways how
atomic radius can be defined.
3. What is the meaning of Ionization Energy?
4. What is the meaning of Oxidation Number? What is the oxidation number for Cl, Mg and
H2?
5. Which of the following is true?
a) Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table from
i. left to right and top to bottom in order of increasing atomic number.
ii. left to right and top to bottom in order of decreasing atomic number.
iii. right to left and top to bottom in order of increasing atomic number.
iv. right to left and bottom to top in order of increasing atomic number.
b) From left to right and top to bottom of the Periodic Table,
v. More metallic character
vi. More non-metallic character
vii. Decrease ionization energy
viii. Increase electronegativity
c) Group 6A and 7A have high electron affinities and more
tendency to
i. Lose electrons
ii. Accept electrons

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 Activity – Part 1c

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 Activity – Part 1c

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Periodic Table and Trend
More nonmetallic character

More electron affinity

Highest
Increasing ionization energy Electronegativity

Lowest
Electronegativity Increasing atomic radius

More metallic character

Source: Davis, M. and Davis, R., Fundamentals of Chemical Reaction Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 2003.
 Periodicity Concept Map
Trends in properties of the
Chemical Refer atoms as one moves in various
periodicity to the directions within the periodic
table
Major properties
and trends to
know are
Decreases as atomic size
Increases from
(radius) increases (IA, IIA) Ionization energies
right to left

Metallic element Electronegativities

Higher tendency to
Which are Electron affinities accept / attract
Covalently-bond defined in electron (VIIA, VIIA)
ed atoms different Atomic radii
ways for
Oxidation number
Atoms in ionic give up electron (through ionization) gain electron
solids positive Oxidation negative Oxidation
-9- No. No.
zero in a neutral substance
 Jamboard Question

Dr i dont remember about and dont understand about

spdf, can you explain this one, like how to write the
configuration if the principal quantum numbers is 4
for example?

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 Electronic Structure of Atoms
• Electron Configuration lists the arrangement of electrons in orbital.

Core charge: 12 – 10 = +2

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 MAX ELECTRON IN SHELL

Quantum model predicts model

Aufbau principle
Periodic table fills electron in the orbitals of lowest energy first

Shell Numbers Shell,

Periodic table / electron configuration
n
Number of 1 2
1s 2 Electrons 1s2
Subshell 2 8
1s2 2s2 2p6
3 18
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
4 32
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
Aufbau principle
fills electron in the orbitals of lowest energy first

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6

2 6 10 14

[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6

In practice, g or h or i subshells do not exist

the quantum mechanical model Shell, Subshell Max electron Max electron in
predicts their existence according to n in subshell shell
1 2 1s 2 2
2 8 2s 2 2+6=8
2p 6
3 18 3s 2 2 + 6 +10 = 18
3p 6
3d 10
4 32 4s 2 2 + 6 +10 +14 =
In practice, g or h or i subshells do not exist 4p 6 32
4d 10
4f 14
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6 5 50 5s 5p 5d 5f 32 32 + 18 = 50
5g 18
6 72 6s 6p 6d 6f 6g 50 50 + 22 = 72
6h 22
7 98 6s 6p 6d 6f 6g 6h 72 72 + 26 = 98
7i 26
 Elements in the Periodic Table
• Elements in the Periodic Table can be broadly classified into metals and
nonmetals. Metalloids can behave either as a metal or a nonmetal.

Reactive metals Reactive nonmetals

(metals) (nonmetals)
Metalloids Noble gases
elements in Groups 6A and Certain elements in Groups elements in Groups 8A
elements in Groups 1A and
7A are exclusively 3A, 4A and 5A.
2A (except H). (very stable).
nonmetallic.

intermediate No electronegativity –
low ionization energy high ionization energy electronegativity nonreactive.

Elements that can behave

little to no electron affinity very high electron affinity No high electron affinity
metal or nonmetal

Electropositive: Electronegative: Have complete valence

tendency to lose electrons tendency to accept Boron, Si, Ge (s2 and s2p6 configurations).
and form cation electrons and form anion

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 Relationship
Characteristics Material
of Atom Two or more atoms interact via
properties transferring or sharing electrons that
allow them to form a substance

Ionization energies Type of

bond DRIVING FORCE
Electronegativities
Strength • toachieve stable state (s2 or s2p6
of bond noble-gas electron configuration).
Electron affinities
• potential bonding energy is lowered,
resulting in a more stable state.
Atomic radii
- the attraction of electric dipoles
contained in atoms or molecules.
Oxidation number
(through ionization)

Electronegativity values 🡪 predicting the type of

bonding most likely between two atoms.

