SEM I

Unit I: Indian Philosophy

Introduction:
India has a rich and diverse philosophical tradition dating back to the composition of the
Upanishads in the later Vedic period. According to Radhakrishnan, the oldest of these constitute "
the earliest philosophical compositions of the world."
Indian philosophy, the systems of thought and reflection that were developed by the
civilizations of the Indian subcontinent. They include both orthodox (astika) systems, namely, the
Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), and Vedanta schools of
philosophy, and unorthodox (nastika) systems, such as Buddhism and Jainism. Indian thought has
been concerned with various philosophical problems, significant among which are the nature of the
world (cosmology), the nature of reality (metaphysics), logic, the nature of knowledge
(epistemology), ethics, and the philosophy of religion.
Since the late medieval age (ca.1000-1500) various schools (Skt: Darshanas) of Indian
philosophy are identified as orthodox (Skt: astika) or non-orthodox (Skt: nastika) depending on
whether they regard the Veda as an infallible source of knowledge. There are six schools of
orthodox Hindu philosophy and three heterodox schools. The orthodox are Nyaya, Vaisesika,
Samkhya, Yoga, Purva mimamsa and Vedanta. The Heterodox are Jain, Buddhist and materialist
(Cārvāka). However, Vidyāraṇya classifies Indian philosophy into sixteen schools where he
includes schools belonging to Saiva and Raseśvara thought with others.
The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised chiefly between 1000 BC to the
early centuries AD. Subsequent centuries produced commentaries and reformulations continuing
up to as late as the 20th century by Aurobindo and Prabhupada among others. Competition and
integration between the various schools was intense during their formative years, especially
between 800 BC to 200 AD. Some like the Jain, Buddhist, Shaiva and Advaita schools survived,
while others like Samkhya and Ajivika did not, either being assimilated or going extinct. The
Sanskrit term for "philosopher" is dārśanika, one who is familiar with the systems of philosophy, or
darśanas.
General considerations
Significance of Indian philosophies in the history of philosophy
In relation to Western philosophical thought, Indian philosophy offers both surprising
points of affinity and illuminating differences. The differences highlight certain fundamentally new
questions that the Indian philosophers asked. The similarities reveal that, even when philosophers
in India and the West were grappling with the same problems and sometimes even suggesting
similar theories, Indian thinkers were advancing novel formulations and argumentations. Problems
that the Indian philosophers raised for consideration, but that their Western counterparts never did,
include such matters as the origin (utpatti) and apprehension (jnapti) of truth (pramanya). Problems
that the Indian philosophers for the most part ignored but that helped shape Western philosophy
include the question of whether knowledge arises from experience or from reason and distinctions
such as that between analytic and synthetic judgments or between contingent and necessary truths.
Indian thought, therefore, provides the historian of Western philosophy with a point of view that
may supplement that gained from Western thought. A study of Indian thought, then, reveals certain
inadequacies of Western philosophical thought and makes clear that some concepts and distinctions
may not be as inevitable as they may otherwise seem. In a similar manner, knowledge of Western
thought gained by Indian philosophers has also been advantageous to them.
Vedic hymns, Hindu scriptures dating from the 2nd millennium bce, are the oldest extant
record from India of the process by which the human mind makes its gods and of the deep
psychological processes of mythmaking leading to profound cosmological concepts. The
Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts) contain one of the first conceptions of a universal, all-
pervading, spiritual reality leading to a radical monism (absolute nondualism, or the essential unity
of matter and spirit). The Upanishads also contain early speculations by Indian philosophers about
nature, life, mind, and the human body, not to speak of ethics and social philosophy. The classical,
or orthodox, systems (darshanas) debate, sometimes with penetrating insight and often with a
degree of repetition that can become tiresome to some, such matters as the status of the finite
individual; the distinction as well as the relation between the body, mind, and the self; the nature of
knowledge and the types of valid knowledge; the nature and origin of truth; the types of entities
that may be said to exist; the relation of realism to idealism; the problem of whether universals or
relations are basic; and the very important problem of moksha, or liberation (literally ―release‖)—
its nature and the paths leading up to it.
Common themes
The Indian thinkers of antiquity (very much like those of the Hellenistic schools) viewed
philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can
best be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical
works how it serves human ends (puruṣārtha). Recent scholarship has shown that there was a great
deal of intercourse between Greek and Indian philosophy during the era of Hellenistic expansion.
Indian philosophy is distinctive in its application of analytical rigour to metaphysical problems and
goes into very precise detail about the nature of reality, the structure and function of the human
psyche and how the relationship between the two have important implications for human salvation
(moksha). Rishis centred philosophy on an assumption that there is a unitary underlying order
(RTA) in the universe which is all pervasive and omniscient. The efforts by various schools were
concentrated on explaining this order and the metaphysical entity at its source (Brahman). The
concept of natural law (Dharma) provided a basis for understanding questions of how life on earth
should be lived. The sages urged humans to discern this order and to live their lives in accordance
with it.
Schools
Hindu philosophy
Many Hindu intellectual traditions were classified during the medieval period of
BrahmanicSanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox (astika) schools (darshanas),
the "Six Philosophies" (ṣad-darśana), all of which accept the testimony of the Vedas.
Samkhya, the enumeration school
• Yoga, the school of Patanjali (which provisionally asserts the metaphysics of Samkhya)
• Nyaya, the school of logic
• Vaisheshika, the atomist school
• Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa), the tradition of Vedic exegesis, with emphasis on
Vedic ritual, and
• Vedanta (also called Uttara Mimamsa), the Upanishadic tradition, with emphasis on Vedic
philosophy.
These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons:
NyayaVaishesika, Samkhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-Vedanta. The Vedanta school is further divided
into six sub-schools: Advaita (monism/nondualism), also includes the concept of Ajativada,
Visishtadvaita (monism of the qualified whole), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita
(dualismnondualism), Suddhadvaita, and Achintya Bheda Abheda schools. Besides these schools
Mādhava Vidyāraṇya also includes the following of the aforementioned theistic philosophies based
on the Agamas and Tantras:
Pasupata, school of Shaivism by Nakulisa
• Saiva, the theistic Sankhya school
• Pratyabhijña, the recognitive school
• Raseśvara, the mercurial school
• Pāṇini Darśana, the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of Sphoṭa)
The systems mentioned here are not the only orthodox systems, they are the chief ones, and
there are other orthodox schools. These systems, accept the authority of Vedas and are regarded as
"orthodox" (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy; besides these, schools that do not accept the
authority of the Vedas are categorised by Brahmins as unorthodox (nastika) systems. Chief among
the latter category are Buddhism, Jainism and Cārvāka.
• Cārvāka is a materialistic and atheistic school of thought and, is noteworthy as evidence of
a materialistic movement within Hinduism.
Jain philosophy
Jainism came into formal being after Mahavira synthesised philosophies and promulgations
of the ancient Sramana philosophy, during the period around 550 BC, in the region that is present
day Bihar in northern India. This period marked an ideological renaissance, in which the Vedic
dominance was challenged by various groups like Jainism and Buddhism.
A Jain is a follower of Jinas, spiritual 'victors' (Jina is Sanskrit for 'victor'), human beings
who have rediscovered the dharma, become fully liberated and taught the spiritual path for the
benefit of beings. Jains follow the teachings of 24 special Jinas who are known as Tirthankars
('fordbuilders'). The 24th and most recent Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, lived in c.6th century BC, in
a period of Cultural Revolution all over the world. During this period, Socrates was born in Greece,
Zoroaster in Iran, Lao Tse and Confucious in China and Mahavira and Buddha in India. The 23rd
Thirthankar of Jains, Lord Parsvanatha is recognised now as a historical person, lived during 872 to
772 BC... Jaina tradition is unanimous in making Rishabha, as the First Tirthankar.
Jainism is not considered as a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism). Even as there is
constitutional ambiguity over its status. Jain tirthankars find exclusive mention in the Vedas and
the Hindu epics. During the Vedantic age, India had two broad philosophical streams of thought:
The Shramana philosophical schools, represented by Buddhism, Jainism, and the long defunct and
Ajivika on one hand, and the Brahmana/Vedantic/Puranic schools represented by Vedanta,
Vaishnava and other movements on the other. Both streams are known to have mutually influenced
each other.
The Hindu scholar Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism in the area
of the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as
the originator of Ahimsa and wrote in a letter printed in Bombay Samachar, Mumbai: 10 Dec 1904:
"In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is
found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta. But the credit for the disappearance
of this terrible massacre from the Brahminical religion goes to Jainism." Swami Vivekananda also
credited Jainsim as one of the influencing forces behind the Indian culture.
One of the main characteristics of Jain belief is the emphasis on the immediate
consequences of one's physical and mental behaviour. Because Jains believe that everything is in
some sense alive with many living beings possessing a soul, great care and awareness is required in
going about one's business in the world. Jainism is a religious tradition in which all life is
considered to be worthy of respect and Jain teaching emphasises this equality of all life advocating
the non- harming of even the smallest creatures. Non-violence (Ahimsa) is the basis of right View,
the condition of right Knowledge and the kernel of right Conduct in Jainism.
Jainism encourages spiritual independence (in the sense of relying on and cultivating one's
own personal wisdom) and self-control (vratae) which is considered vital for one's spiritual
development. The goal, as with other Indian religions, is moksha which in Jainism is realisation of
the soul's true nature, a condition of omniscience (Kevala Jnana). Anekantavada is one of the
principles of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and
that no single point of view is completely true. Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis, those who
have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only know a part of
the answer. Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism.
Buddhist philosophy
Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a
prince later known as the Buddha, or "awakened one". From its inception, Buddhism has had a
strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu
philosophical concepts. The Buddha criticised all concepts of metaphysical being and non-being as
misleading views caused by reification, and this critique is inextricable from the founding of
Buddhism.
Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in
karma, a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done.
Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. A major departure from Hindu
and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent, self-existent soul (atman) in favour of
anatta (non-Self) and anicca (impermanence).
Jain thinkers rejected this view, opining that if no continuing soul could be accepted then
even the effort to attain any worldly objective would be useless, as the individual acting and the
one receiving the consequences would be different. Therefore, the conviction in individuals that the
doer is also the reaper of consequences establishes the existence of a continuing soul.
Cārvāka philosophy
Cārvāka or Lokāyata was a philosophy of scepticism and materialism, founded in the
Mauryan period. They were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Cārvāka
deemed Vedas to be tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology. And in
contrast to Buddhists and Jains, they mocked the concept of liberation, reincarnation and
accumulation of merit or demerit through the performance of certain actions. They believed that,
the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the "reasoning of fools". Cārvāka thought
consciousness was an emanation from the body and it ended with the destruction of the body. They
used quotes from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad to support this claim. Cārvāka denied inference as a
means of knowledge and held sensory indulgence as the final objective of life.
Cārvāka held the view that Invariable Concomitance (vyapti), a theory of Indian logic
which refers to the relation between middle term and major term freed from all conditions, could
not be ascertained. However, Buddhists refuted this view by proposing that Invariable
Concomitance was easily cognizable from the relation between cause and effect or from the
establishment of identity.
Modern Indian philosophy was developed during British occupation (1750–1947). The
philosophers in this era gave contemporary meaning to traditional philosophy. Some of them were
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Sri Aurobindo,
Kireet Joshi, Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, Debiprasad Chattopadhyay, M. N. Roy, Indra Sen,
Haridas Chaudhuri, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Ananda Coomaraswamy, Ramana Maharshi,
and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.
Among contemporary Indian philosophers, Osho and J. Krishnamurti developed their own
schools of thought. Pandurang Shastri Athavale, U. G. Krishnamurti and Krishnananda are other
prominent names in contemporary Indian philosophy.
Political philosophy
The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya, is one of the early Indian
texts devoted to political philosophy. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of
statecraft and economic policy. The political philosophy most closely associated with India is the
one of ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha, popularised by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian
struggle for independence. It was influenced by the Indian Dharmic philosophy, particularly the
Bhagvata Gita, as well as secular writings of authors such as Leo Tolstoy, Henry David Thoreau
and John Ruskin. In turn it influenced the later movements for independence and civil rights,
especially those led by Martin Luther King, Jr. and to a lesser extent Nelson Mandela.
Influence
In appreciation of complexity of the Indian philosophy, T S Eliot wrote that the great
philosophers of India "make most of the great European philosophers look like schoolboys". Arthur
Schopenhauer used Indian philosophy to improve upon Kantian thought. In the preface to his book
The World As Will And Representation, Schopenhauer writes that one who "has also received and
assimilated the sacred primitive Indian wisdom, then he is the best of all prepared to hear what I
have to say to him". The 19th century American philosophical movement Transcendentalism was
also influenced by Indian thought.
Now let us study some major philosophers and their contribution:
a) Maharishi Vyas
It seems you might be referring to Vyasa (also spelled Vyas), a revered figure in Hindu
tradition. Vyasa is traditionally regarded as a sage and a central figure in Indian epic literature,
particularly for his role in compiling and classifying ancient Indian scriptures. Here's some
information about him:
Vyasa's Identity and Background:
Vyasa, whose full name is Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa, is believed to have lived in ancient
India, possibly around 3,000 to 2,500 years ago. He is often referred to as "Veda Vyasa" because
he is said to have divided the original single Veda into four parts: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda,
and Atharvaveda. This division was done to make the Vedic knowledge more accessible to people
based on their abilities and inclinations.
Contributions and Role:
One of Vyasa's most significant contributions was compiling and categorizing the ancient
Indian texts into what are now known as the Vedas. He is also credited with composing the
Mahabharata, one of the longest epic poems in the world, which contains the Bhagavad Gita, a
revered philosophical and spiritual text. The Mahabharata is a complex narrative that encompasses
a wide range of themes, including philosophy, morality, politics, and spirituality. Vyasa is also
traditionally considered to be the author of other important Hindu scriptures like the Puranas
(ancient mythological texts) and the Brahma Sutras (philosophical aphorisms that summarize the
teachings of the Upanishads).
Lineage:
Vyasa is said to have been born to Sage Parashara and a fisherwoman named Satyavati. He
had various disciples, who continued his teachings and contributed to the preservation of Vedic
knowledge.
Legacy and Importance:
Vyasa's contributions have had a profound impact on Hindu philosophy, spirituality, and cultural
understanding. His works have been studied, commented upon, and interpreted by numerous
scholars, philosophers, and spiritual leaders over the centuries. In Indian tradition, Vyasa is often
revered as a wise sage and a symbol of knowledge and wisdom. He is also considered one of the
"Chiranjivi," a group of immortal beings in Hindu mythology who continue to exist across ages. It's
important to note that while Vyasa's existence is widely accepted within Hindu tradition, the exact
historical details about his life are not firmly established and are often a blend of historical and
mythological accounts.
Early Life and Birth:
Vyasa's birth is associated with an interesting legend. According to the Mahabharata, Vyasa was
born to the sage Parashara and Satyavati. Satyavati was initially a fisherwoman, but through a
