Introduction to EEE

History of Electrical engineering

Electrical engineers are saddled with a lot of responsibility in today’s world of rapidly advancing
technologies. They are tasked with designing, developing, and testing electrical equipment and systems.
From smartphones to supercomputers, electrical engineers are deeply involved in every step of the
engineering process. But what is electrical engineering?

The definition of electrical engineering is different depending on who you ask. Electrical engineers would
agree that it is the branch of engineering that deals with the technology of electricity, of course, but it is
so much more than that. On a fundamental level, electrical engineers combine the physics and
mathematics of electricity, electromagnetism, and electronics and apply them to information processing
and energy transmission.

The discipline of electrical engineering is young—less than 200 years old—but rapid advances have been
made in such a short time. Developments are being made so quickly that what some considered to be
years away have become reality, giving electrical engineering a fascinating history. How the discipline has
evolved into what it is today may shock you.

Electrical engineering became a profession in the late 19th century. Practitioners had created a
global electric telegraph network and the first electrical engineering institutions to support the new
discipline were founded in the UK and US. Although it is impossible to precisely pinpoint a first electrical
engineer, Francis Ronalds stands ahead of the field, who created a working electric telegraph system in
1816 and documented his vision of how the world could be transformed by electricity. Over 50 years
later, he joined the new Society of Telegraph Engineers (soon to be renamed the Institution of Electrical
Engineers) where he was regarded by other members as the first of their cohort. The donation of his
extensive electrical library was a considerable boon for the fledgling Society.

Development of the scientific basis for electrical engineering, using research techniques, intensified
during the 19th century. Notable developments early in this century include the work of Georg Ohm,
who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric current and potential difference in a
conductor, Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic induction in 1831 In the 1830s, Georg
Ohm also constructed an early electrostatic machine. The homopolar generator was developed first
by Michael Faraday during his memorable experiments in 1831. It was the beginning of modern
dynamos – that is, electrical generators which operate using a magnetic field. The invention of the
industrial generator in 1866 by Werner von Siemens – which did not need external magnetic power –
made a large series of other inventions possible.

Thomas Edison built the world's first large-scale electrical supply network

During this period commercial use of electricity increased dramatically. Starting in the late 1870s cities
started installing large scale electric street lighting systems based on arc lamps. After the development of
a practical incandescent lamp for indoor lighting, Thomas Edison switched on the world's first public
electric supply utility in 1882, using what was considered a relatively safe 110 volts direct current system
to supply customers. Engineering advances in the 1880s, including the invention of the transformer, led
to electric utilities starting to adopting alternating current, up until then used primarily in arc lighting
systems, as a distribution standard for outdoor and indoor lighting (eventually replacing direct current
for such purposes). In the US there was a rivalry, primarily between a Westinghouse AC and the Edison
DC system known as the "war of the currents".

To understand the history of electrical engineering, look first to the history of electricity. Humanity’s
records of the origins of electricity, however, are inadequate at best. Humanity knew about electric eels
and lightning, for example, but how electricity was generated remained out of reach. Although the
history of electricity is full of unknowns, most people agree that Michael Faraday, a British chemist and
physicist, played a large part establishing electrical engineering as a field of study.

The father of electrical engineering: Michael Faraday

Born in 1791, Michael Faraday, did not receive a traditional scientific education. He became an
apprentice to a bookbinder, where he learned about scientific subjects from the books he bound. As he
gained an interest in science, he started to attend scientific lectures. He was especially interested in
electricity, galvanism, and mechanics. Eventually, he attended four lectures given by Humphry Davy,
which marked the start of his scientific career.

In 1814, Faraday travelled throughout Europe with Davy for 18 months, meeting many scientists and
developing his scientific knowledge along the way. Upon his return, he worked on chemical experiments
with Davy for several years before he published his research on electromagnetic rotation, which is the
principle behind the electric motor, in 1821. This moment, perhaps, was the birth of the electrical
engineering discipline.

It took ten long years before Faraday did much more significant work with electricity. In 1831, he
discovered electromagnetic induction, which is the principle behind the electric transformer and
generator. He proved that a magnet could induce an electrical current in a wire, where he converted
mechanical energy into electrical energy. This discovery showed that electricity had enormous potential
for technological development. It didn’t have to be confined to a lab any longer.