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 2.1 Atomic
2.2 Structure

2.4 Elements in
periodic table

Types of bond

2.5 Primary Bonds 2.6 Secondary Bonds

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 Types of Atomic Bond
STRONG
• Primary bonds are chemical bonds and three types of
primary bonds possible between two types of atoms:
- Transfer of oppositely charge particles
• ionic (metal-nonmetal) - Evenly shared electron
• covalent (nonmetal-nonmetal)
- Non directional bonds formation

• metallic (metal-metal)
WEAK

• Secondary bonds are - attraction

physicalbetween
bond.theDo
endsnotof permanent
involve dipoles
- temporary
interaction between outer unequal
electrons. Candistribution
be divided of electron
into: densities.
• permanent dipoles
• ionic
fluctuating > 2.01
dipoles
covalent 0 – 2.00
Ionic Bonding

Example: Problems 4
Forum, jamboard
 Ionic Bond
• Involves electron transfer from metals (1A or
2A) to nonmetals (6A or 7A).
• Metal loses electron 🡪 cation, radius reduces. complete
• Nonmetal gains electron 🡪 anion, radius increases. outer shells Na (2,8,1) Cl (2,8,7)

• Ions are bonded together by electrostatic

(Coulombic) attraction forces.

• Electrostatic forces are nondirectional

Na+
• Solid ionic compounds do not contain
(2,8)
molecules. (Na+ Cl–) Cl– (2,8,8)

• Ionic solid is electrically neutral

Cl
• Packing arrangement in ionic solid 🡪 at Na
–
fixed locations in 3D crystals lattice 🡪 Chapter 3 +

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NaCl
 Ionic Bond and Material Properties
Ionic solids have high melting temperatures.
Size of ion Lattice energy
Reason: Ionic bonds possess large bond energies.
High melting points Ionic charges Lattice energy
(+2 ion > +1 ion)
Ionic solids 🡪 do not conduct electricity.
Electrical conductivity Molten or aqueous state 🡪 conduct electricity
Reason: In the molten or aqueous state ions are free to
move, as opposed to being fixed to their lattice sites like
in ionic solids. Electrical conduction occurs through ionic
diffusion (movement of ions).

Ionic solids are chemically inert (stable)

Chemical Inertness Reason: they are essentially metals that already reacted
with their environment, e.g., alumina (Al2O3) and silica
(SiO).

Hard, rigid or stiff, strong

Mechanical properties
Reason: These properties are due to strong electrostatic
forces holding the ions together.
Brittle 🡪 A large applied force puts like ions against one
another.
Covalent Bonding

ionic > 2.01

covalent 1.01 – 2.00 very polar
0.41 – 1.00 slightly polar
0.00 – 0.40 nonpolar
 Covalent Bond Electron
1s1 Electrons
Pair

• H H
Is a pair of electrons shared between two atoms in a
molecule–called bonding pair or shared pair.
H +H
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Hydrogen
Molecule
atom atom
• Occurs between nonmetals but can also occur in ionic
and metallic solids (leads to mixed bonding)
H H
• Localized sharing of electrons – nonmetal atoms share
outer s and p electrons so that each atom attains noble-gas
configuration.

• Orbital overlap.

• Very strong bond.

• Unlike ionic bonds, covalent bonds are directional Electron-pair

covalent bond
• Most common form of bonding found in nature Bonding interaction–
overlapping electron clouds
• simplest molecule: diatomic hydrogen -23-
• complex: biological materials to synthetic macromolecules
 Covalent Bond
(Example: H2)

① Two H atoms are further apart Separatio

distance

② When two H-atoms approach one other, nucleus of one

H-atom attracts the electron cloud of the other
H-atom. Attraction leads to decrease in energy.