series of events, she married King Shantanu of Hastinapura. Vyasa was born before their marriage,
and his birth name was Krishna Dvaipayana. He was given the name "Vyasa," which means
"arranger" or "compiler," due to his role in organizing the Vedic knowledge.
Compilation of Vedas:
Vyasa is credited with organizing the vast body of Vedic hymns, rituals, and knowledge into the
four Vedas—Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. He classified these texts into
different sections and subsections, known as Samhitas and Brahmanas. This division facilitated the
preservation and transmission of Vedic knowledge.
Mahabharata:
One of Vyasa's most famous contributions is the composition of the Mahabharata, an epic poem
that narrates the story of the Kuru dynasty and the great Kurukshetra War. The Mahabharata is not
only a historical account but also a repository of moral, philosophical, and spiritual teachings. It
contains the Bhagavad Gita, a dialogue between the prince Arjuna and the god Krishna, which
addresses profound philosophical and ethical questions.
Puranas and Other Texts:
In addition to the Vedas and the Mahabharata, Vyasa is traditionally believed to have composed the
eighteen Puranas, which are ancient mythological texts that provide cosmological, genealogical,
and moral narratives. He is also associated with the creation of the Brahma Sutras (Vedanta
Sutras), which summarize the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads and establish the
foundation for various Vedanta schools of thought.
Guru-Disciple Tradition:
Vyasa had several prominent disciples who continued his teachings. Among his notable disciples
were Paila, Jaimini, and Shuka. These disciples played a significant role in transmitting the Vedic
knowledge to subsequent generations.
Legacy:
Vyasa's legacy extends far beyond his lifetime. He is considered a pivotal figure in the preservation
and dissemination of ancient Indian wisdom. His works have shaped Hindu philosophy, ethics, and
spirituality for millennia. Vyasa's teachings continue to inspire scholars, philosophers, and spiritual
seekers, and his influence can be seen in various schools of thought within Hinduism.
Historical Context:
While Vyasa's historical existence is not definitively confirmed, he is a central figure in Hindu
tradition. The accounts of his life and accomplishments are often intertwined with mythological
elements, making it challenging to separate historical facts from legends. Nevertheless, his impact
on Indian culture, philosophy, and literature is undeniable. Vyasa's multifaceted contributions have
left an indelible mark on Indian spirituality and continue to be studied and revered to this day.
b) Manu
In Hindu tradition, "Manu" refers to the first human being, as well as a legendary lawgiver
and the progenitor of humanity. The concept of Manu is prominent in various Hindu texts,
including the Vedas, Puranas, and the Manusmriti (Laws of Manu). Here's an overview of the
different aspects of Manu:
1. First Human Being:
In Hindu cosmology and creation myths, Manu is often depicted as the first human being, created
by the divine through a process of cosmic evolution. The Rigveda, one of the oldest sacred texts of
Hinduism, contains references to the concept of "Manu" as the first mortal being and the ancestor
of all humans.
2. Lawgiver and Progenitor:
In the Manusmriti, also known as the Laws of Manu, Manu is portrayed as a legendary sage and
lawgiver who received divine guidance and knowledge from the creator god Brahma. The
Manusmriti is a text that provides guidelines for social, ethical, and legal conduct. It covers various
aspects of life, including caste, marriage, duties, and social hierarchy.
3. Manusmriti:
The Manusmriti, attributed to Manu, is a significant text in Hindu jurisprudence. It outlines the
principles of dharma (righteousness) and provides guidelines for societal order, justice, and moral
conduct. It also delineates the varna (caste) system and the responsibilities associated with each
caste. The Manusmriti has been the subject of interpretation and criticism over time due to its
teachings on social hierarchy and gender roles.
4. Manusmriti's Influence:
While the Manusmriti has been influential in shaping certain aspects of Hindu social and legal
traditions, its teachings have been interpreted and practiced differently across regions and time
periods. Some of its principles have been questioned and even rejected by modern scholars and
social reformers due to their perceived discriminatory nature.
5. Different Manus:
In addition to the legendary Manu depicted in the Manusmriti, Hindu texts mention several Manus
in various cycles of creation. Each Manvantara, or cosmic era, is said to have its own Manu who
imparts divine knowledge and establishes laws and guidelines for that era. The current cosmic
cycle is believed to be the era of the seventh Manu, known as Vaivasvata Manu.
6. Manu in Other Cultures:
The concept of a "first man" or a progenitor figure can also be found in other cultures and
religious traditions, such as the biblical Adam in Christianity and Judaism, and the figure of Adama
in Islam.
It's important to note that while the concept of Manu has deep roots in Hindu tradition, it is often
intertwined with mythological and symbolic elements, and its interpretations can vary among
different philosophical schools and sects within Hinduism.
Manu as a Cosmic Cycle:
In Hindu cosmology, time is divided into cycles known as "Manvantaras." Each Manvantara is
presided over by a specific Manu who serves as the progenitor and lawgiver for that era. The
Manvantaras are part of the larger cosmic cycle of creation and dissolution. According to this
cosmological framework, each Manvantara consists of specific periods of creation, sustenance, and
dissolution.
The Manusmriti:
The Manusmriti, also known simply as the "Laws of Manu," is a legal and ethical text that provides
guidelines for living a righteous life within the context of one's social role and duties. It covers a
wide range of topics, including law, morality, caste duties, marriage, property, and more. The text
emphasizes the importance of dharma (righteousness) and the preservation of societal order. The
Manusmriti is attributed to the legendary sage Manu, who is said to have received divine
knowledge from Brahma. However, the text itself is believed to have been composed over a period
of time, with different sections added by various authors.
Social Hierarchy and Gender Roles:
The Manusmriti outlines the concept of varna, which is commonly translated as "caste." It divides
society into four main varnas: Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers),
Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (laborers and servants). The text also provides
guidelines for the duties and responsibilities of each varna. Additionally, the Manusmriti outlines
gender roles and responsibilities. It reflects the prevailing norms of its time by placing men in
higher positions and prescribing certain restrictions on women's behavior. However, it's important
to note that these teachings have been subject to criticism and reinterpretation by modern scholars
and social reformers due to their discriminatory nature.
Interpretations and Influence:
The Manusmriti has been a source of controversy and debate throughout history. Different schools
of thought within Hinduism have interpreted its teachings differently, and its influence has varied
across time periods and regions. Some groups have embraced its guidelines as a part of their
traditional practices, while others have rejected or criticized certain aspects of the text.
Social Reforms:
In modern times, the Manusmriti's teachings on caste and gender have been criticized for
perpetuating inequality and discrimination. Various social reform movements in India, including
those led by social reformers like B.R. Ambedkar, have advocated for more egalitarian and
inclusive interpretations of Hindu texts and practices.
In summary, the concept of Manu is multifaceted and encompasses the legendary first
human, the cosmic lawgiver of a particular era, and the attributed author of the Manusmriti. The
influence and interpretation of the Manusmriti continue to be complex and evolving, reflecting the
diverse perspectives within Hinduism and the ongoing dialogue about ethics, social norms, and
spirituality.
c) Kanad
Maharshi Kanad, also known as Kashyapa or Kanada, was an ancient Indian philosopher
and sage who is credited with developing the philosophical and metaphysical school of thought
known as Vaisheshika. He is believed to have lived around the 6th century BCE, though precise
dates are uncertain due to the limited historical records from that period. Kanad's most significant
contribution is the formulation of the Vaisheshika philosophy, which is one of the six orthodox
schools of Hindu philosophy, often classified as part of the Nyaya-Vaisheshika tradition.
Vaisheshika focuses on the nature of reality, ontology, and epistemology. Kanad is often referred to
as the "founder" of Vaisheshika, and his work laid the foundation for the development of a
systematic theory of atomism and metaphysics in Indian philosophy. The Vaisheshika school of
thought is known for its analysis of the nature of reality, especially through the concept of
"padartha," which refers to the categories or fundamental constituents of existence. Kanad
proposed that reality is made up of distinct and indivisible atoms (anu), which combine in different
ways to form more complex entities. He categorized these atoms into nine types based on their
qualities and characteristics.
Kanad also formulated the idea of causality and the theory of inference, both of which are
central to the Vaisheshika philosophy. He proposed that knowledge is obtained through direct
perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana), and testimony (shabda).
While Kanad's ideas have had a significant influence on Indian philosophy and metaphysics, the
Vaisheshika school gradually became less prominent over time, especially when compared to other
schools like Vedanta and Buddhism. However, his work remains an important part of the historical
development of Indian philosophical thought. It's important to note that much of what is known
about Kanad and his teachings comes from references in later philosophical texts and
commentaries, as well as from traditional accounts. Due to the scarcity of direct historical records
from his time, some aspects of his life and contributions might be subject to interpretation and
debate.
Life and Background:
Maharshi Kanad, also known as Kanada or Kashyapa, is believed to have lived in ancient India,
roughly around the 6th century BCE. He is often associated with the town of Prabhasa in present-
day Gujarat, India. He is considered a sage or philosopher who devoted his life to the pursuit of
knowledge and understanding the fundamental nature of reality.
Vaisheshika Philosophy:
Kanad's most notable contribution is the formulation of the Vaisheshika philosophy. The term
"Vaisheshika" is derived from the Sanskrit word "vishesha," which means "particular" or
"distinctive." The philosophy is concerned with understanding the nature of reality by analyzing its
fundamental constituents.
Concept of Padartha:
Kanad introduced the concept of "padartha," which refers to the categories or fundamental
elements of existence. He identified six main categories (padartha) through which reality can be
understood:
Dravya (Substance): The foundational reality, including physical objects and substances.
Guna (Quality): The inherent qualities or attributes of substances.
Karma (Action): The activities or actions performed by substances.
Samanya (Generality): The universal or common aspects shared by different substances.
Vishesha (Particularity): The specific or unique characteristics that differentiate substances.
Samavaya (Inherence): The relation between cause and effect, particularly in terms of substance
and quality.
Atomic Theory:
One of the key aspects of Kanad's philosophy is his atomic theory. He proposed that the ultimate
constituents of reality are indivisible particles called "anu" or atoms. These atoms are distinct and
have specific properties that determine their interactions and combinations to form more complex
entities.
Causality and Inference:
Kanad also contributed to the understanding of causality and inference. He argued that causality is
a fundamental aspect of the universe, with causes leading to effects. He proposed a theory of
inference (anumana) as a means of acquiring knowledge about the world by reasoning from
observed facts.
Legacy and Influence:
While Kanad's Vaisheshika philosophy was significant in its time and laid the groundwork for later
developments in Indian philosophy, it gradually became less prominent over the centuries. Other
philosophical schools, such as Vedanta and Buddhism, gained more prominence in the Indian
philosophical landscape. Nevertheless, Kanad's contributions remain important in understanding
the evolution of Indian metaphysical thought.
It's important to acknowledge that due to the lack of direct historical sources from Kanad's era,
much of this information is derived from later texts, commentaries, and traditional accounts. Over
time, elements of legend and mythology may have become intertwined with historical facts. As a
result, interpretations and reconstructions of Kanad's life and teachings can vary among scholars
and philosophical traditions.
d) Pingala
Pingala was an ancient Indian mathematician and Sanskrit prosodist who lived around the
3rd to 2nd century BCE. He is best known for his work on combinatorics and binary numbers,
which has significant implications in modern computer science and information theory. Here's
more information about Pingala:
Combinatorics and Binary System:
Pingala's most notable contribution is his work on counting and arranging syllables in poetic
meters, which led to the development of what we now recognize as the binary system. In his
treatise called the "Chhandahshastra," Pingala presented a systematic method for counting different
patterns of short (laghu) and long (guru) syllables in various poetic meters. He used binary notation
to represent these patterns.
In the binary system, numbers are represented using only two symbols, typically 0 and 1. Pingala's
method involved using short syllables as 1 and long syllables as 0. This technique allowed him to
express different syllable combinations in a concise and efficient manner.
Fibonacci-Like Sequence:
Pingala's work on combinatorics also led him to describe what is now known as a Fibonacci-like
sequence. In his work, he discussed the number of ways one can arrange syllables of various
lengths to form different meters. This sequence of numbers is similar to the Fibonacci sequence,
where each number is the sum of the two preceding numbers.
Modern Significance:
Pingala's work on binary numbers and combinatorics has profound implications in modern
computer science and information theory. The binary system forms the foundation of digital
computing, where data is represented using combinations of 0s and 1s. The concept of binary
representation underlies all digital devices, from computers to smartphones.
Historical Context:
Pingala's work predated the development of modern computer science by many centuries. His
innovative approach to counting and arranging syllables was likely developed in the context of
Sanskrit prosody, which is the study of poetic meters. It's fascinating to see how his insights into
language and patterns laid the groundwork for concepts that would become crucial in the digital
age.
Legacy:
Pingala's contributions were relatively obscure for a long time, but his work gained more attention
and recognition as scholars began to connect his ideas to modern computing concepts. His
pioneering ideas in mathematics and binary representation have highlighted the rich history of
Indian mathematical and scientific thought.
In summary, Pingala was an ancient Indian mathematician who made significant contributions to
combinatorics and the binary system through his work on poetic meters and syllable arrangements.
His insights into counting and pattern recognition have had a lasting impact on modern technology
and continue to be studied and appreciated by mathematicians and computer scientists.
e) Parasar
Parashara (often spelled Parashar or Parasar) is a significant figure in Hindu tradition. He is known
as a sage and a revered author of several important texts in Hindu philosophy, astrology, and
dharma. Here is more information about Parashara:
Genealogy and Lineage:
Parashara is considered to be a descendant of the sage Vasishtha, one of the seven great sages
(Saptarishi) in Hindu mythology. He is also regarded as the father of Vyasa (also known as Krishna
Dvaipayana Vyasa), who compiled and divided the Vedic scriptures and composed the
Mahabharata.
Authorship of Texts:
Parashara is credited with composing various texts that cover a range of topics, including
philosophy, astrology, and ethics. Some of the most well-known texts attributed to Parashara
include:
Vishnu Purana: This is one of the eighteen major Puranas in Hindu tradition. It primarily focuses
on the stories and legends of Lord Vishnu, along with cosmological and theological discussions.
Parashara Smriti: This text is attributed to Parashara and provides guidelines and codes of conduct
for righteous living, known as dharma. It covers a wide range of subjects, including social duties,
marriage, inheritance, and more.
Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra: Parashara is also associated with the Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra,
a foundational text in Vedic astrology (Jyotish). This text provides detailed information about
various astrological principles, planetary positions, and their effects on human life.
Contribution to Vedic Astrology:
The Brihat Parashara Hora Shastra is one of the most influential texts in Vedic astrology. It covers
a wide range of topics related to astrology, including planetary influences, birth charts
(horoscopes), predictive techniques, and remedial measures. Parashara's teachings in this text have
formed the basis for many traditional and modern astrological practices in India.
Legacy and Influence:
Parashara's contributions to Hindu philosophy, ethics, and astrology have had a lasting impact. His
texts are considered authoritative sources and have been studied and revered by scholars,
practitioners, and spiritual seekers for centuries. The Parashara lineage, which includes his son
Vyasa, has played a crucial role in the preservation and transmission of ancient knowledge.
Historical Context:
Like many ancient sages, the historical details of Parashara's life are a blend of myth and tradition.
While the exact timeline and details of his life might be uncertain, his teachings and writings
continue to be respected and studied within the broader context of Hindu philosophy and cultural
heritage.
In summary, Parashara is a revered sage in Hindu tradition known for his contributions to
philosophy, ethics, and astrology. His texts have left a lasting impact on various aspects of Hindu
thought and continue to be studied and honored in modern times.