Faraday died in 1867, having made many contributions to the world of electricity. His work serves as the
basis for electrical engineering, as the fundamental principles he discovered are still in use today.
Introduction to circuit theory

Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental theories upon which all
branches of electrical engineering are built. Therefore, basic electric circuit theory course is the most
important course for an electrical engineering student.

In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating or transferring energy from one
point to another. To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is
referred to as an electrical circuit, and each component of the circuit is known as an element.

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

Basic electrical circuit

As electrical engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our measurement, however, must be
communicated in a standard language that virtually all professionals can understand, irrespective of the
country where the measurement is conducted. Such an international measurement language is the
International Systems of Units (SI), adopted by the general conference on weights and measures in 1960.
In this system, there are six principal units from which the units of all other physical quantities can be
derived.

Quantities Basic unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Charge Coulomb C
Luminous intensity Candela cd

A major advantage of SI unit is that it uses prefixes based on the power of 10 to relate larger and smaller
units to the basic unit.

Multiplier Prefix Symbol

1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo k
102 hecto h
101 Deka da
10-1 Deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 Milli m
10-6 micro μ
Charge and current

The concept of charge is the underlying principle for explaining all electrical phenomena. The most basic
quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We all experience the effect of electric charge when
we try to remove our wool sweater and have it stick to our body.

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in coulomb.

From physics it is known that all matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atom which
consists of electron, protons and neutrons.

When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a source of EMF), the
charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction while negative charges move in
the opposite direction. The motion of charges creates an electric current.

Electric current is the rate of change of charge, measured in amperes.

Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836), a French mathematician and physicist, laid the foundation of
electrodynamics. He defined the electric current and developed a way to measure it in 1820s.

Born in Lyons, France, Ampere at age 12 mastered Latin in in a few weeks, as he was intensely interested
in mathematics and many of the best mathematical works were in Latin. He was a brilliant scientist and a
prolific writer. He formulated the laws of electromagnetics. He invented the electromagnet and the
ammeter. The unit of electric current, the ampere, was named after him.

Mathematically, the relationship between current i, and charge q, and time t is

dq
i=
dt

where current is measured in amperes (A), and 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

the charge transferred between time to and t is obtained by integrating both sides. Which gives
t
Q=∫ idt ¿
t̥ ¿

There can be several types of current depending on how the charge varying with time.

If current does not change with time, but remains constant, we call it direct current DC.

A common form of time varying current is the sinusoidal current or alternating current AC.

Voltage

To move an electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy transfer. The
work in performed by an external electromotive force EMF, typically represented by a battery. The EMF is
also known as voltage or potential difference. The voltage vab between two points a and b in an electric
circuit is the energy or work needed to a unit charge from a to b.

dw
vab=
dq

where w is the energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs C. The voltage vab or v is measured in volts
V.

1 volt= 1joule/coulomb

Thus,

Potential difference or voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element.

Alessandro Antonio Volta (1745-1827), an Italian physicist, invented the electric battery, which provided
the first continuous flow of electricity and the capacitor.

Born into a noble family in Como Italy, Volta was performing electrical experiments at age 18. His
invention of battery in 1796 revolutionized the use of electricity. The publication of his work in 1800
marked the beginning of electric circuit theory. Volta received many honors during his lifetime. The unit
of voltage or potential difference, the volt, was named in his honour.

Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)

A German physicist, in 1826 experimentally determined the most basic law relating voltage and current
for a resistor. Ohms was initially denied by critics.

Born of humble beginnings in Erlangen, Bavaria, Ohm threw himself into electrical research. His efforts
resulted in his famous law.

Ohms law

The property or ability of a material to resist flow of current is known as resistance and is represented by
symbol R.

The resistance of any material with uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and its length L .

l
Mathematically, R=ρ
A

Where ρ stands for resistivity of the material in ohm-meter, R stands for resistance of the resistor.

Ohms law state that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current I flowing
through the resistor.

v=iR
where R the resistance is the constant of proportionality.

Recognizing electrical engineering as a field of study

Although the study of electricity was originally considered to be a part of physics, electrical engineering
eventually branched into its own discipline. In 1883, the world’s first School of Electrical Engineering was
established at the Technische Universität Darmstadt. Other schools followed suit in providing an
education to budding electrical engineers, and the field continued to expand.

Since electricity was becoming increasingly influential in society, an organization to support those in
electrical professions was formed in 1884. This organization was known as the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers. In 1963, this organization merged with the Institute of Radio Engineers (formed in
1912) to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, which today is the world’s largest
technical professional organization.