③ As both atoms get closer to each other, their electron

clouds start to interact and overlap (share electrons), both
complete their outer electron structure.
Attraction force = repulsion force and equilibrium point a0
is reached 🡪 reach the lowest state of energy

④ As atoms come much closer, electron-electron and a0 🡪 equilibrium interatomic distance

nucleus-nucleus repulsion become significant. Atoms
repel against each other. Repulsion force increases the The distance between the nuclei when energy
system’s energy is minimum is called bond length.
 Nonpolar vs. Polar Covalent Bond
(Electron distribution)
Polar Covalent Bond
• Significant electronegativity difference
Pure (Nonpolar) Covalent Bond • Unequal sharing of valence electrons between
bonded atoms – the shared electrons lean toward the
• Low or no electronegativity difference more electronegative element (creates a dipole)
• As difference in electronegativity increases, polarity of
• Atoms share the bonding electrons equally. the bond increases, and if the difference is very large,
bond becomes ionic.
• Between atoms of the same element (e.g., diatomic
molecules H2, N2, F2) or atoms of different elements
with similar electronegativities (e.g., C and H in
methane CH4) ionic > 2.01
F2 ∆=0 (nonpolar covale 1.01 – very
covalent) nt 2.00 polar
HBr ∆=0.7 (polar covalent) 0.41 – slightly
1.00 polar
HF ∆=1.9 (highly polar
covalent) 0.00 – nonpolar
0.40
NaF ∆=3.1 (ionic) • For HF, the electron density shift from H to
F.
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 Nonpolar Covalent Bonding – Diatomic Molecules
• Diatomic molecules: Cl2, O2 and N2 share outer p electrons to attain noble-gas configuration.
• bond order: 8 − N, where N = number of outer electrons

Cl2. Outer electrons = 3s2 3p5 O2. Outer electrons = 2s2 2p4 N2. Outer electrons = 2s4 2p3
• N = 7 🡪 Bond order = 1, • N = 4 🡪 Bond order = 2, • N = 5 🡪 Bond order = 3,
• form only one covalent bond • can form two covalent bond • can form three covalent bond
(single bond). (double bond). (triple bond).

XX
E.C.
2,8,7
Cl + Cl O + X
X OX
X
N + N
(2,6) (2,6) (2,5)

Cl Cl OR Cl Cl N N OR N N
XX
2,8 2,8
O = OX OR O=O
X

Shared pair Single bond (2,8) (2,8) 3 pairs of shared N2

of electron
electrons
(Argon configuration) (Neon configuration)
 Bond Length, Bond Order and Bond Energy
• Bond order: number of shared pairs (covalent bonds) formed in a
molecule.

• Bond energy: energy required to overcome the attraction force between

the nuclei and the shared pair of electrons.

• Bond length: the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atom at the
point of minimum energy (equilibrium) in a covalent bond.
Relationship between bond order, bond length and bond
energy:
Bond order higher, bond length decreases; bond energy
increases - because attraction force is strong between
nuclei and multiple shared pairs.

C–C 370 kJ/mol 0.154 nm

C=C 680 kJ/mol 0.13 nm
CΞC 890 kJ/mol 0.12 nm
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Example Problem 5

a. Use a polar arrow to indicate the polarity of each

bond: N–H, F–N, I–Cl.

b. Rank the following bonds in order of increasing

polarity: H–N, H–O, H–C.
 Covalent Bonding in Carbon
• Carbon has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p2
Ground State arrangement
Indicates
carbon
forms two
1s 2s 2p covalent
Two ½ filed 2p orbitals bonds

• Hybridization causes one of the 2s orbitals promoted to 2p orbital.

Result four sp3 orbitals.

Indicates
four sp3 covalent
1s bonds are
sp3 formed
Four ½ filled sp3 orbitals

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 Other sp3 tetrahedral bond
Covalent bonding in carbon
Carbon has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p2
Structure of diamond Structure of methane
• Basis structure: • Basis structure:
1 carbon atom is covalently bonded 1 carbon atom is covalently bonded
with 4 other carbon through sp3 with 4 other hydrogen through sp3
tetrahedral tetrahedral Covalent bond in Benzene
• Network structure: • Network structure: • Alternate single-double bond
arranged in a hexagonal rings
Ordered arrangement of atoms to - No network, only molecular structure
form a massive network of covalent containing C and H (hydrocarbon)
solid.
• Properties:
• Properties: ❑ Strong covalent bonds between

❑ extremely high hardness, atoms

❑ high bond strength (711 kJ/mol) ❑ Weak bond between molecules

❑ high Tm (3550°C). ❑ Low Tm (- 183°C)

 Carbon that forms multiple bonds
• Carbon also forms multiple bonds with itself.