f) Banabhatta
Banabhatta was an ancient Indian Sanskrit writer and poet who is best known for his literary
masterpiece, the "Harshacharita." He lived during the 7th century CE in the court of King Harsha, a
prominent ruler of the Indian subcontinent. Here is more information about Banabhatta:
Life and Background:
Banabhatta was born into a Brahmin family and is believed to have hailed from the region of
present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. He served as a court poet in the court of King Harsha, who ruled
over the North Indian kingdom of Thanesar. Banabhatta's association with the royal court provided
him with insights into the political and cultural milieu of his time.

Works:
Banabhatta's most famous work is the "Harshacharita," which translates to "Deeds of Harsha" or
"The Life of Harsha." This biographical poem is written in classical Sanskrit and provides a
detailed account of the life and accomplishments of King Harsha. The poem is considered an
important historical and literary source for understanding the political and cultural landscape of
ancient India.

The "Harshacharita" is notable not only for its historical content but also for its literary quality.
Banabhatta's skillful use of language, vivid descriptions, and poetic expressions have earned him a
place among the celebrated Sanskrit poets of his era.

Content of the "Harshacharita":

The "Harshacharita" is divided into three sections (sargas) and contains a total of sixty-two
chapters. It offers insights into King Harsha's early life, his rise to power, his achievements as a
ruler, and his interactions with other rulers and neighboring kingdoms. The poem also portrays the
cultural and social milieu of the time, including details about court life, religious practices, and
societal norms.
Banabhatta's portrayal of King Harsha is generally positive and celebrates his accomplishments as
a ruler and patron of the arts. The poem also includes references to various historical events and
individuals.
Literary Style and Impact:
Banabhatta's writing style is characterized by his use of intricate wordplay, metaphors, and poetic
devices. His descriptions of landscapes, emotions, and characters showcase his command over the
Sanskrit language.
The "Harshacharita" has had a significant impact on both historical and literary studies. It provides
valuable insights into the socio-political dynamics of the time, and its detailed descriptions
contribute to our understanding of ancient Indian society, culture, and governance.
Legacy:
Banabhatta's "Harshacharita" continues to be studied and appreciated for its historical value,
literary quality, and insights into ancient Indian history. It is considered a valuable source for
understanding the Gupta period and the reign of King Harsha. Additionally, Banabhatta's poetic
techniques and language use have influenced subsequent generations of poets and writers in the
Sanskrit tradition.
In summary, Banabhatta was an accomplished Sanskrit poet and author known for his work
"Harshacharita," which provides a detailed and poetic account of the life and accomplishments of
King Harsha. His contributions to Sanskrit literature and historical understanding have left a lasting
impact on Indian cultural heritage.

g) Nagarjuna
Nagarjuna, also known as Acharya Nagarjuna, was an influential Buddhist philosopher and
scholar who lived around the 2nd century CE. He is considered one of the most important figures
in the development of Mahayana Buddhism, particularly the Madhyamaka school. Nagarjuna's
teachings have had a profound impact on Buddhist philosophy and continue to be studied and
interpreted by scholars and practitioners. Here's more information about Nagarjuna:
Life and Background:
The exact details of Nagarjuna's life are often shrouded in legend and myth, making it
challenging to establish a definitive biography. He is believed to have been born in South India,
possibly in present-day Andhra Pradesh or Andhra-Telangana region. Some accounts suggest that
he was born into a Brahmin family, while others describe him as a Kshatriya (warrior caste).
Contributions to Buddhist Philosophy:
Nagarjuna is best known for his contributions to the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist
philosophy. The Madhyamaka, which translates to the "Middle Way," emphasizes the concept of
shunyata (emptiness), which challenges the inherent existence of all phenomena. Nagarjuna's
philosophy is often referred to as the "Sunyavada" or "Emptiness Doctrine."
His most famous work is the "Mulamadhyamakakarika" (Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way),
a foundational text of the Madhyamaka school. In this work, Nagarjuna presents his philosophy of
emptiness and engages in a dialectical analysis of various philosophical viewpoints. He argues that
all phenomena lack inherent existence and are dependent on causes and conditions.
Method of Analysis:
Nagarjuna is known for his rigorous and intricate logical reasoning. He often employs a
method of dialectical analysis known as "prasaṅga," in which he demonstrates the contradictions
and limitations of opposing views. By deconstructing various philosophical positions, he leads his
readers to the realization of emptiness and the Middle Way.

Emptiness and Compassion:

Nagarjuna's philosophy of emptiness is not a nihilistic or pessimistic view. Instead, he
emphasizes that understanding emptiness leads to a profound realization of interconnectedness and
interdependence. Emptiness is not an absence of existence but a way of perceiving the
interconnected nature of all things. Nagarjuna also stressed the importance of compassion (karuna)
as a natural outcome of realizing emptiness.
Legacy:
Nagarjuna's influence on Buddhist thought is immense. His teachings shaped the trajectory
of Mahayana philosophy, and the Madhyamaka school he founded became one of the most
significant schools of thought within Buddhism. His ideas also spread to other Buddhist traditions
and even influenced non-Buddhist philosophical systems in India.
Nagarjuna's philosophy continues to be studied and debated by scholars and practitioners of
Buddhism, and his texts are foundational to the study of Buddhist philosophy in academic and
religious contexts.
Historical Context:
Nagarjuna lived during a time of flourishing Buddhist scholarship and cultural exchange in
India. His philosophy responded to the diversity of philosophical viewpoints prevalent during his
era, and his teachings contributed to the ongoing development of Buddhist thought.

In summary, Nagarjuna was a prominent Buddhist philosopher known for his contributions
to the Madhyamaka school of thought and his exploration of the concept of emptiness. His logical
analysis and emphasis on interconnectedness have had a lasting impact on Buddhist philosophy and
continue to be relevant to discussions of reality, perception, and compassion.

h) Panini
Panini was an ancient Indian grammarian and linguist who lived around the 4th century
BCE. He is celebrated as one of the most important figures in the history of linguistics due to his
monumental work, the "Ashtadhyayi," which is considered the foundational text of Sanskrit
grammar. Panini's grammar laid the groundwork for systematic linguistic analysis and has had a
profound impact on the study of language in India and beyond. Here's more information about
Panini:
Life and Background:
The biographical details of Panini's life are not well-documented, and much of what is known
about him is based on references in later works. He is traditionally believed to have been born in
the ancient city of Shalatula (modern-day Sialkot in Pakistan) or possibly in Pushkalavati (in
present-day Peshawar, Pakistan).

Contributions:
Panini's most significant contribution is his work "Ashtadhyayi" (also known as "Panini Sutras"),
which is a comprehensive treatise on Sanskrit grammar. This work is composed of almost 4,000
rules (sutras) that systematically describe the structure and rules of the Sanskrit language. It is
organized into eight chapters (adhyayas), each dealing with a specific aspect of grammar.

Structural Analysis:
Panini's approach to grammar was groundbreaking. He established a systematic framework for
analyzing the structure of words, sentences, and language elements. His rules cover topics such as
phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. The "Ashtadhyayi" outlines rules for forming
nouns, verbs, compounds, declensions, conjugations, and more. Panini's rules are so concise and
well-structured that they resemble a kind of algebraic notation.

Brevity and Precision:

One of the remarkable features of Panini's work is his conciseness and precision. He used a series
of concise rules and notations to describe complex linguistic phenomena, which allowed for a
comprehensive analysis of the language. This approach to linguistics greatly influenced subsequent
generations of grammarians and shaped the way languages were analyzed and understood.

Legacy:
Panini's "Ashtadhyayi" had a lasting impact not only on the study of Sanskrit but also on linguistics
as a whole. His methodology and analysis provided a foundation for the scientific study of
language structure and grammar. His work inspired scholars and grammarians across different
cultures and languages, and his rules influenced the development of grammar in various ancient
and modern languages.
Indology and Linguistics:
Panini's work became a cornerstone of the field of Indology, which is the academic study of
Indian culture, language, and history. His linguistic theories and methodologies continue to be
discussed and debated within the context of modern linguistics, contributing to ongoing discussions
about linguistic universals and the nature of grammar.
In summary, Panini was an ancient Indian grammarian whose "Ashtadhyayi" is a
foundational text in the study of Sanskrit grammar and linguistics. His systematic approach to
language analysis and his concise notation system have left a lasting legacy in the field of
linguistics and continue to be studied and admired by linguists and scholars around the world.

i) Chanakya
Chanakya, also known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta, was an ancient Indian philosopher,
economist, political strategist, and teacher who lived around the 4th century BCE. He is best
known for his role in shaping the rise of the Maurya Empire and for his seminal work, the
"Arthashastra," an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economics, and political strategy. Here's
more information about Chanakya:

Life and Background:

The details of Chanakya's life are a blend of historical facts and legends. He is said to have been
born in a Brahmin family in ancient India, possibly in the town of Taxila (modern-day Taxila in
Pakistan). He was known for his extraordinary intellect from a young age and is said to have been a
scholar of various disciplines.

Role in the Maurya Empire:

Chanakya played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Maurya Empire. He is credited with
identifying the potential of a young Chandragupta Maurya and guiding him to power. Under
Chanakya's guidance, Chandragupta overthrew the Nanda dynasty and laid the foundation for the
Maurya Empire, which became one of the largest empires in ancient India.

Arthashastra:
Chanakya's most famous work is the "Arthashastra," which is an ancient Indian treatise on
statecraft, politics, economics, and military strategy. The text covers a wide range of topics,
including governance, taxation, diplomacy, law, warfare, and the administration of an empire. The
"Arthashastra" provides practical advice for rulers and administrators on how to govern effectively
and maintain a stable and prosperous kingdom.

The "Arthashastra" is not only a manual of statecraft but also a reflection of the social, economic,
and political conditions of ancient India during Chanakya's time. It is considered one of the earliest
works on political science and is a valuable source of historical insight.

Political and Strategic Philosophy:

Chanakya's political philosophy is rooted in the idea of achieving and maintaining power through
strategic thinking and pragmatism. He emphasized the importance of diplomacy, alliances, and the
efficient administration of resources. His approach was focused on the welfare of the state and the
well-being of its citizens.

Legacy:
Chanakya's teachings have had a lasting impact on Indian political thought and statecraft. His ideas
continue to be studied and discussed in academic and political circles, and his pragmatic approach
to governance remains relevant to this day. His role in the establishment of the Maurya Empire and
his contributions to political theory have solidified his place as one of India's most important
historical figures.

Historical Context:
Chanakya lived during a time of political upheaval and transition in ancient India. His work and
ideas emerged in response to the changing dynamics of power, governance, and societal structure
during that era.

In summary, Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, was an influential philosopher, economist, and
political strategist who played a pivotal role in shaping the Maurya Empire. His "Arthashastra"
remains a significant text in the study of statecraft and political philosophy, and his contributions to
Indian history and governance continue to be celebrated and studied.

j) Mahavira
Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana Mahavira, was an ancient Indian sage and spiritual
teacher who is considered the central figure in Jainism, a non-theistic religious and philosophical
tradition that emphasizes non-violence, truth, and self-discipline. He is regarded as the 24th and
final Tirthankara (spiritual leader) of the current cosmic cycle in Jainism. Here's more information
about Mahavira:

Life and Background:

Mahavira was born in the ancient city of Vaishali, which is now in modern-day Bihar, India,
around the 6th century BCE. He was born into a royal family of the Kshatriya (warrior) caste. His
parents were King Siddhartha and Queen Trishala.

Renunciation and Spiritual Quest:

At the age of 30, Mahavira renounced his princely life and embarked on a spiritual journey of self-
realization and enlightenment. He renounced all his worldly possessions, including clothing, and
began practicing rigorous asceticism in pursuit of spiritual liberation (moksha).

Austerities and Ascetic Practices:

For twelve and a half years, Mahavira practiced extreme austerities, including fasting, meditation,
and self-mortification. He endured severe physical hardships in his quest for spiritual
enlightenment. However, he eventually realized that excessive self-mortification was not the path
to liberation and moderation was essential.

Kevala Jnana (Perfect Knowledge):

After years of intense spiritual practice and self-discipline, Mahavira attained Kevala Jnana, which
is perfect and infinite knowledge. It is said that he gained profound insights into the nature of
reality, karma, and the path to liberation. He became an enlightened being, known as a Tirthankara,
and began teaching his insights to others.

Teachings and Doctrine:

Mahavira's teachings emphasize the importance of non-violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), non-
possessiveness (aparigraha), and self-discipline. He taught that all living beings have a potential for
spiritual liberation, and the path to liberation involves shedding karmic bondage through ethical
conduct, meditation, and self-awareness.