What Electrical and Electronics Engineers Do

As an aspiring electrical/electronic engineer, it is important to know/understand what being one entails

and the duties that goes along with it.

The basic duties of an electrical engineer are but not limited to designing, developing, testing, and
supervising the manufacture of electrical equipment’s.

These duties are largely dependent on work environment, area of specialization and other aspects of the
role an electrical engineer involved in.

Responsibilities Electrical Engineer

Electrical engineers play a crucial role in the design, development, and maintenance of electrical systems
and components.

Their responsibilities encompass a wide range of tasks, from conceptualizing electrical systems to
ensuring their safe and efficient operation.

Here are some of the key responsibilities of electrical engineers:

 System Design: Electrical engineers are responsible for designing electrical systems for various
applications, such as power generation, distribution, and control systems. They must consider
factors like voltage, current, load requirements, and safety standards when creating these
designs.
 Circuit Design: They design and analyze electronic circuits for a multitude of purposes, from
simple consumer electronics to complex industrial machinery. This involves selecting appropriate
components like resistors, capacitors, and transistors and ensuring that the circuit meets
performance and safety specifications.

 Testing and Evaluation: Electrical engineers conduct thorough testing and evaluation of
electrical systems and components to ensure they function as intended. This may involve
running simulations, using testing equipment, and performing experiments to verify the
performance and reliability of electrical systems.

 Prototyping: In the product development process, electrical engineers often create prototypes
to test and refine their designs. They work closely with other engineering disciplines to integrate
electrical components into a larger system.

 Troubleshooting and Maintenance: When electrical systems encounter issues or malfunctions,

electrical engineers are responsible for troubleshooting and diagnosing the problems. They use
various tools and techniques to identify and rectify faults, ensuring that systems operate safely
and efficiently.

 Safety Compliance: Electrical engineers must adhere to safety standards and regulations to
prevent accidents and electrical hazards. They ensure that electrical systems and installations
meet local, national, and international safety codes and standards.

 Energy Efficiency: With a growing emphasis on sustainability and energy conservation, electrical
engineers are increasingly tasked with designing energy-efficient systems and recommending
improvements to reduce power consumption and environmental impact.

 Project Management: In many cases, electrical engineers are involved in project management
tasks. They create project plans, allocate resources, manage budgets, and coordinate with other
team members to ensure that projects are completed on time and within budget.

 Documentation: They maintain detailed records and documentation of electrical designs,

schematics, test results, and maintenance procedures. This documentation is crucial for future
reference, compliance, and troubleshooting.

 Research and Development: Electrical engineers often engage in research and development
activities to explore new technologies, materials, and methods that can enhance electrical
systems and components. They stay up-to-date with the latest advancements in their field to
incorporate innovative solutions into their work.

 Collaboration: Collaboration is key in engineering projects. Electrical engineers work closely with
other engineering disciplines, such as mechanical engineers and software engineers, to integrate
electrical systems into complex products and systems.
  Continuous Learning: Given the rapid advancements in technology, electrical engineers must
engage in continuous learning and professional development to stay current with industry trends
and emerging technologies.

In summary, electrical engineers are responsible for designing, testing, troubleshooting, and maintaining
electrical systems to ensure they are safe, efficient, and reliable.

Their work spans various industries and applications, making them indispensable contributors to
technological advancements and infrastructure development.

What are the crucial Electrical engineer skills?

Technical skills (Hard skills)

Technical skills are the foundation of an electrical engineer's ability to design, develop, and maintain
electrical systems and components.

These skills encompass a broad range of knowledge and expertise, covering various aspects of electrical
engineering.

Here are some key technical skills that are essential for electrical engineers:

Circuit Design

Electrical engineers should have a deep understanding of circuit theory and be proficient in designing
electronic circuits. This includes knowledge of components, such as resistors, capacitors, diodes,
transistors, and integrated circuits, and the ability to create schematic diagrams.

Electromagnetic Theory

Understanding electromagnetism is crucial for working with motors, generators, transformers, and
electromagnetic devices. Knowledge of Maxwell's equations and electromagnetic field theory is
essential.

Power Systems

Electrical engineers working in power generation and distribution must be well-versed in power systems
analysis. This includes knowledge of voltage regulation, power factor correction, and the ability to design
and analyze electrical distribution networks.