• Double and triple bonds are chemically more

reactive.

• Multiple carbon-carbon bonds in carbon-containing

molecules are referred to as unsaturated bonds.

Addition of ethylene molecules to form polyethylene:

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 Covalent Bonding - summary
• Covalent molecules (gas molecules, liquid molecules, and molecular solids) have low melting and
boiling points. Covalent bonds between atoms in the molecule are very strong and difficult to break;
but the bond between molecules is weak and breaks easily.

• Molecular solids are brittle (like ionic solids). In each molecule, the bonds between the atoms are
strong but the bonds between molecules are usually weak. This makes many molecular solids brittle.

• Covalent network solids typically have high strength, high hardness, and high melting points. Atoms
are continuously connected to each other through covalent bond in a 3-D tetrahedral network.
Diamond melts at 3550°C, quartz melts at 1550°C because of high bond energies of covalent bond.

• Covalent network solids are brittle because the bonds between the atoms are highly directional and
strongly resist motion when the crystal structure is deformed.

• In covalent solids the number of neighbors (packing efficiency) around an atom depend on the bond
order (the number of shared pairs). The number of neighbors cannot exceed four.

• Covalent solids and molecules are poor conductors of electricity both in solid and in molten state,
because electrons are tightly bonded in shared pairs and no ions are available for charge transport.
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Metallic Bonding
Metallic Bonding
Pure metals are Metals have only 1
• Metals are the major elements in the Periodic composed of to 3 valence
Table. identical atoms electrons
• Metallic bond is referred to the attraction force
between positive ion core (metal cations) &
negative electron cloud Not enough number
• Atoms in metals are closely packed in
No electron transfer
between atoms – no of electrons for
three-dimensional crystal structure. sharing to produce
ions
• All atoms contribute their valence octet structure
electrons to form a sea of electrons”.
no electrical
Different from
neutrality
• Valence electrons are delocalized, move freely among covalent bond
restriction.
atoms 🡪 free electrons.
• Metallic cations are not fixed in place Different from Weaker than
• Metallic bonds are non-directional 🡪 valence electrons ionic bond covalent bond.
are mutually shared by many atoms.
 Metallic Bond and Material Properties
Tm of the 4th period metals of the periodic table.

Fewer number of
valence electrons
Higher number of
valence electrons

attraction force
decreases
(between positive on core
& electron cloud)
increases percent of
covalent bonding
More bond
metallic.
. Bond energy
&Tm increase
Tm decrease

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 Metallic Bond and Material Properties
✔ Pure metals
Strength are malleable/ductile 🡪 can be hammered into thin
sheets
soft & deformable than ionic or covalent solids.

✔ Alloys are metal bonds with other different metal

atoms with significantly increased strength

High density
Metal atoms are closely packed in crystal lattice. As a Stress
result, metals have high density.
Electrical conductivity

Pure metals are excellent conductors of electricity

because metals have free electrons. This is impossible
in ionic or covalent solids because their valence electrons
Thermal conductivity are tightly held in place by the nuclei.

Metals are excellent conductors of heat because metal

atoms are closely packed next to each other, thus heat
can be transferred via conduction across the metal rapidly
and efficiently.
 Mixed Bonding
Chemical bonding of ions or atoms can involve more than one type of primary bond.

Ionic-Covalent Metallic-Covalent
Mixed Bonding Mixed Bonding

Most covalent
molecules have • Commonly observed
some degree of ionic in transition metals
bonding, and • Higher Tm than pure
vice-versa. metal bond

The greater the Group 4A: Transition

electronegativity from pure covalent
difference of the Percent ionic character is calculated using Pauling’s equation.
bond in C, to some
elements involved in metallic character in
ionic-covalent mixed Si and Ge, to pure
bond, the more ionic metallic in Sn and
is the bond. Pb.
XA: electronegativities of the atom A
XB: electronegativities of the atom B
Secondary Bonds