Five Great Vows:

Mahavira prescribed a set of ethical guidelines for his followers known as the "Five Great Vows"
(Mahavratas). These vows are: non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya),
celibacy (brahmacharya), and non-possession (aparigraha). These vows guide Jain practitioners in
leading a life of ethical purity.

Spread of Jainism:
Mahavira's teachings gained a significant following, and his teachings laid the foundation for the
Jain tradition. His followers are known as Jains, and Jainism grew into one of the major religious
and philosophical traditions in India.

Final Liberation (Nirvana):

Mahavira passed away at the age of 72, having achieved liberation from the cycle of birth and
death (samsara). This state of ultimate liberation is known as Nirvana or Moksha in Jainism.

Legacy:
Mahavira's legacy is profound. His teachings continue to guide millions of Jains in their spiritual
and ethical lives. His emphasis on non-violence and compassion has had a lasting impact not only
on Jainism but also on the broader discourse of non-violence and social harmony.

In summary, Mahavira is the central figure in Jainism, known for his renunciation, spiritual
teachings, and emphasis on non-violence, truth, and self-discipline. His contributions to the
philosophy of Jainism and his emphasis on ethical living continue to inspire and guide people
seeking spiritual enlightenment and ethical purity.

k) Gautam Buddha
Gautama Buddha, also simply known as Buddha, was an ancient Indian spiritual teacher
and the founder of Buddhism. He is considered one of the most significant figures in world history,
revered for his teachings on suffering, enlightenment, and the path to liberation. Here's more
information about Gautama Buddha:

Early Life and Renunciation:

Siddhartha Gautama, later known as Buddha, was born in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal) around 563
or 480 BCE (exact dates vary in different sources). He was born into a royal family as the prince of
the Shakya clan. Despite his privileged upbringing, Siddhartha grew discontented with the
pleasures and comforts of palace life. At the age of 29, he left his palace and his family to seek
answers to the suffering he witnessed in the world.
The Great Renunciation:
Siddhartha embarked on a spiritual journey of asceticism and meditation, seeking enlightenment
and liberation from the cycle of suffering (samsara). He practiced severe austerities for six years,
studying under various spiritual teachers and engaging in extreme self-mortification. However, he
realized that extreme practices did not lead to enlightenment and chose the Middle Way—a
balanced path between self-indulgence and self-mortification.

Attainment of Enlightenment:
At the age of 35, while meditating under a bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, Siddhartha Gautama
experienced a profound spiritual awakening. He attained enlightenment, becoming a Buddha,
which means "Awakened One." During this experience, he gained deep insights into the nature of
suffering, the causes of suffering, and the path to liberation.

The Four Noble Truths:

Buddha's teachings are summarized in the Four Noble Truths, which serve as the foundation of
Buddhist philosophy:

The truth of suffering (dukkha): Life is marked by suffering and unsatisfactoriness.

The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya): Suffering arises from attachment and craving.
The truth of the end of suffering (nirodha): Liberation from suffering is possible through the
cessation of craving and attachment.
The truth of the path to the end of suffering (magga): The Eightfold Path—right understanding,
right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration—leads to the end of suffering.
Teaching and Spread of Buddhism:
After his enlightenment, Buddha traveled and taught for approximately 45 years, sharing his
insights and guiding others toward enlightenment. He preached to people from all walks of life,
emphasizing the importance of ethical conduct, compassion, and mindfulness. His teachings
attracted a diverse following, and his message gradually spread across India and beyond.

Death and Parinirvana:

Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in Kushinagar, India. This event is referred to as his
Parinirvana, which signifies his final liberation from the cycle of birth and death. His teachings and
community of followers, known as the Sangha, continued to flourish after his death.

Legacy:
Buddha's teachings have had a profound impact on the world. His emphasis on understanding
suffering and seeking enlightenment through self-awareness and ethical living resonates with
people of various cultures and backgrounds. Buddhism has evolved into a global tradition with
various schools and interpretations, and its principles of mindfulness, compassion, and non-
attachment continue to inspire individuals seeking spiritual growth and inner peace.

In summary, Gautama Buddha was an enlightened spiritual teacher whose teachings on suffering,
the Four Noble Truths, and the Eightfold Path have left an enduring legacy that has shaped the
lives of countless individuals and contributed to the development of one of the world's major
religions, Buddhism.

l) Adi Shankara
Adi Shankaracharya, often simply referred to as Shankara, was an ancient Indian
philosopher, theologian, and exponent of Advaita Vedanta—a school of Hindu philosophy that
emphasizes the non-dual nature of reality. He is considered one of the most influential thinkers in
the history of Indian philosophy and is credited with revitalizing and organizing various
philosophical and religious traditions in India. Here's more information about Adi Shankaracharya:

Early Life:
Adi Shankaracharya was born in the early 8th century CE in a village called Kaladi, in present-day
Kerala, India. While the exact year of his birth is debated, it is generally believed to be around 788
CE. He was born into a Brahmin family and displayed remarkable intellectual abilities from a
young age.

Philosophical Contributions:
Adi Shankaracharya is best known for his work in Advaita Vedanta, which asserts the non-dual
nature of reality (Brahman) and the illusory nature of the world (maya). He synthesized and
interpreted the ancient Vedantic teachings, particularly those found in the Upanishads and the
Brahma Sutras, and presented them in a coherent and systematic manner.
Shankara's key teachings include:

Non-Dualism (Advaita): Shankara emphasized that Brahman, the ultimate reality, is devoid of
distinctions and is beyond attributes. He taught that the individual soul (Atman) is fundamentally
identical to Brahman and that the apparent diversity of the world is a result of ignorance.

Maya: Shankara introduced the concept of "maya," which refers to the illusory power that creates
the appearance of diversity in the world. He explained that the world is not fundamentally real but
a manifestation of maya, and true understanding comes from realizing the unity of Brahman.

Path to Liberation: Shankara proposed a path to liberation (moksha) through self-knowledge

(jnana) and realization of one's own divine nature. He advocated practices such as study of
scriptures, meditation, and contemplation to overcome ignorance and attain enlightenment.

Four Mathas (Monastic Centers):

Adi Shankaracharya is credited with establishing four monastic centers in different regions of India
to preserve and promote his teachings. These institutions are known as "mathas," and each is
associated with one of the cardinal directions. They are located in Sringeri (south), Dwarka (west),
Puri (east), and Joshimath (north). These mathas continue to play a crucial role in the propagation
of Advaita Vedanta.

Writings:
Shankara wrote a number of commentaries on important Hindu scriptures to clarify and expound
his philosophical views. Some of his most well-known works include commentaries on the
Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutras.

Impact and Legacy:

Adi Shankaracharya's teachings had a profound impact on the religious and philosophical
landscape of India. He engaged in debates with other philosophical schools and helped revitalize
the study of Vedanta during a time when various interpretations were emerging. His non-dualistic
philosophy found resonance not only in Hinduism but also influenced later thinkers, including
some in Buddhist and Jain traditions.
In summary, Adi Shankaracharya was a towering figure in the history of Indian philosophy, known
for his Advaita Vedanta teachings, his establishment of monastic centers, and his commentaries on
key scriptures. His philosophy continues to be a cornerstone of Hindu thought and has left an
indelible mark on the understanding of non-duality, self-realization, and the nature of reality.
 Unit II: Indian Literature
Introduction:
The earliest Indian literature took the form of the canonical Hindu sacred writings, known
as the Veda, which were written in Sanskrit. To the Veda were added prose commentaries such as
the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The production of Sanskrit literature extended from about
1500 BCE to about 1000 CE and reached its height of development in the 1st to 7th centuries CE.
In addition to sacred and philosophical writings, such genres as erotic and devotional lyrics, court
poetry, plays, and narrative folktales emerged.
Because Sanskrit was identified with the Brahminical religion of the Vedas, Buddhism and
Jainism adopted other literary languages (Pali and Ardhamagadhi, respectively). From these and
other related languages emerged the modern languages of northern India. The literature of those
languages depended largely on the ancient Indian background, which includes two Sanskrit epic
poems, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as the Bhagavata-purana and the other Puranas. In
addition, the Sanskrit philosophies were the source of philosophical writing in the later literatures,
and the Sanskrit schools of rhetoric were of great importance for the development of court poetry
in many of the modern literatures. The South Indian language of Tamil is an exception to this
pattern of Sanskrit influence because it had a classical tradition of its own. Urdu and Sindhi are
other exceptions.
Beginning in the 19th century, particularly during the height of British control over the
subcontinent, Western literary models had an impact on Indian literature, the most striking result
being the introduction of the use of vernacular prose on a major scale. Such forms as the novel and
short story began to be adopted by Indian writers, as did realism and an interest in social questions
and psychological description. A tradition of literature in English was also established in the
subcontinent.
a) Vedas
The Vedas are the religious texts which inform the religion of Hinduism (also known as
Sanatan Dharma meaning ―Eternal Order‖ or ―Eternal Path‖). The term veda means ―knowledge‖
in that they are thought to contain the fundamental knowledge relating to the underlying cause of,
function of, and personal response to existence.
They are considered among the oldest, if not the oldest, religious works in the world. They
are commonly referred to as ―scripture‖, which is accurate in that they can be defined as holy writ
concerning the nature of the Divine. Unlike the scriptures of other religions, however, the Vedas
are not thought to have been revealed to a certain person or persons at a specific historical moment;
they are believed to have always existed and were apprehended by sages in deep meditative states
at some point prior to c. 1500 BCE but precisely when is unknown.
The Vedas existed in oral form and were passed down from master to student for
generations until they were committed to writing between c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE (the so-called
Vedic Period) in India. They were carefully preserved orally as masters would have students
memorize them forwards and backwards with emphasis on exact pronunciation in order to keep
what was originally heard intact.
The Vedas are therefore regarded as Shruti in Hinduism meaning ―what is heard‖ as
contrasted with other texts designated Smritis (―what is remembered‖), accounts of great heroes
and their struggles in works such as the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Bhagavad Gita (although
some sects of Hinduism regard the Bhagavad Gita as Shruti). The texts which make up the Four
Vedas are:
 Rig Veda
 Sama Veda
 Yajur Veda
 Atharva Veda
Each of these is further divided into types of text included within them:
 Aranyakas - rituals, observances
 Brahmanas - commentaries on said rituals
 Samhitas - benedictions, prayers, mantras
 Upanishads – philosophical narratives and dialogues
The Upanishads are the best known and most often read of the Vedas because their
discourse is presented in dialogue/narrative form and they were the first to be translated into other
languages. The four Vedas, conversely, are considered the literal sounds of the Divine which, when
recited or sung, recreate the primal vibrations of the universe. Accordingly, they are actually
impossible to translate and what one reads in a translation should be understood as a paraphrase at
best.
Orthodox Hindu denominations recognize the Vedas as a significant spiritual authority but
not all Hindu sects follow suit. Reform movements throughout the modern era, beginning in the
19th century CE, place greater value on personal religious experience than scriptural authority and
tradition and so some sects, or off-shoots of Hinduism (such as the Brahmos Movement) reject the
Vedas entirely as superstition. Even so, the works continue to be recited, studied, and venerated in
the present and remain an important part of Hindu religious observances, festivals, and ceremonies.
Early Origin, Dating, & Development
 No one knows the origin of the Vedas although many scholars and theologians have
advanced differing claims on the subject. It is most commonly believed (though by no means
universally accepted) that the Vedic vision came to India by way of nomadic Aryan tribes who
migrated there from Central Asia sometime around the 3rd millennium BCE. ―Aryan‖ should be
understood as it was by the people of the time, meaning ―free‖ or ―noble‖, a class of people, not a
race, and not Caucasian (as was claimed by 18th- and 19th-century CE Western scholars). These
Indo-Aryans are thought to have broken off from a larger group which also included the Indo-
Iranians who settled in the region of modern-day Iran and came to be known in the West (via the
Greeks) as Persians. Similarities between Early Iranian Religion (and later Zoroastrianism) and
early Hinduism suggest a common belief system, which then developed separately.
The Indo-Aryan Migration theory holds that the Vedic vision was developed in Central
Asia and brought to India during the decline of the indigenous Harappan Civilization (c. 7000-600
BCE) between c. 2000-1500 BCE, merging that culture's beliefs with their own. Another theory,
however, known as Out of India (OIT) claims that the Harappan Civilization had already developed
this vision and exported it from India to Central Asia from whence it then returned with the
migration of the Indo-Aryans.
There are sound reasons for recognizing the motivation, at least, for either claim (though the OIT is
rejected by mainstream academia) and scholars seem to hold to one or the other more for personal
reasons than any based on objective, scholarly research. The most reasonable response to the
question of the origin and dating of the Vedas is simply that one does not know. The human need
to resolve what appears to be mysterious, however, keeps the debate alive in the present day.
Scholars Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund comment briefly on the early development of
the dating/origin issue:
―The dating of these texts and of the cultures that produced them has been debated
for a long time by Indologists. The famous Indian nationalist, Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
wrote a book on the Arctic Home of the Vedas in which he maintained that the
Vedas could be dated back to the sixth or fifth millennia BCE. He based his
conclusions on the interpretation of references to positions of the stars in the text
which could be used by astronomers for a detailed calculation of the respective date.
The German Indologist, Hermann Jacobi, independently arrived at a very similar
conclusion and suggested the middle of the fifth millennium as the date of the
Vedas. But another German Indologist, Max Muller, who was teaching at Oxford,
projected a much later date. He took the birth of Buddha around 500 BCE as a point
of departure and suggested that the Upanishads, which antedate Buddhist
 philosophy, must have been produced around 800 to 600 BCE. The earlier
Brahmana and Mantra texts of the Vedas would then have been produced around
1000 to 800 and 1200 to 1000 respectively. These dates projected by Max Muller
tally very well with modern archaeological research showing at least half a
millennium between the decline of the Indus Civilization and the immigration of a
new nomadic population which might be identified with the Vedic Indo-Aryans.
(34)‖
Muller's work continues to inform the debate in the present day, and his claims are generally
considered the most probable or even certain. Wherever the Vedic vision originated, and however
long it existed in oral form, it developed in India during the Vedic Period after the arrival of the
Indo-Aryans.
The Vedic Period
The Vedic Period (c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE) is the era in which the Vedas were committed to
writing, but this has nothing to do with the age of the concepts or the oral traditions themselves.
The designation ―Vedic Period‖ is a modern construct, which relies on evidence of an Indo-Aryan
migration, which, as noted, is not universally accepted. Even so, that is the theory most commonly
accepted as historically accurate based on the available evidence. The development of the texts is
described by scholar John M. Koller:
The Vedic age began when the Sanskrit-speaking peoples began to dominate
life and thought in the Indus Valley, probably between 2000 and 1500 BCE.
Historians used to think that these Sanskrit-speaking peoples who called themselves
Aryans came to the Indus valley in northwest India as conquerors some thirty-five
hundred years ago. But recent scholarship has challenged this thesis of conquering
Aryans. What we do know is that the earlier Indus culture, which flourished from
2500 to 1500 BCE, and which, judged by its archaeological remains, was quite
sophisticated, declined at this time. We also know that the Vedic thought and culture
reflected in the Rig Veda has a continuous history of dominance in India during the
last thirty-five hundred years. It is likely that the cultural traditions of the Vedic
peoples mingled with the traditions and customs of the Indus people. (5)
The religious beliefs of the people of the Harappan Civilization are unknown as they left no
written works. Excavations at Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and other sites suggest a highly developed
belief structure which involved ritual bathing and some form of worship service. The only clear
evidence of religious belief and practice comes from statuary of the nature spirits known as yakshas
which date to before c. 3000 BCE in rudimentary form and continue, with greater refinement,
through the 1st century BCE.
The Yaksha Cults seem to have focused on daily need (if one interprets the evidence along
the lines of ancestor cults) as the spirits could be benevolent or malevolent, and sacrifices were
made either for favors asked or to ward off harm. As in Asian ancestor cults, there was no
emphasis on the ―big picture‖ of where human being came from, what their purpose might be, or
where they went after death. These were the questions addressed by the first of the Vedas, the Rig
Veda (meaning either ―Knowledge of Wisdom‖, ―Verses of Wisdom‖ or, literally, ―Praise
Knowledge‖) which informs the other three.
The Vedas
As noted, adherents of Sanatan Dharma (Hinduism) believe the Vedas have always existed.
Scholars Forrest E. Baird and Raeburne S. Heimbeck note:
Of all their many sacred texts, Hindus accord supernatural origin only to the Vedas. These
four books exclusively are trusted to reveal the essential knowledge of life. Such knowledge,
Hindus hold, has existed eternally in the form of vibrations sounding throughout the universe.
These elusive vibrations remained undetected until certain Indian sages equipped with spiritual
hearing finally heard and formulated them in the Sanskrit language, beginning about 3,200 years
ago. (3)
The Vedas, then, are thought to reproduce the exact sounds of the universe itself at the moment of
creation and onwards and so take the form, largely, of hymns and chants. In reciting the Vedas, one
is thought to be literally participating in the creative song of the universe which gave birth to all
things observable and unobservable from the beginning of time. The Rig Veda sets the standard
and tone which is developed by the Sama Veda and Yajur Veda while the last work, Atharva Veda,
develops its own vision which is informed by the earlier works but takes its own original course.
Rig Veda: The Rig Veda is the oldest of the works comprised of 10 books (known as mandalas) of
1,028 hymns of 10,600 verses. These verses concern themselves with proper religious observance
and practice, based on the universal vibrations as understood by the sages who first heard them, but
also address fundamental questions regarding existence. Koller comments:
Vedic thinkers asked questions about themselves, the world around them, and their place in it.
What is thought? What is its source? Why does the wind blow? Who put the sun – giver of warmth
and light – in the sky? How is it that the earth brings forth these myriad life-forms? How do we
renew our existence and become whole? Questions of how, what, and why are the beginning of
philosophical reflection. (5)
This philosophical reflection characterizes the essence of Hinduism in that the point of personal
existence is to question it as one moves from the basic needs of life toward self-actualization and
union with the Divine. The Rig Veda encourages these kinds of questions through hymns to
various gods – Agni, Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Soma notably – who would eventually be seen as
avatars of the Supreme Over Soul, First Cause, and source of existence, Brahman. According to
some schools of Hindu thought, the Vedas were composed by Brahman whose song the sages then
heard.
Sama Veda: The Sama Veda (―Melody Knowledge‖ or ―Song Knowledge‖) is a work of liturgical
songs, chants, and texts meant to be sung. The content is almost wholly derived from the Rig Veda
and, as some scholars have observed, the Rig Veda serves as the lyrics to the melodies of the Sama
Veda. It is comprised of 1,549 verses and divided into two sections: the gana (melodies) and the
arcika (verses). The melodies are thought to encourage dance which, combined with the words,
elevates the soul.
Yajur Veda: The Yajur Veda (―Worship Knowledge‖ or ―Ritual Knowledge‖) consists of
recitations, ritual worship formulas, mantras, and chants directly involved in worship services. Like
the Sama Veda, its content derives from the Rig Veda but the focus of its 1,875 verses is on the
liturgy of religious observances. It is generally regarded as having two ―sections‖ which are not
distinct parts but characteristics of the whole. The ―dark Yajur Veda‖ refers to those parts which
are unclear and poorly arranged while the ―light Yajur Veda‖ applies to the verses which are
clearer and better arranged.
Atharva Veda: The Atharva Veda (―knowledge of Atharvan‖) differs significantly from the first
three in that it concerns itself with magical spells to ward off evil spirits or danger, chants, hymns,
prayers, initiation rituals, marriage and funeral ceremonies, and observations on daily life. The
name is thought to derive from the priest Atharvan who allegedly was well-known as a healer and
religious innovator. It is thought that the work was composed by an individual (possibly Atharvan
but not likely) or individuals about the same time as the Sama Veda and Yajur Veda (c. 1200-1000
BCE). It is comprised of 20 books of 730 hymns some of which draw on the Rig Veda. The nature
of the work, the language used, and the form it takes has caused some theologians and scholars to
reject it as an authentic Veda. In the present day, it is accepted by some but not all Hindu sects on
the grounds that it deals with later knowledge which is remembered, not the primordial knowledge
that was heard.
Embedded in each of these works are the other types mentioned above – the Aranyakas,
Brahmanas, Samhitas, and Upanishads – which could be considered glosses, extensions, or
commentaries on the actual text.
 The Upanishads are considered the ―end of the Vedas‖ as in the last word on the texts. The
term Upanishads means to ―sit down closely‖ as a student would with a master to receive some
information not intended for the rest of the class. The Upanishads in each of the Vedas comment on
the text or illustrate it through dialogue and narrative thereby clarifying difficult or obscure
passages or concepts.
Conclusion
The Vedas, especially the Upanishads, would eventually form the foundational
understanding of Sanatan Dharma and provide direction and purpose in the lives of adherents. It
came to be understood that there was a single entity, Brahman, who not only created existence but
was existence itself. As this entity was too great to be comprehended by human beings, he
appeared as avatars such Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver) and Shiva (the destroyer) as
well as a host of other deities all of which were actually Brahman. The purpose of a human life was
to recognize one's higher self (the Atman) and perform the dharma (duty) one had been given with
the proper karma (action) in order to free one's self from the cycle of rebirth and death (samsara)
which was characterized by the suffering and loss one experienced in the physical world. Once an
individual had broken these bonds, that person's Atman returned to Brahman and eternal peace.
This belief system developed uninterrupted until the rise of Islam in the north of India beginning in
the 7th century CE which became pronounced by the 12th century CE. Islamic rule only gradually
came to tolerate Hindu practices. A far more significant threat to the Vedic vision came later in the
form of British colonialism and imperialism in the 18th-20th centuries CE. The British tried to
convert the Indian people to Protestant Christianity and expended considerable effort in re-
educating the populace and dismissing Hinduism as an evil superstition.
This eventually led to a backlash in the form of the Brahmos Movement led by Ram Mohan
Roy (l. 1772-1833 CE) and continued by others such as Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905 CE,
father of the poet Rabindranath Tagore) who responded, in part, by reimagining their faith to
distance it from the traditional form, which seemed to have been corrupted by outside influences.
This reimagining included a rejection of scriptural authority and the stature of the Vedas declined.
The Brahmos Movement, in fact, rejected the Vedas entirely as superstitious nonsense and focused
on a personal experience with the Divine which was actually quite similar to the theological focus
of both Protestant Christianity and the earlier Hindu Bhakti Movement of the Middle Ages.
Any Hindu sect or movement in the present day which rejects the Vedas takes its basic platform
from the 19th- and early 20th-century CE efforts such as Brahmos. Orthodox Hindus continue to
regard the Vedas as highly as in the past, however, and the works continue to be chanted and sung
by those who still recognize in them the mystery of an inexpressible truth offered without easy
explanation which can be experienced without having to be understood.

b) Upvedas (Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda)

The Upavedas are a category of ancient Indian texts that are considered supplementary to
the Vedas, which are the oldest and most authoritative scriptures of Hinduism. The Upavedas cover
various specialized subjects and are considered to have originated from the Vedic tradition. There
are traditionally four Upavedas, each dedicated to a specific field of knowledge. These Upavedas
are:
Ayurveda:
Ayurveda is the Upaveda associated with medicine and healthcare. The term "Ayurveda"
comes from two Sanskrit words: "ayur," meaning life, and "veda," meaning knowledge. Ayurveda
focuses on maintaining physical, mental, and spiritual well-being through a balanced lifestyle, diet,
herbal remedies, massage, and other natural therapies. It addresses the holistic health of an
individual and emphasizes the balance between the body, mind, and spirit.
Ayurveda is based on the belief that the universe and all living beings are composed of five
fundamental elements: space (akasha), air (vayu), fire (agni), water (jala), and earth (prithvi). These
elements combine to form three primary life forces or doshas: Vata (air and space), Pitta (fire and
water), and Kapha (water and earth). The balance of these doshas is crucial for maintaining health,
while imbalances can lead to disease.

Principles of Health and Disease:

In Ayurveda, health is defined as a state of equilibrium among the doshas, proper digestion (agni),
efficient elimination (malakriya), and a stable state of mind (sattva). Disease is seen as an
imbalance or disruption in these factors.

Diagnosis and Treatment:

Ayurvedic diagnosis involves assessing an individual's constitution (prakriti), current imbalances
(vikriti), and the root cause of any issues. Diagnosis can include observations of physical
appearance, pulse diagnosis, questioning, and assessment of bodily functions.

Ayurvedic treatments aim to restore balance and harmony. They include:

Diet and Nutrition (Ahara): Ayurveda emphasizes the importance of individualized diets based on
one's constitution and imbalances. Foods are classified according to their tastes (rasas), qualities
(gunas), and effects on doshas. A proper diet helps maintain digestive fire (agni) and promotes
overall well-being.
Herbal Medicine (Dravya): Ayurvedic texts contain extensive information about various medicinal
plants and their properties. Herbal remedies are formulated to balance doshas and address specific
ailments.
Panchakarma: This is a detoxification and rejuvenation therapy aimed at eliminating toxins and
restoring equilibrium. It includes processes like oil massage (abhyanga), therapeutic vomiting
(vamana), purgation (virechana), enemas (basti), and nasal administration (nasya).
Yoga and Meditation: Ayurveda recognizes the importance of yoga and meditation for maintaining
physical and mental balance. Yoga postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama) are
considered beneficial for overall health.
Lifestyle Recommendations (Vihara): Ayurveda offers guidance on daily routines, seasonal
adjustments, and sleep patterns to support optimal health.
Mind-Body Connection: Ayurveda acknowledges the interconnectedness of the mind and body.
Practices like meditation, mindfulness, and pranayama are recommended to maintain mental
equilibrium.
Contemporary Relevance:
Ayurveda has gained recognition beyond traditional settings and has influenced integrative
medicine approaches worldwide. However, it's important to note that while Ayurveda offers
valuable insights into holistic health, some of its practices might not have rigorous scientific
validation.
Professional Practitioners:
Ayurvedic practitioners, known as vaidyas or ayurvedacharyas, undergo specialized training in
Ayurvedic principles, diagnosis, and treatments. They provide personalized recommendations
based on an individual's constitution and health status.

Overall, Ayurveda provides a comprehensive system for promoting well-being that considers not
only the physical body but also the mind, spirit, and environment. It's an integral part of India's
cultural and medical heritage.
Dhanurveda:
Dhanurveda is the Vedic science of warfare, archery, and military strategy. The term "Dhanurveda"
is derived from the Sanskrit words "dhanu," meaning bow, and "veda," meaning knowledge or
science. This knowledge was crucial in ancient times for the protection of kingdoms, defense
against external threats, and the maintenance of order within a society.

Areas Covered:
Dhanurveda encompasses a wide range of topics related to martial arts, weaponry, combat tactics,
and strategy. Some of the areas covered in Dhanurveda include:

Weapons Training: Dhanurveda provides detailed instructions on the use of various weapons such
as bows, arrows, swords, spears, maces, and shields. Different types of weapons required different
skills and techniques.

Archery (Dhanurvidya): Archery was a fundamental skill in ancient warfare. The science of
archery included techniques for accurate aiming, drawing the bow, releasing arrows, and the
construction of bows and arrows.

Hand-to-Hand Combat: Dhanurveda also included teachings on unarmed combat techniques,

including strikes, grapples, and defensive maneuvers.

Strategy and Tactics: Military strategy, including formations, positioning, and maneuvering on the
battlefield, was an essential aspect of Dhanurveda. Strategies for offense and defense, as well as
tactics for specific situations, were detailed in the teachings.

Use of Chariots and Elephants: In ancient warfare, chariots and elephants were significant assets.
Dhanurveda covered the training and utilization of these resources in battles.

Military Leadership: The art of leadership and command on the battlefield was also addressed.
Effective communication, coordination, and decision-making were essential for success in warfare.

Textual Sources:
While there might not be standalone texts dedicated solely to Dhanurveda, references to military
strategies and techniques can be found in various ancient Indian texts, particularly in the two great
epics:
Mahabharata: The Mahabharata, one of the two major Indian epics, contains detailed descriptions
of battles, strategies, and the use of various weapons. The Bhagavad Gita, a philosophical and
spiritual discourse within the Mahabharata, also touches on concepts of duty, righteousness, and
war.