Digital Electronics

With the increasing prevalence of digital systems, electrical engineers should have expertise in digital
logic design, microcontroller programming, and digital signal processing.

Analog Electronics
Analog circuit design is still critical in various applications. Proficiency in designing analog circuits for
amplification, filtering, and signal conditioning is important.

Control Systems

Understanding control theory and control system design is essential for engineers working on
automation, robotics, and process control systems.

PLC Programming

For those involved in industrial automation, knowledge of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and
ladder logic programming is indispensable.

Instrumentation and Measurement

Electrical engineers should know how to select and use various measurement instruments like
oscilloscopes, multimeters, and spectrum analyzers to troubleshoot and evaluate electrical systems.

Electrical Safety Standards

Familiarity with electrical safety codes and standards, such as the National Electrical Code (NEC), is
essential to ensure that electrical installations comply with safety regulations.

Power Electronics

Engineers working on power conversion and control should have expertise in power electronics,
including knowledge of inverters, converters, and motor drives.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Software

Proficiency in CAD tools like AutoCAD or specialized electrical design software for creating schematics
and PCB layouts is crucial.

Simulation and Modeling

The ability to use software tools like SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) or
MATLAB for simulating and modeling electrical circuits and systems is valuable for design validation.

Programming Languages

Familiarity with programming languages like C/C++ and Python can be beneficial for developing control
algorithms, data analysis, and automation scripting.

Renewable Energy Systems

Knowledge of renewable energy systems, such as solar and wind power, is increasingly important as
sustainable energy sources gain prominence.
Communication and Networking

Understanding communication protocols and network systems is necessary for engineers working on IoT
(Internet of Things) devices and smart systems.

Technical Writing and Documentation

The ability to effectively communicate through technical documentation, reports, and presentations is
essential for conveying design concepts and project progress.

Troubleshooting Skills

Electrical engineers must have strong troubleshooting skills to diagnose and resolve electrical system
issues efficiently.

Project Management

Some electrical engineers take on project management roles, requiring skills in project planning,
resource management, and budgeting.

Soft skills

While technical skills are vital for electrical engineers, soft skills are equally important in ensuring their
success in the field.

These interpersonal and personal attributes enable engineers to effectively communicate, collaborate,
and adapt to various situations.

Here are some critical soft skills for electrical engineers:

Communication Skills

Effective communication is fundamental in electrical engineering. Engineers must be able to explain

complex technical concepts clearly and concisely, whether they are discussing designs with colleagues,
presenting findings to clients, or documenting their work.

Problem-Solving Ability

Electrical engineers frequently encounter complex technical challenges. The ability to approach
problems analytically, break them down into manageable components, and develop innovative solutions
is crucial.

Teamwork and Collaboration

Many engineering projects involve interdisciplinary teams. Electrical engineers must work well with
colleagues from various backgrounds, contributing their expertise while respecting the input of others.

Adaptability

The field of electrical engineering is dynamic, with technology constantly evolving. Engineers need to
adapt to new tools, techniques, and methodologies as they emerge.

Attention to Detail

Small errors in electrical designs or calculations can have significant consequences. Being meticulous and
paying attention to detail is essential to ensure the accuracy and reliability of electrical systems.

Time Management

Electrical engineers often work on multiple projects with tight deadlines. Effective time management
skills are necessary to prioritize tasks, meet project milestones, and deliver results on time.

Critical Thinking

Electrical engineers must be able to think critically and make informed decisions based on data and
analysis. This skill is particularly valuable when troubleshooting complex electrical systems.

Creativity and Innovation

While there are established principles in electrical engineering, creativity and innovation are essential for
developing new solutions to unique/different challenges.

Customer Focus

Engineers often work on projects that directly impact customers or clients. Understanding and
prioritizing the needs and expectations of end-users is important for delivering successful solutions.

Ethical Conduct

Electrical engineers are responsible for designing safe and reliable systems. Upholding ethical standards
and ensuring compliance with industry regulations and safety codes is paramount.

Presentation Skills

Engineers often need to present their findings, designs, and recommendations to both technical and
non-technical audiences. Strong presentation skills help convey complex information effectively.
Leadership Potential

As engineers gain experience, they may take on leadership roles within their teams or organizations.
Leadership skills, including the ability to inspire and motivate others, are increasingly important.