1. Fluctuating Dipoles

2. Permanent Dipoles
*also known as VAN DER WAALS BONDS (FORCES).
 Fluctuating vs Permanent Dipoles
(Electron charge distribution - ECD)
Fluctuating Dipoles
Permanent Dipoles
• Very weak attraction forces (noble gases/hydrocarbon)
• Weak attraction forces (noble gases/hydrocarbon)
• ECD constantly changes with time • Permanent dipole does not fluctuate with time.
• Due to symmetrical - asymmetrical distribution creating a • Due to permanent unequal ECD in the molecule
“fluctuating” dipole in that atom. • A permanent dipole bonding is created when molecules
interact with each other.
• A dipole in one atom induces opposite dipoles only when
• Electrostatic (Coulombic) attraction, directional in
close to each other nature
• Weak interatomic nondirectional bonds. • Permanent dipole bonds are important in the bonding
of polar covalent bond molecules such as water and
• Strength of bonds increases with increasing size of various hydrocarbons.
noble-gas atom, because electrons have more freedom
to create stronger dipole moments – higher mp and bp.
Permanent Dipoles Liquefaction of noble gases at high pressures
(Concept Map) and solidification at low temperatures are due
to fluctuating dipole bonds.

Fluctuating vs Permanent Dipoles

• CH4 and CCl4 are symmetrical and have no dipole

• CH3Cl has a permanent dipole
 Hydrogen Bond
• Permanent dipole bond between polar molecules H-Bond in polymer
containing hydrogen.

• Hydrogen bonding occurs when a polar bond (O−H or

N−H) interacts with electronegative atoms O, N, F or
Cl.

• In water molecule, a permanent dipole is created due to

asymmetrical arrangement of H atoms at an angle of
105° with respect to the O atom.

• In hydrogen bonding between water molecules, negative

side of one molecule is attracted by coulombic forces
to positive side of nearby water molecule.

• Strengthening the bonding between polymer

molecular chains.
• In PVC, dipole-dipole interactions are due to the
polarity of the carbon-chlorine bonds. Cl is more
electronegative than C.
 Secondary Bond
• The intermolecular forces in polymers can be affected by dipoles in the monomer units and play
a large part in determining a polymer's properties. These stronger forces typically result in higher
strength and higher melting points.

• Polymers containing amide (N−H) or carbonyl groups (C=O) can form hydrogen bonds
between adjacent chains; the partially positively charged hydrogen atoms in N-H groups of one
chain are strongly attracted to the partially negatively charged oxygen atoms in C=O groups on
another. These strong hydrogen bonds result in the high tensile strength and melting point of
nylons (190-350°C).

• PVC have dipole-dipole bonding between the Cl atoms in C=Cl groups and the hydrogen
atoms in H-C groups. Dipole bonding is not as strong as hydrogen bonding, so PVC’s melting
point and strength (100-260°C) is lower than nylon.

• Ethylene, is symmetrical and has no permanent dipole. Attractive forces between PE chains
arise from weak van der Waals forces. As two polymer chains approach their electron clouds
repel each other. This lowers the electron density on one side of a polymer chain, creating a
slight positive dipole on this side. This charge is enough to attract the second polymer chain.
Van der Waals forces are quite weak, so PE has a lower melting temperature compared to nylon
and PVC.
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Summary: Bonding and Material
Tetrahedron of Structure, Bonding and Material Type

Examples of bonding in materials:

Metals: Metallic
Ceramics: Ionic/ Covalent
Polymers: Covalent and Secondary
Semiconductors: Covalent or Covalent / Ionic
 Summary: Compound, Ion, Molecule
There are two fundamental types of compounds: ionic and molecular.

Ionic compounds are composed of positively and negatively charged ions held together
by electrostatic attractions casually referred to as ‘ionic bonds.’ Molecular compounds
are composed of molecules, which are groups of atoms joined together by pairs of shared
electrons. Solid ionic compounds do not contain molecules. Instead, because opposite
charges attract one another, the ions stack themselves in crystals such that positive ions
are surrounded by negative ions, and vice versa.

An ionic compound has A molecular compound

alternating positively and has discrete groups of
negatively charged particles atoms joined together to
in a pattern that extends in form molecules.
all three dimensions.
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 Summary: Bond Energy & Melting Temperature
Bonding energies and melting temperatures for various substances

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