Ramayana: The Ramayana, another major Indian epic, includes accounts of warfare and the use of
weapons during the battles involving Lord Rama and his allies.
Legacy:
While the practical applications of Dhanurveda might have evolved over time due to changes in
warfare and society, its influence can still be seen in various forms of traditional Indian martial
arts. These arts often emphasize not only physical combat but also mental discipline and ethical
conduct.
In modern times, the interest in traditional martial arts and the preservation of their cultural and
historical significance has led to efforts to revive and promote Dhanurvedic knowledge. It's
important to note that Dhanurveda is not just about combat skills; it also encompasses the values of
discipline, honor, and strategic thinking that were valued in ancient Indian society.
Gandharvaveda:
Gandharvaveda is the Vedic discipline associated with the arts, aesthetics, music, dance, drama,
and the broader realm of creative expression. The term "Gandharvaveda" is derived from
"Gandharva," referring to celestial musicians in Hindu mythology, and "Veda," which means
knowledge. Gandharvaveda focuses on the harmonious blending of sound, movement, and emotion
to create an elevated aesthetic experience.

Key Elements:
Gandharvaveda encompasses various aspects of artistic expression, emphasizing both the practical
techniques and the philosophical underpinnings of the arts. Some key elements include:

Music (Gandharva Sangeet): This involves vocal and instrumental music. Gandharvaveda explores
the theory of music, including ragas (melodic modes) and talas (rhythmic patterns). It also
addresses the emotional impact of different musical compositions and how they can elevate the
mood of the listener.
Dance (Nritya): Dance is an integral part of Gandharvaveda. Different dance forms, postures,
gestures (mudras), and movements are discussed. Nritya is not just physical movement but also a
means of expressing emotions, stories, and concepts.

Drama (Natya): Gandharvaveda includes the study of dramatic arts, which encompasses both
acting and the structure of theatrical performances. The Natya Shastra, attributed to the sage
Bharata, is a foundational text that provides comprehensive guidelines for various aspects of
drama, including plot, character, dialogue, and stage design.

Aesthetics and Rasa Theory: Central to Gandharvaveda is the concept of "rasa," which refers to
emotional sentiment or flavor. The rasa theory outlines the idea that art has the power to evoke
specific emotions in the audience, such as love, joy, anger, fear, compassion, and more. Different
combinations of musical notes, dance movements, and dramatic elements are believed to generate
these emotional responses.

Philosophical Underpinnings: Gandharvaveda considers the spiritual dimensions of art. It explores

the idea that engaging with the arts can lead to a state of transcendence and connect individuals
with deeper aspects of themselves and the universe.

Textual Source:
The "Natya Shastra," attributed to the sage Bharata Muni, is the most significant text associated
with Gandharvaveda. Composed in Sanskrit, this ancient treatise is a comprehensive guide to
performing arts, encompassing music, dance, drama, and aesthetics. It provides detailed
instructions on various aspects of performance, including acting techniques, stagecraft, makeup,
costume, and more.

Influence and Contemporary Relevance:

Gandharvaveda has left a lasting impact on the performing arts in India and beyond. It has
contributed to the development of various classical music and dance forms, such as Bharatanatyam,
Odissi, Kathak, and Hindustani classical music. The rasa theory and the principles outlined in the
Natya Shastra continue to be relevant in contemporary discussions on aesthetics and artistic
expression.
Overall, Gandharvaveda highlights the transformative power of the arts to evoke emotions, inspire
introspection, and offer a deeper understanding of human experiences. It underscores the idea that
artistic expression is not just for entertainment but also a means of connecting with higher states of
consciousness and inner truths.
Arthashastra:
Arthashastra is an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economics, politics, and governance.
The term "Arthashastra" is composed of two Sanskrit words: "artha," meaning wealth or material
well-being, and "shastra," meaning science or knowledge. The text provides guidance on how a
state should be organized, administered, and governed to ensure the welfare of its citizens and the
stability of the kingdom.

Authorship and Date:

The Arthashastra is traditionally attributed to Chanakya, also known as Kautilya or
Vishnugupta. Chanakya was an ancient Indian philosopher, economist, teacher, and political
strategist who played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire. The exact date of
composition of the Arthashastra is a subject of debate among scholars, but it is generally believed
to have been written around the 4th century BCE.

Themes and Content:

The Arthashastra is a comprehensive treatise that covers a wide range of topics related to
statecraft, governance, economics, law, and diplomacy. Some of the key themes and content
include:
Administration and Governance: The text outlines principles for efficient administration,
including the roles of various officials, organization of administrative departments, and methods
for maintaining order.
Economics and Revenue: The Arthashastra discusses economic policies, taxation, trade,
agriculture, and resource management. It emphasizes the importance of a strong economy for the
well-being of the state.
Law and Justice: The text provides guidelines for legal systems, punishments, and the
administration of justice. It outlines the importance of a just legal framework in maintaining social
order.
Foreign Policy and Diplomacy: Diplomacy and foreign relations are covered extensively.
The Arthashastra offers strategies for dealing with allies, neutral states, and adversaries. It
discusses espionage, alliances, and strategies for war.
 Warfare and Military Strategy: The Arthashastra provides insights into military
organization, training, tactics, and strategies. It emphasizes the importance of a strong military and
discusses methods for conducting successful campaigns.
Ethics and Morality: While the Arthashastra is pragmatic in its approach, it also addresses
ethical and moral considerations. It suggests that rulers should follow dharma (righteousness) in
their actions and consider the welfare of the people.
Intelligence and Espionage: The text emphasizes the role of intelligence gathering and
espionage in governance and national security.
Influence and Legacy:
The Arthashastra has had a profound influence on political thought and governance in India
and beyond. Its pragmatic approach to statecraft and governance, along with its insights into
economics and diplomacy, continues to be studied and discussed by scholars, policymakers, and
administrators. The Arthashastra's principles have been adapted and integrated into various
political systems and strategies.
Contemporary Relevance:
In modern times, the Arthashastra remains relevant for its insights into governance,
administration, and the challenges of managing a state. Its emphasis on the balance between
economics, security, justice, and ethics resonates with many aspects of contemporary political
thought.
Overall, the Arthashastra is a timeless work that offers valuable insights into the art and
science of effective governance, making it a crucial text for understanding ancient Indian political
philosophy and the practical aspects of statecraft. While the four Upavedas are traditionally
mentioned in Hindu texts, it's important to note that their prominence and recognition have varied
over time and in different regions. The Vedas and their associated texts, including the Upavedas,
played a significant role in shaping the cultural, intellectual, and spiritual landscape of ancient
India. These texts continue to influence various aspects of Indian society and thought to this day.
It's worth mentioning that the concept of the Upavedas and their exact content can vary in different
sources and interpretations, and scholarly discussions about their authenticity and historical
development continue.

c) Puran
The Puranas are of the same class as the Itihasas (the Ramayana, Mahabharata, etc.). They
have five characteristics (Pancha Lakshana), viz., history, cosmology (with various symbolical
illustrations of philosophical principles), secondary creation, genealogy of kings, and of
Manvantaras (the period of Manu‘s rule consisting of 71 celestial Yugas or 308,448,000 years). All
the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Sammitas, or the Friendly Treatises, while the Vedas are
called the Prabhu-Sammitas or the Commanding Treatises with great authority.
Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he is Krishna-
Dvaipayana, the son of Parasara.
The Puranas were written to popularise the religion of the Vedas. They contain the essence
of the Vedas. The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings of the
Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through concrete examples, myths, stories,
legends, lives of saints, kings and great men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events.
The sages made use of these things to illustrate the eternal principles of religion. The Puranas were
meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people who could not understand high philosophy
and who could not study the Vedas.
The Darsanas or schools of philosophy are very stiff. They are meant only for the learned
few. The Puranas are meant for the masses with inferior intellect. Religion is taught in a very easy
and interesting way through the Puranas. Even to this day, the Puranas are popular. The Puranas
contain the history of remote times. They also give a description of the regions of the universe not
visible to the ordinary physical eye. They are very interesting to read and are full of information of
all kinds. Children hear the stories from their grandmothers. Pundits and Purohits hold Kathas or
religious discourses in temples, on banks of rivers and in other important places. Agriculturists,
labourers and bazaar people hear the stories.
Eighteen Puranas
There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or Upa-
Puranas. The main Puranas are: Vishnu Purana, Naradiya Purana, Srimad Bhagavata Purana,
Garuda (Suparna) Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana, Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana,
Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Matsya Purana,
Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Siva Purana, Skanda Purana and Agni Purana. Of these, six are
Sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu; six are Rajasic and glorify Brahma; six are Tamasic and they
glorify Siva.
Neophytes or beginners in the spiritual path are puzzled when they go through Siva Purana
and Vishnu Purana. In Siva Purana, Lord Siva is highly eulogised and an inferior position is given
to Lord Vishnu. Sometimes Vishnu is belittled. In Vishnu Purana, Lord Hari is highly eulogised
and an inferior status is given to Lord Siva. Sometimes Lord Siva is belittled. This is only to
increase the faith of the devotees in their particular Ishta-Devata. Lord Siva and Lord Vishnu are
one.
 The best among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata and the Vishnu Purana. The most
popular is the Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes Vishnu Purana. A portion of the Markandeya
Purana is well known to all Hindus as Chandi, or Devimahatmya. Worship of God as the Divine
Mother is its theme. Chandi is read widely by the Hindus on sacred days and Navaratri (Durga
Puja) days.
Ten Avataras And Their Purpose
The Srimad Bhagavata Purana is a chronicle of the various Avataras of Lord Vishnu. There
are ten Avataras of Vishnu. The aim of every Avatara is to save the world from some great danger,
to destroy the wicked and protect the virtuous. The ten Avataras are: Matsya (The Fish), Kurma
(The Tortoise), Varaha (The Boar), Narasimha (The Man-Lion), Vamana (The Dwarf), Parasurama
(Rama with the axe, the destroyer of the Kshatriya race), Ramachandra (the hero of the Ramayana–
the son of Dasaratha, who destroyed Ravana), Sri Krishna, the teacher of the Gita, Buddha (the
prince-ascetic, founder of Buddhism), and Kalki (the hero riding on a white horse, who is to come
at the end of the Kali-Yuga).
The object of the Matsya Avatara was to save Vaivasvata Manu from destruction by a
deluge. The object of Kurma Avatara was to enable the world to recover some precious things
which were lost in the deluge. The Kurma gave its back for keeping the churning rod when the
Gods and the Asuras churned the ocean of milk. The purpose of Varaha Avatara was to rescue,
from the waters, the earth which had been dragged down by a demon named Hiranyaksha. The
purpose of Narasimha Avatara, half-lion and half-man, was to free the world from the oppression
of Hiranyakasipu, a demon, the father of Bhakta Prahlada. The object of Vamana Avatara was to
restore the power of the gods which had been eclipsed by the penance and devotion of King Bali.
The object of Parasurama Avatara was to deliver the country from the oppression of the Kshatriya
rulers. Parasurama destroyed the Kshatriya race twenty-one times. The object of Rama Avatara was
to destroy the wicked Ravana. The object of Sri Krishna Avatara was to destroy Kamsa and other
demons, to deliver His wonderful message of the Gita in the Mahabharata war, and to become the
centre of the Bhakti schools of India. The object of Buddha Avatara was to prohibit animal
sacrifices and teach piety. The object of the Kalki Avatara is the destruction of the wicked and the
re-establishment of virtue.
Lilas of Lord Siva
Lord Siva incarnated himself in the form of Dakshinamurti to impart knowledge to the four
Kumaras. He took human form to initiate Sambandhar, Manikkavasagar, Pattinathar. He appeared
in flesh and blood to help his devotees and relieve their sufferings. The divine Lilas or sports of
Lord Siva are recorded in the Tamil Puranas like Siva Purana, Periya Purana, Siva Parakramam and
Tiruvilayadal Purana.
The eighteen Upa-Puranas are: Sanatkumara, Narasimha, Brihannaradiya, Sivarahasya,
Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha,
Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa and Hamsa.
Study of the Puranas, listening to sacred recitals of scriptures, describing and expounding of
the transcendent Lilas of the Blessed Lord–these form an important part of Sadhana of the Lord‘s
devotees. It is most pleasing to the Lord. Sravana is a part of Navavidha-Bhakti. Kathas and
Upanyasas open the springs of devotion in the hearts of hearers and develop Prema-Bhakti which
confers immortality on the Jiva.
The language of the Vedas is archaic, and the subtle philosophy of Vedanta and the
Upanishads is extremely difficult to grasp and assimilate. Hence, the Puranas are of special value
as they present philosophical truths and precious teachings in an easier manner. They give ready
access to the mysteries of life and the key to bliss. Imbibe their teachings. Start a new life of
Dharma-Nishtha and Adhyatmic Sadhana from this very day, and attain Immortality.
d) Upnishad
What are the Upanishads?
The word Upanishad is usually interpreted as ―sitting down beside.‖ This Sanskrit word can
be broken down into three parts and translated as ―upa‖ meaning near, ―ni‖ as down and ―shad‖ as
to sit. Thus the meaning of the word confers the intent of these texts to directly transfer knowledge
and truth from teacher to student. The collection of Sanskrit texts known as the Upanishads are
thought to be the direct teachings received at the foot of the ancient Indian sages or Rishis.
In these sacred texts, we see an internalization of the sacrifice and worship extolled in the Vedas
and a deeper understanding and exploration of the internal world of mind and spirit. Composed
over several centuries and in many volumes, the Upanishads reflect a strong need to express and
communicate the deep mystical states and spiritual contemplations that the ancient yogis
experienced.
According to tradition, there were over two hundred Upanishads, but there are only eleven
―principal‖ Upanishads, as commented on by the ancient sage Shankara. The texts are written in a
passionate poetic verse describing mystical states and spiritual concepts or in descriptive short
stories and dialogues between historical figures.
The 4 main teachings
The teachings of the Upanishads revolve around four primary spiritual themes. These
four philosophical concepts are described in many different ways as they can be
difficult to grasp. These main teachings are repeatedly reinforced in the texts of the
eleven principal Upanishads.
1. The first and most important is the realization that the ultimate, formless, and
inconceivable Brahman (Godhead) is the same as Atman, as our internal soul.
Brahman represents the entire universe, and the Atman is a little piece of that
divine oneness that we contain inside us. This philosophical idea is summed
up in the mantra Tat Tvam Asi (That Art Thou).
2. The idea that the Atman is eternal, and becomes reborn over and over again is
central to the concept of reincarnation that is taught in the Upanishads.
3. This concept of rebirth is highly tied to the teachings of Karma: the future
consequences of one‘s current intentions, thoughts, behaviors, and actions.
4. It is the accumulation of Karma that binds us to Samsara, the cycle of death
and rebirth. To escape the endless cycle of Samsara requires one to attain
enlightenment through the realization of Atman/Brahman. It is this state of
Self realization that the majority of the Upanishads attempt to describe and
encourage us to achieve through the yoga practices of meditation, mental
discrimination, and mantra recitation.
The 11 most important Upanishads
1. Aitareya Upanishad. This is one of the oldest Upanishads and is linked with
the ancient Rigveda text. It discusses a four-tier universe, the creation of
beings, the embodiment of Atman as the divine creator, and the qualities of
Brahman.
2. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. This Upanishad was written by the ancient sage
Yajnavalkya. Within its three chapters, it describes the relationship between
Jiva and the Atman and explains different methods of meditation.
3. Isha Upanishad. This is a shorter Upanishad of only eighteen verses. The word
―Isa‖ means ―Lord of the Universe,‖ which is described in this text as
―unembodied, omniscient, beyond reproach, without veins, pure and
uncontaminated.‖
4. Taittiriya Upanishad. This Upanishad is divided into three parts and the
second section proclaims that the highest aim is to see Brahman as omniscient,
infinite, and the highest truth.
5. Katha Upanishad. This is one of the most Upanishads, and some of its
passages are found in the Bhagavad Gita. It is a discussion between Yama, the
god of death, and Nachiketa, a young Brahman boy. They discuss in detail the
spiritual path to liberation, the concept of re-birth, and the way in which a yogi
should leave their body behind.
6. Chandogya Upanishad. This Upanishad discusses the importance of
meditation, the power of the Om mantra, and the significance of Prana, the
central life force energy.
7. Kena Upanishad. This Upanishad narrates the uniqueness of creation and the
single power that controls the whole world.
8. Mundaka Upanishad. This Upanishad contains sixty-four mantra-like poems.
This text provides instruction on meditation and discusses the nature of
Brahma and Atman.
9. Mandukya Upanishad. This is the shortest of all the Upanishads with only 12
verses. It describes the four states of consciousness in which the Om mantra
represents.
10.Prasna Upanishad. This Upanishad is a series of philosophical questions asked
by several disciples and answered by the Sage Pippalada. The text discusses
the nature of Brahman and the origin, existence, and goal of life.
11.Svetastara Upanishad. This Upanishad is unique in that the emphasis is not on
the Brahman but focuses on the bhakti or devotion of personal deities. This
text contains several metaphysical discussions about the creation and purpose
of existence.
The importance of the Upanishads
These spiritual concepts have exerted a profound influence on the
development of Yoga, Hindu, and Indian philosophy. While the yogic practices
 taught in the Upanishads were primarily mediation based, these philosophical
teachings will remain the core beliefs for all of the future developments in the
many paths and practices of yoga. A great place to begin to read and study more
is with The Upanishads by Eknath Easwaran.