Networking

Building professional relationships with colleagues, mentors, and industry peers can open doors to new
opportunities, knowledge sharing, and career advancement.

Listening Skills

Actively listening to colleagues, clients, and team members is crucial for understanding requirements
and addressing concerns effectively.

Continuous Learning

The field of electrical engineering evolves rapidly. A commitment to lifelong learning and staying updated
with industry trends and emerging technologies is essential.

In conclusion, soft skills of electrical engineers enable them to collaborate effectively, solve complex
problems, and navigate the dynamic and interdisciplinary nature of their profession.

Developing and nurturing these soft skills can enhance an electrical engineer's career prospects and
contribute to their overall effectiveness in the field.

Electrical Engineering courses

Becoming a successful electrical engineer requires a strong educational foundation.

To help aspiring electrical engineers plan their education, I'll outline a detailed course roadmap from
undergraduate to postgraduate studies.

Please note that specific course offerings may vary by institution, so it's important to research and
choose programs that align with your career goals and interests.

Undergraduate Level

 Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical Engineering (BENG):

Duration: Typically, 5 years

  This is the starting point for a career in electrical engineering. During your undergraduate
studies, you'll cover fundamental concepts and gain a broad understanding of electrical
engineering principles. Courses may include:

 Circuit Analysis

 Electronics

 Digital Logic Design

 Electromagnetics

 Signals and Systems

 Electric Machines

 Power Systems

 Control Systems

 Microprocessors and Microcontrollers

 Electric Circuits Lab

 Electronics Lab

 Mathematics and Physics:

Strong foundations in mathematics (calculus, linear algebra, differential equations) and physics
are essential for electrical engineering. These subjects will be integrated into your core courses.

 Computer Programming:
Learning programming languages like C/C++ and Python will be valuable for control systems,
embedded systems, and data analysis.

 Laboratory Experience:
Hands-on laboratory work is crucial for applying theoretical knowledge and developing practical
skills.

 Technical Electives:
Many programs offer elective courses that allow you to specialize in areas like power systems,
communications, electronics, or robotics.

Internships

Consider participating in internships with engineering firms or companies to gain real-world experience
and build industry connections.

Postgraduate Level (Optional):

  Masters in Electrical Engineering (MENG):
Duration: Typically, 2 years (18 months in FUOYE)

A master's degree can provide deeper specialization and research opportunities. Courses may include
advanced topics like advanced electronics, power electronics, advanced control systems, and advanced
electromagnetics.

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Electrical Engineering:

Duration: Approximately 4-6 years

Pursuing a Ph.D. allows you to conduct advanced research in a specific area of electrical engineering. You
will complete a dissertation and contribute to the field's body of knowledge.

Work Environment

Electrical and electronics engineers work in industries including research and development, engineering
services, manufacturing, telecommunications, and the federal government. Electrical and electronics
engineers generally work indoors in offices. However, they may have to visit sites to observe a problem
or a piece of complex equipment.

Advancements in electrical engineering

Great advancements have been made in electrical engineering since the School of Electrical Engineering
was established in Darmstadt. Since then, radar, smartphones, and computers have all been invented.

Vast improvements in electronic technologies have also been made, like with the television. When they
were invented in the 1920s, televisions had small screens, could only show images in black and white,
and only the wealthy could afford them. Today, television screens are massive. They can show lush colors
in stunning resolution and are more affordable than ever.

Other major advancements in electrical engineering include Wi-Fi, lasers, microwave ovens, and smart
home products. Electrical engineering has come a long way.

The world would cease to function as it does today without electrical engineers. Global positioning
systems are a great example of their contributions. Electrical engineers helped to develop the
components for these systems and make them resilient enough to withstand years of use. Without their
contributions, your smartphone wouldn’t know your location, and you couldn’t track the location of your
Jumia packages. The next time you use anything electronic, be sure to thank an electrical engineer.
Recent innovations in electrical engineering

Electrical engineering is a constantly evolving field, and continues to produce incredibly innovative
products. Being able to check the contents of a refrigerator while on vacation? Boots that can provide
workers with alerts of unsafe environmental conditions? Having food delivered by drone? What were
dreams a decade ago are now realities.

The discipline will continue to evolve at a breakneck pace. Processing power will continue to improve,
allowing for smaller, faster, more innovative devices to be produced. Moore’s Law, which states that the
number of transistors that can be packed onto a microchip doubles every two years, allows for
processing power to grow exponentially. Microchips that could host fewer than 100,000 transistors in
the 1970s can today host more than 50 billion.

Whenever someone drives an electric car, tracks their fitness on a smartwatch, or controls home systems
through a smartphone app, they’re witnessing the impact of electrical engineering. This discipline drives
technological innovations that propel society forward.

Industries driven by innovation present significant growth opportunities for electrical engineers. Sectors
like electric vehicles, smart grids, robotics, and consumer electronics are expected to witness sales
growth of over 10% annually in the next decade.

Understanding the industry’s future is critical for today’s electrical engineering students. Exploring
emerging technologies helps students align their studies and career goals with the evolving demands of
the field.

Here are four trends that are rapidly redefining the electrical engineering field:

Electrical Engineering Trends

The Rise of Wide Bandgap Semiconductors

One of the most significant trends in electrical engineering revolves around the increasing prominence of
wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductors. These materials, such as silicon carbide and gallium nitride, boast
superior properties compared to traditional silicon. WBG semiconductors offer higher operating
temperatures, improved efficiency, and greater power density, making them ideal for various
applications.

The automotive industry is a prime example of this trend. WBG semiconductors are playing a pivotal role
in developing next-generation electric vehicles. Their ability to handle higher voltages and currents
translates to more efficient power electronics, leading to longer driving ranges and faster charging times
for electric vehicles.

Additionally, WBG semiconductors are finding applications in renewable energy systems, smart grids,
and industrial automation, contributing to a more sustainable and efficient future.

The Symbiotic Relationship Between AI and Electrical Engineering

Another exciting trend involves the burgeoning relationship between artificial intelligence (AI) and
electrical engineering.

AI algorithms are revolutionizing the way electrical systems are designed, optimized, and controlled.
Predictive maintenance, for instance, utilizes AI to analyze sensor data from electrical equipment,
anticipating potential failures before they occur. This not only minimizes downtime and maintenance
costs but also enhances overall system reliability.

Furthermore, AI is being used to design more sophisticated power electronics that can dynamically
adjust to changing loads and grid conditions. This intelligent approach to power management is crucial
for integrating renewable energy sources like solar and wind into the grid, which inherently have variable
outputs.

As AI and electrical engineering continue to converge, we can expect to see the emergence of even more
intelligent and efficient electrical systems across various industries.

The Bio-convergence Revolution

The field of electrical engineering is increasingly intersecting with the world of biology, giving rise to the
exciting area of bio-convergence.
This interdisciplinary approach combines electrical engineering principles with biological knowledge to
develop innovative healthcare solutions. Electrical engineers play a critical role in the design and
development of biocompatible medical devices such as prosthetic limbs, artificial organs, and
biosensors.

For instance, recent advancements have led to the creation of biocompatible brain-computer interfaces
that allow paralyzed individuals to control external devices using their thoughts. Additionally, electrical
engineers are developing implantable biosensors that can continuously monitor vital signs and detect
potential health issues early on.

As bio-convergence matures, it holds immense promise for revolutionizing healthcare, improving patient
outcomes, and creating a future where technology seamlessly augments biological functions.

The Growing Focus on Cybersecurity in Electrical Systems

As electrical systems become increasingly interconnected and complex, the potential for cyberattacks
grows ever more significant. Electrical grids, communication networks, and industrial control systems are
all vulnerable to cyberattacks that could cause widespread disruption and pose safety risks. This has led
to a growing emphasis on cybersecurity in electrical engineering.

Electrical engineers are now tasked with designing and implementing security measures into electrical
systems. This includes measures like encryption, access control, and vulnerability assessments.
Additionally, there’s a growing need for electrical engineers with expertise in cyber-physical security,
which focuses on protecting the physical and digital aspects of electrical systems.

As the threat landscape evolves, electrical engineers will play a crucial role in safeguarding critical
infrastructure from cyberattacks.

Professional registration (IEEE, COREN, NSE, IET)

IEEE (Institute of electrical and electronics engineering): is an American 501 professional association for
electrical engineering, electronics engineering, and other related disciplines. The IEEE has a corporate
office in New York City and an operations center in Piscataway, New Jersey.

COREN (Council for the registration of engineering in Nigeria): is a federal government body established
by law and empowered to regulate and control the practice of engineering profession in all its aspects
and ramifications.

NSE (Nigerian society of engineers): NSE is an umbrella organization of engineering in Nigeria and a non-
governmental organization.