e) Shabd darshan
Introduction:
"Shabd Darshan" translates to "Philosophy of Sound" or "Philosophy of Language" in
English. It refers to the branch of Indian philosophy that deals with the nature, origin, and
significance of language and sound. This philosophical inquiry delves into how language and
sound relate to reality, knowledge, and communication. Shabd Darshan is an important component
of Indian philosophical thought, and various schools of philosophy explore the nature of language
in their own ways. Here's an overview:
Importance of Language in Indian Philosophy:
In Indian philosophy, language is considered a powerful tool for communication, understanding
reality, and expressing philosophical ideas. The ability to use language effectively is seen as a
means to convey complex concepts and insights about the nature of existence, self, and the
universe.
Schools of Thought within Shabd Darshan:
Several major schools of Indian philosophy engage with the philosophical implications of language
and sound:
Nyaya Philosophy: The Nyaya school emphasizes logical reasoning and epistemology. It examines
how language functions as a means of valid knowledge and seeks to establish rules for proper
communication and argumentation.
Vaisheshika Philosophy: The Vaisheshika school, which focuses on metaphysics and atomism,
explores how language contributes to the understanding of different categories of reality and the
nature of substances.
Mimamsa Philosophy: As mentioned earlier, Mimamsa emphasizes the interpretation of Vedic
texts, including their linguistic aspects. It deals with the relationship between language and ritual,
and how correct performance of rituals is related to accurate understanding of Vedic injunctions.
Vedanta Philosophy: Vedanta, particularly the Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta proper), explores the
metaphysical and spiritual implications of language, particularly in the Upanishads. It delves into
the nature of the ultimate reality (Brahman) and the concept of self (Atman) through discussions on
language.
Bhartṛhari's Philosophy: Bhartṛhari, an ancient Indian philosopher, is known for his work
"Vakyapadiya," which is a foundational text on the philosophy of language. His philosophy
explores the relationship between language, thought, and reality, proposing the theory of sphota
(the non-dual meaning of sentences).
Bhartṛhari and Vakyapadiya:
Bhartṛhari's "Vakyapadiya" is a seminal work in the field of Shabd Darshan. It presents a profound
analysis of language and thought, suggesting that words are not just collections of individual
sounds but convey meanings as integrated wholes (sphota). This theory has had a significant
influence on later philosophical discussions on language.
Conclusion:
Shabd Darshan is a rich and multifaceted field of inquiry within Indian philosophy that delves into
the philosophical implications of language and sound. It highlights the importance of language in
conveying philosophical ideas, understanding reality, and communicating knowledge. The various
schools of thought within Shabd Darshan contribute to a deeper understanding of how language
functions and how it is intricately tied to human cognition and the pursuit of truth.
1) Vedanta
Vedanta is one of the six orthodox philosophical schools of Hindu philosophy, and it is
often considered the culmination of Vedic thought. The term "Vedanta" is derived from two
Sanskrit words: "Veda" (knowledge) and "anta" (end or culmination). Vedanta refers to the
philosophical teachings that explore the ultimate nature of reality, the self (Atman), and the
relationship between the individual and the divine (Brahman). It is based on the metaphysical
teachings found in the Upanishads, which are the concluding portions of the Vedas.

Key Concepts and Teachings:

Vedanta philosophy is rich and diverse, encompassing various schools of thought and
interpretations. However, some core concepts are shared among them:

Brahman: Vedanta posits Brahman as the ultimate, transcendental reality that is the source of all
existence. It is described as infinite, impersonal, formless, and beyond the limitations of time,
space, and causation. Brahman is considered the underlying reality behind the world of
appearances.
Atman: Atman refers to the individual self or soul. Vedanta teaches that Atman is identical in
nature with Brahman, representing a universal consciousness that exists within all beings. The
realization of this identity between Atman and Brahman is a central goal of Vedanta.

Maya: Maya refers to the illusion or appearance that veils the true nature of reality. It is responsible
for the perceived diversity and multiplicity of the world. Vedanta emphasizes that Brahman
remains unchanging and unaffected by the illusory nature of the world.

Jiva and Isvara: Jiva refers to the individual soul or self, while Isvara refers to the cosmic or divine
principle. Vedanta explores the relationship between the individual soul and the ultimate reality,
emphasizing the oneness of Brahman.

Moksha: Liberation (moksha) is a central goal in Vedanta. It is the state of realizing one's identity
with Brahman and breaking free from the cycle of birth and death (samsara). This realization leads
to eternal bliss and freedom from suffering.

Vedanta Schools:
Vedanta has different schools of thought based on interpretations of the Upanishads and other
Vedic texts. The three most prominent schools are:

Advaita Vedanta: Founded by Adi Shankaracharya, Advaita Vedanta emphasizes the non-dual
nature of reality. It teaches that Brahman is the only true reality, and the apparent diversity of the
world is a result of ignorance (avidya). The individual soul (Atman) is identical with Brahman.

Vishishtadvaita Vedanta: Founded by Ramanuja, this school asserts qualified non-dualism. It

teaches that while Brahman is the ultimate reality, the individual souls (Atman) are distinct from
Brahman, yet interconnected. There is a relationship of "qualified oneness" between Brahman and
individual souls.

Dvaita Vedanta: Founded by Madhva, Dvaita Vedanta emphasizes dualism. It asserts the ultimate
distinction between Brahman and individual souls. The world, souls, and God are considered
separate and distinct entities.

Influence and Legacy:

Vedanta has had a profound influence on Hindu philosophy, spirituality, and culture. Its teachings
have permeated various sects, schools of thought, and religious practices. Vedanta has also
influenced other philosophical traditions in India, including Buddhism and Jainism. Additionally,
Vedanta's emphasis on self-realization, liberation, and the exploration of the nature of reality has
made it relevant beyond the borders of India and has attracted the interest of philosophers, scholars,
and seekers worldwide.
In summary, Vedanta is a profound philosophical system that explores the ultimate reality,
the nature of the self, and the relationship between the individual and the divine. Its teachings have
deeply influenced Hindu thought and spirituality, emphasizing concepts such as non-duality, self-
realization, and the pursuit of liberation.
2) Nyaya

Nyāya (Sanskrit ny-āyá, literally "recursion", used in the sense of "syllogism, inference")
is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically
the school of logic. The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on texts known as the
Nyaya Sutras, which were written by Aksapada Gautama in the 2nd century CE.
Overview
The most important contribution made by the Nyaya school to modern Hindu thought is its
methodology to prove existence of God, based on the Vedas. This methodology is based on a
system of logic that, subsequently, has been adopted by the majority of the other Indian schools,
orthodox or not. This is comparable to how Western science and philosophy can be said to be
largely based on Aristotelian logic.

However, Nyaya differs from Aristotelian logic in that it is more than logic in its own right. Its
followers believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from
suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to
distinguish these from mere false opinions. Nyaya is thus a form of epistemology in addition to
logic.

According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge (pramāṇas):
perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these can,
of course, still be either valid or invalid. As a result, Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to
identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process creating a number of
explanatory schemes. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to
contemporary analytic philosophy.
Sixteen Padārthas or Categories
The Nyaya metaphysics recognizes sixteen padarthas or categories and includes all six (or seven)
categories of the Vaisheshika in the second one of them, called prameya. These sixteen
categories are pramāṇa (valid means of knowledge), prameya (objects of valid knowledge),
saṁśaya (doubt), prayojana (aim), dṛṣṭānta (example), siddhānta (conclusion), avayava
(members of syllogism), tarka (hypothetical reasoning), nirṇaya (settlement), vāda (discussion),
jalpa (wrangling), vitaṇḍā (cavilling), hetvābhāsa (fallacy), chala (quibbling), jāti (sophisticated
refutation) and nigrahasthāna (point of defeat).

Epistemology
The Nyaya epistemology considers knowledge (jñāna) or cognition (buddhi) as apprehension
(upalabdhi) or consciousness (anubhava). Knowledge may be valid or invalid. The Naiyayikas
(the Nyaya scholars) accepted four valid means (pramaṇa) of obtaining valid knowledge (prama)
- perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), comparison (upamāna) and verbal testimony
(śabda). Invalid knowledge includes memory (smṛti), doubt (saṁśaya), error (viparyaya) and
hypothetical reasoning (tarka).
Perception
Pratyakṣa (perception) occupies the foremost position in the Nyaya epistemology. Perception is
defined by Akṣapāda Gautama in his Nyaya Sutra (I,i.4) as a 'non-erroneous cognition which is
produced by the intercourse of sense-organs with the objects, which is not associated with a
name and well-defined'. Perception can be of two types, laukika (ordinary) and alaukika
(extraordinary).

Ordinary perception

Ordinary (Laukika or Sadharana) perception is of six types - visual-by eyes, olfactory-by nose,
auditory-by ears, tactile-by skin, gustatory-by tongue and mental-by mind.

Extra-ordinary perception
Extraordinary (Alaukika or Asadharana) perception is of three types, viz., Samanyalakshana
(perceiving generality from a particular object), Jñanalakshana (when one sense organ can also
perceive qualities not attributable to it, as when seeing a chili, one knows that it would be bitter
or hot), and Yogaja (when certain human beings, from the power of Yoga, can perceive past,
present and future and have supernatural abilities, either complete or some).
Determinate and indeterminate perception
The Naiyayika maintains two modes or stages in perception. The first is called nirvikalpa
(indeterminate), when one just perceives an object without being able to know its features, and
the second savikalpa (determinate), when one is able to clearly know an object. All laukika
and alaukika pratyakshas are savikalpa, but it is necessarily preceded by an earlier stage when
it is indeterminate. Vātsāyana says that if an object is perceived with its name we have
determinate perception but if it is perceived without a name, we have indeterminate
perception. Jayanta Bhatta says that indeterminate perception apprehends substance, qualities
and actions and universals as separate and indistinct something and also it does not have any
association with name, while determinate perception aprrehends all these together with a
name. There is yet another stage called Pratyabhijñā, when one is able to re-recognise
something on the basis of memory.

Inference
Anumāna (inference) is one of the most important contributions of the Nyaya. It can be of two
types: inference for oneself (Svarthanumana, where one does not need any formal procedure,
and at the most the last three of their 5 steps), and inference for others (Parathanumana, which
requires a systematic methodology of 5 steps).

Inference can also be classified into 3 types:

Purvavat (inferring an unperceived effect from a perceived cause),
Sheshavat (inferring an unperceived cause from a perceived effect) and
Samanyatodrishta (when inference is not based on causation but on uniformity of co-existence).
Comparison
Upamāna, which can be roughly translated as comparison is the knowledge of the relationship
between a word and the object denoted by the word. It is produced by the knowledge of
resemblance or similarity, given some pre-description of the new object beforehand.

Verbal testimony

Śabda or verbal testimony is defined as the statement of a trustworthy person (āptavākya), and
consists in understanding its meaning. It can be of two types, Vaidika (Vedic), which are the
words of the four sacred Vedas, and are described as the Word of God, having been composed
by God, and Laukika, or words and writings of trustworthy human beings. Vaidika testimony is
preferred as the infallible word of God, and Laukika testimony must by its nature be questioned
and overruled by more trustworthy knowledge if such becomes available.