The Two Types of Electronic Devices

Electronic elements that make up a circuit are connected together by conductors to form a complete
circuit.
  Active components

 Passive components

Active Components

An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a circuit.

Common examples of active components include:

 Voltage sources

 Current sources

 Generators (such as alternators and DC generators)

 All different types of transistors (such as bipolar junction transistors, MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET)

 Diodes (such as Zener diodes, photodiodes, Schottky diodes, and LEDs)

Voltage Sources

A voltage source is an example of an active component in a circuit. When current leaves from the
positive terminal of the voltage source, energy is being supplied to the circuit. As per the definition of an
active element, a battery can also be considered as an active element, as it continuously delivers energy
to the circuit during discharging.

Current Sources

A current source is also considered an active component. The current supplied to the circuit by an ideal
current source is independent of circuit voltage. As a current source is controlling the flow of charge in a
circuit, it is classified as an active element.

Transistors

Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source – transistors are also an active circuit component.
This is because transistors are able to amplify the power of a signal.

Passive Components

A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it can either
dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field. Passive elements do not need any
form of electrical power to operate.

As the name ‘passive’ suggests – passive devices do not provide gain or amplification. Passive
components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an electrical signal.

Common examples of passive components include:

  Resistors

 Inductors

 Capacitors

 Transformers

Resistors

A resistor is taken as a passive element since it cannot deliver any energy to a circuit. Instead, resistors
can only receive energy which they can dissipate as heat as long as current flows through it.

Inductors

An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store energy in it as a
magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to the circuit, but not in continuous basis. The energy
absorbing and delivering capacity of an inductor is limited and transient in nature. That is why an
inductor is taken as a passive element of a circuit.

Capacitors

A capacitor is considered as a passive element because it can store energy in it as electric field. The
energy dealing capacity of a capacitor is limited and transient – it is not actually supplying energy; it is
storing it for later use.

As such it is not considered an active component since no energy is being supplied or amplified.

Transformers

A transformer is also a passive electronic component. Although this can seem surprising since
transformers are often used to raise voltage levels – remember that power is kept constant.

When transformers step up (or step down) voltage, power and energy remain the same on the primary
and secondary side. As energy is not actually being amplified – a transformer is classified as a passive
element.

Transformer typers: transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution
sector, transmission and electric energy consumption.

Transformers are classified based on the following factors:

 Working voltage range

 Medium used in the core
  Installation location
 Winding arrangement

Based voltage levels

Step up Transformers: they are used between the power generator and the power grid. The secondary
output voltage is higher than the input voltage.

Step down Transformer: these transformers are used to convert high voltage primary supply to low
voltage secondary output.

Based on location

Power Transformers: it is used at power generation stations, as they are suitable for high voltage
application.

Distribution Transformers: it is mostly used at distribution lanes for domestic purposes. They are
designed for carrying low voltages. It is easy to characterize by low magnetic losses.

Measurement Transformers: they are mainly used for measuring voltage, current and power.

Protection Transformers: they are used for component protection purposes. In circuits, some
components must be protected from voltage fluctuation.

Transformers work on the principle of faradays law of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Image

There are usually two core coils – primary and secondary coil on the transformer core. The two coils
have high mutual inductance. When alternating current passes through the primary coil, it creates a
varying magnetic flux. As per faradays law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux
induces an EMF in secondary coil, which is linked to the core having a primary coil. This mutual
induction.

A transformer carries out the following operations:

 Transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another

 Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
 Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
 Two circuit are linked with mutual inductance

Resistor Colour Code

Resistors are usually very tiny, and it is challenging to print resistance values on them. So, colour bands
are printed on them to represent the electrical resistance. These colour bands are known as resistor
colour codes. The resistor colour code was invented in the 1920s by the Radio Manufacturers Association
(RMA).

All leaded resistors with a power rating up to one watt are marked with colour bands. They are given by
several bands and together they specify the resistance value, the tolerance rate and sometimes the
reliability or failure rates. The number of bands present in a resistor varies from three to six. The first
two bands indicate the resistance value and the third band serves as a multiplier.

Resistor Colour Table

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1
Brown 1 10 ± 1%
Red 2 100 ± 2%
Orange 3 1000
Yellow 4 10,000
Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%
Blue 6 1,00,000 ± 0.25%
Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%
Grey 8 ± 0.05%
White 9
Gold 0.1 ± 5%
Silver 0.01 ± 10%

How to Read Resistor Colour Code?

 To read them, hold the resistor such that the tolerance band is on your right. The tolerance band
is usually gold or silver in colour and is placed a little further away from the other bands.

 Starting from your left, note down all the colours of the bands and write them down in
sequence.

 Next, use the table given below to see which digits they represent.

 The band just next to the tolerance band is the multiplier band. So, if the colour of this band is
Red (representing 2), the value given is 102.

 After learning about resistance colour codes, let us learn how to find resistor colour codes with
an example. Here’s an example to get you started:
  The band colours for resistor colour code in the order:
Band colours in order Red Red Black Gold
Digits representation 2 2 1 ± 5%
Value 22 Ω ±5 %

 The tolerance values represent by how much the resistance can vary from its mean value in
terms of percentage. A gold band represents the lowest variation, so be sure to buy these at the
electronics store. The value of the given resistance is: 22 Ω ± 5%. The tolerance of the resistor
can be calculated as follows:
 Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band
 = 22 Ω × 5% = 1.1 Ω
 This means that the 22 Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 1.1 Ω could range from the actual
value as much as 23.1 Ω to as little as 20.9 Ω. It is important to note that the band next to the
tolerance band represents the multiplier. All the bands to the left of this band represent
the significant digits. There can be more than two such bands.

AC & DC signal parameters

AC, DC and Electrical Signals AC means Alternating Current and DC means Direct Current. AC and DC are
also used when referring to voltages and electrical signals which are not currents! For example: a 12V AC
power supply has an alternating voltage (which will make an alternating current flow). An electrical
signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a voltage. The term can be
used for any voltage or current in a circuit.

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the other way, continually reversing direction.

An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-).

The rate of changing direction is called the frequency of the AC and it is measured in hertz (Hz) which is
the number of forwards-backwards cycles per second.

Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of 50Hz. See below for more details of signal properties. An
AC supply is suitable for powering some devices such as lamps and heaters but almost all electronic
circuits require a steady DC supply (see below).

Direct Current (DC)

Direct Current (DC) always flows in the same direction, but it may increase and decrease.

A DC voltage is always positive (or always negative), but it may increase and decrease.

Electronic circuits normally require a steady DC supply which is constant at one value or a smooth DC
supply which has a small variation called ripple.

Cells, batteries and regulated power supplies provide steady DC which is ideal for electronic circuits.
Power supplies contain a transformer which converts the mains AC supply to a safe low voltage AC.

Then the AC is converted to DC by a bridge rectifier but the output is varying DC which is unsuitable for
electronic circuits.

Some power supplies include a capacitor to provide smooth DC which is suitable for less-sensitive
electronic circuits.

Lamps, heaters and motors will work with any DC supply.

Properties of electrical signals
An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a voltage. The
term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.

The voltage-time graph on the right shows various properties of an electrical signal. In addition to the
properties labelled on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The
diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape.

• Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts, V. • Peak voltage is
another name for amplitude. • Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading
an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.

• Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is measured in seconds (s), but
time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s
and 1µs = 0.000001s.

• Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be
high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz. 1 1
frequency = time period and time period = frequency

• Mains electricity in the Nigeria has a frequency of 50Hz, so it has a time period of 1 /50 = 0.02s = 20ms.

Root Mean Square (RMS) Values

The value of an AC voltage is continually changing from zero up to the positive peak, through zero to the
negative peak and back to zero again. Clearly for most of the time it is less than the peak voltage, so this
is not a good measure of its real effect.

Instead, we use the root mean square voltage (VRMS) which is 0.7 of the peak voltage (Vpeak):

VRMS = 0.7 × Vpeak and Vpeak = 1.4 × VRMS

These equations also apply to current. They are only true for sine waves (the most common type of AC)
because the 0.7 and 1.4 are different 4 values for other shapes.
The RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the equivalent steady DC
(constant) value which gives the same effect. For example, a lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will
light with the same brightness when connected to a steady 6V DC supply.

However, the lamp will be dimmer if connected to a 6V peak AC supply because the RMS value of this is
only 4.2V (it is equivalent to a steady 4.2V DC). You may find it helps to think of the RMS value as a sort
of average, but please remember that it is NOT really the average.

In fact, the average voltage (or current) of an AC signal is zero because the positive and negative parts
exactly cancel out.