Theory of inference

The methodology of inference involves a combination of induction and deduction by moving

from particular to particular via generality. It has five steps, as in the example shown:

 There is fire on the hill (called Pratijñā, required to be proved)

 Because there is smoke there (called Hetu, reason)
 Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, e.g. in a kitchen (called Udāhārana, example of
vyāpti)
 The hill has smoke that is pervaded by fire (called Upanaya, reaffirmation or application)
 Therefore there is fire on the hill (called Nigamana, conclusion)

In Nyāya terminology for this example, the hill would be called as paksha (minor term), the
fire is called as sādhya (major term), the smoke is called as hetu, and the relationship between
the smoke and the fire is called as vyapti (middle term). Hetu further has five characteristics:
(1) It must be present in the Paksha, (2) It must be present in all positive instances, (3) It must
be absent in all negative instances, (4) It must not incompatible with the minor term or
Paksha and
(5) All other contradictions by other means of knowledge should be absent. The fallacies in
Anumana (hetvābhasa) may occur due to the following:

1. Asiddha: It is the unproved hetu that results in this fallacy. [Paksadharmata]

 Ashrayasiddha: If Paksha [minor term] itself is unreal, then there cannot be locus of the
hetu. e.g. The sky-lotus is fragrant, because it is a lotus like any other lotus.
 Svarupasiddha: Hetu cannot exist in paksa at all. E.g. Sound is a quality, because it
is visible.
 Vyapyatvasiddha: Conditional hetu. `Wherever there is fire, there is smoke'.
The presence of smoke is due to wet fuel.
2. Savyabhichara: This is the fallacy of irregular hetu.
 Sadharana: The hetu is too wide. It is present in both sapaksa and vipaksa. `The hill has
fire because it is knowable'.
 Asadharana: The hetu is too narrow. It is only present in the Paksha, it is not present in
the Sapaksa and in the Vipaksha. `Sound is eternal because it is audible'.
 Anupasamhari: Here the hetu is non-exclusive. The hetu is all-inclusive and leaves
nothing by way of sapaksha or vipaksha. e.g. 'All things are non-ternal, because they
are knowable'.

3. Satpratipaksa: Here the hetu is contradicted by another hetu. If both have equal force,
then nothing follows. 'Sound is eternal, because it is audible', and 'Sound is non-eternal,
because it is produced'. Here 'audible' is counterbalanced by 'produced' and both are of equal
force.

4. Badhita: When another proof (as by perception) definitely contradicts and disproves
the middle term (hetu). 'Fire is cold because it is a substance'.

5. Viruddha: Instead of proving something it is proving the opposite. 'Sound is eternal

because it is produced'.

The Nyaya theory of causation

A cause is defined as an unconditional and invariable antecedent of an effect and an effect as

an unconditional and invariable consequent of a cause. The same cause produces the same
effect; and the same effect is produced by the same cause. The cause is not present in any
hidden form whatsoever in its effect.

The following conditions should be met:

1. The cause must be antecedent [Purvavrtti]

2. Invariability [Niyatapurvavrtti]
3. Unconditionality [Ananyathasiddha]

Nyaya recognizes five kinds of accidental antecedents [Anyathasiddha]

1. Mere accidental antecedent. E.g., The colour of the potter's cloth.
2. Remote cause is not a cause because it is not unconditional. E.g., The father of the
potter.
3. The co-effects of a cause are not causally related.
4. Eternal substances, or eternal conditions are not unconditional antecedents, e.g. space.
5. Unnecessary things, e.g. the donkey of the potter.

Nyaya recognizes three kinds of cause:

1. Samavayi, material cause, e.g. thread of a cloth.
2. Asamavayi, colour of the thread which gives the colour of the cloth.

3. Nimitta, efficient cause, e.g. the weaver of the cloth.

Anyathakyativada of Nyaya

The Nyaya theory of error is similar to that of Kumarila's Viparita-khyati (see Mimamsa). The
Naiyayikas also believe like Kumarila that error is due to a wrong synthesis of the presented
and the represented objects. The represented object is confused with the presented one. The
word 'anyatha' means 'elsewise' and 'elsewhere' and both these meanings are brought out in
error. The presented object is perceived elsewise and the represented object exists elsewhere.
They further maintain that knowledge is not intrinsically valid but becomes so on account of
extraneous conditions (paratah pramana during both validity and invalidity).
Nyaya on God and salvation

Early Naiyayikas wrote very little about Ishvara (literally, the Supreme Soul). However,
later Buddhists in India had become from agnostic to strictly atheistic. As a reaction, the later
Naiyayikas entered into disputes with the Buddhists and tried to prove the existence of God on
the basis of inference. They made this question a challenge to their own existence. Udayana's
Nyayakusumanjali gave the following nine arguments to prove the existence of creative God:

• Kāryāt (lit. "from effect"): An effect is produced by a cause, and similarly, the universe
must also have a cause. Causes (according to Naiyayikas) are of three kinds: Samavayi (in
case of the universe, the atoms), Asamavayi (the association of atoms) and Nimitta (which is
Ishvara). The active cause of the world must have an absolute knowledge of all the material of
creation, and hence it must be God. Hence from the creation, the existence of the Creator is
proved.

• Āyojanāt (lit., from combination): Atoms are inactive and properties are unphysical. So
it must be God who creates the world with his will by causing the atoms to join. Self-
combination of inanimate and lifeless things is not possible otherwise atoms would only
combine at random, creating chaos. There is to be seen the hand of a wise organizer behind the
systematic grouping of the ultimate atoms into dyads and molecules. That final organizer is
God.

• Dhŗtyādéḥ (lit., from support): Just as a material thing falls off without a support,
similarly, God is the supporter and bearer of this world, without which the world would not
have remained integrated. This universe is hence superintended within God, which proves his
existence.

• Padāt (lit., from word): Every word has the capability to represent a certain object. It is
the will of God that a thing should be represented by a certain word. Similarly, no knowledge
can come to us of the different things here unless there is a source of this knowledge. The
origin of all knowledge should be omniscient and, consequently, omnipotent. Such a being is
not to be seen in this universe, and so it must be outside it. This being is God.

• Pratyayataḥ (lit, from faith): the Hindu holy scriptures, the Vedas, are regarded as the
source of eternal knowledge. Their knowledge is free from fallacies and are widely believed as
a source of proof. Their authors cannot be human beings because human knowledge is limited.
They cannot obtain knowledge of past, present, and future, and in depth knowledge of
mind. Hence, only God can be the creator of the Vedas. Hence, his existence is proved from his being
the author of the Vedas, which he revealed to various sages over a period of time.

• Shrutéḥ (lit., from scriptures): The Shrutis, e.g., the Vedas extol God and talk about his
existence. "He is the lord of all subjects, omniscient, and knower of one's internal feelings; He
is the cause, maintainer, and destroyer of the world", say the Shrutis. The Shrutis are regarded
as a source of proofs by Naiyanikas. Hence, the existence of God is proved.

• Vākyāt (lit., from precepts): World is governed by moral laws that are objective and
universal. These are again manifested by Shrutis. Hence there exists God, the promulgator of
these laws.

• Samkhyāviśeşāt (lit., from the specialty of numbers):According to the Nyaya, the

magnitude of a dyad is produced by the number of two atoms. The number "one" is directly
perceived but other numbers are created by perceptions, which is related to the mind of the
perceiver. Since at the time of creation, souls, atoms, Adŗşţa (Unseen Power), space, time and
minds are all unconscious, hence it depends on divine consciousness. So God must exist.

• Adŗşţāt (lit., from the unforeseen): Everybody reaps the fruits of his own actions.
merits and demerits accrue from his own actions and the stock of merit and demerit is known
as Adŗşţa, the Unseen Power. But since this unseen power is unintelligent, it needs the
guidance from a supremely intelligent god.

On monotheism

Not only have the Naiyayikas provided arguments to prove the existence of God, but they have
also given an argument that such a God can only be one. In the Nyayakusumanjali, this is
discussed against the proposition of the Mimamsa school—that let us assume there were many
gods (Devas) and sages (rishis) in the beginning, who wrote the Vedas and created the world.
Udayana says that:

[if they assume such] omniscient beings, those endowed with the various superhuman faculties
of assuming infinitesimal size, and so on, and capable of creating everything, then we reply
that the law of parsimony bids us assume only one such, namely Him, the adorable Lord.
There can be no confidence in a non-eternal and non omniscient being, and hence it follows
that according to the system which rejects God, the tradition of the Veda is simultaneously
overthrown; there is no other way open.

In other words, Udayana says that the polytheist would have to give elaborate proofs for the
existence and origin of his several celestial spirits, none of which would be logical. So it is
much more logical to assume only one, eternal and omniscient God.

On salvation
The Naiyayikas believe that the bondage of the world is due to false knowledge, which can be
removed by constantly thinking of its opposite (pratipakshabhavana), namely, the true
knowledge. So the opening aphorism of the Nyāya Sūtra states that only the true knowledge
lead to niḥśreyasa (salvation). But the Nyaya school also maintains that the God's grace is
essential for obtaining true knowledge. Jayanta, in his Nyayamanjari describes salvation as a
passive stage of self in its natural purity, unassociated with pleasure, pain, knowledge and
willingness.

Literature of Nyaya
The earliest text of the Nyāya School is the Nyāya Sūtra of Akṣapāda Gautama. The text is
divided into five books, each having two sections. Vātsāyana's Nyāya Bhāṣya is a classic
commentary on the Nyāya Sūtra. Udyotakara's Nyāya Vārttika (6th century CE) is written to
defend Vātsāyana against the attacks made by Dignāga. Vācaspati Miśra's
Nyāyavārttikatātparyaṭīkā (9th century CE) is the next major exposition of this school. Two
other texts, Nyāyaṣūcinibandha and Nyāyasūtraddhāra are also attributed to him. Udayana's
(984 CE) Nyāyatātparyapariśuddhi is an important commentary on Vācaspati's treatise. His
Nyāyakusumāñjali is the first systematic account of theistic Nyāya. His other works include
Ātmatattvaviveka, Kiraṇāvali and Nyāyapariśiṣṭa. Jayanta Bhatta's Nyāyamañjari (10th
century CE) is basically an independent work. Bhāsavarajña's Nyāyasāra (10th century CE) is a
survey of Nyāya philosophy.

The later works on Nyāya accepted the Vaiśeṣika categories and Varadarāja's Tārkikarakṣā
(12th century CE) is a notable treatise of this syncretist school. Keśava Miśra's Tārkabhaṣā
(13th century CE) is another important work of this school.

Gangeśa Upādhyāya's Tattvacintāmaṇi (12th century CE) is the first major treatise of the new
school of Navya Nyāya. His son, Vardhamāna Upādhyāya's Nyāyanibandhaprakāśa (1225
CE), though a commentary on Udayana's Nyāyatātparyapariśuddhi, incorporated his father's
views. Jayadeva wrote a commentary on Tattvacintāmaṇi known as Āloka (13th century CE).
Vāsudeva Sārvabhauma's Tattvacintāmaṇivyākhyā (16th century CE) is first great work of
 Navadvipa school of Navya Nyāya. Raghunātha Śiromaṇi's Tattvacintāmaṇidīdhiti and
Padārthakhaṇḍana are the next important works of this school. Viśvanatha's Nyāyasūtravṛtti
(17th century CE) is also a notable work. The Commentaries on Tattvacintāmaṇidīdhiti by
Jagadish Tarkalankar (17th century CE) and Gadadhar Bhattacharya (17th century CE) are the
last two notable works of this school.

Annaṁbhatta (17th century CE) tried to develop a consistent system by combining the ancient
and the new schools, Prācina nyāya and Navya nyāya and Vaiśeṣika to develop the nyāya-
vaiśeṣika school. His Tarkasaṁgraha and Dīpikā are the popular manuals of this school.

3) Vaisheshik
Vaisheshika is one of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy, often referred to as the
"Nyaya-Vaisheshika" system. It is primarily concerned with metaphysics, epistemology (theory
of knowledge), and the nature of reality. The Vaisheshika school originated in ancient India and
provides a systematic framework for understanding the structure of the universe and the
categories of existence. Here's more information about Vaisheshika:

Foundations and Origins:

The Vaisheshika school was founded by the sage Kanada (also known as Kashyapa) around the
2nd century BCE, though the exact dating is debated. Kanada's teachings are compiled in a work
known as the "Vaisheshika Sutras." The term "Vaisheshika" is derived from "vishesha"
(particular or specific) and refers to the school's focus on analyzing the specific characteristics of
various entities.

Key Concepts:
Vaisheshika philosophy is characterized by its atomic theory and the classification of the
components of reality into distinct categories:

Padartha (Categories of Existence): Vaisheshika categorizes reality into six fundamental entities
or "padartha":
Dravya (Substance): Substances that possess independent existence. These include earth, water,
fire, air, ether, time, space, soul, and mind.
Guna (Quality): Attributes that characterize substances, such as color, taste, smell, and touch.
Karma (Action): Action or motion, which brings about changes in substances.
Samanya (Generality): Universals that are present in multiple substances, such as humanity.
Vishesha (Particularity): Individual characteristics that distinguish one substance from another.
Samavaya (Inherence): The relation between cause and effect, or between parts and wholes.
Atomism: Vaisheshika proposes an atomic theory that suggests all substances are composed of
indivisible particles called "anu." These atoms combine to form more complex entities.

Kanada's Theory of Perception: Kanada developed a comprehensive theory of perception that

explores how knowledge is acquired through sense perception. This theory contributes to the
school's epistemological framework.

Inference (Anumana): Vaisheshika employs logical reasoning to establish knowledge through

inference. Inference involves the recognition of a universal rule based on observation of a
specific case.

Epistemology and Logic:

Vaisheshika's epistemology, like the Nyaya school, focuses on the validity of knowledge. It
recognizes four sources of valid knowledge (pramana): perception, inference, comparison, and
testimony. The school emphasizes systematic logic and debate as methods for acquiring accurate
knowledge.

Impact and Legacy:

The Vaisheshika school has had a significant influence on the development of Indian philosophy.
Its detailed categorization of reality, atomic theory, and systematic approach to knowledge have
contributed to discussions on metaphysics and epistemology. It has also influenced other
philosophical systems, such as Advaita Vedanta and Jainism.

Conclusion:
Vaisheshika is a sophisticated philosophical system that offers a structured understanding of
reality, categorizing substances, qualities, and the relationships between them. Its emphasis on
logical reasoning, atomism, and epistemology has contributed to the broader landscape of Indian
philosophical thought, enriching discussions about the nature of the universe and the acquisition
of knowledge.

4) Sankhya
Samkhya, also Sankhya, Sāṃkhya, or Sāṅkhya (Sanskrit: , IAST: sāṃkhya), is one of the six
orthodox (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is
traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school. It is regarded as one of the oldest
philosophical systems in India.
Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy that is strongly dualist. Sāmkhya philosophy regards
the universe as consisting of two realities; Puruṣa (consciousness) and prakriti (phenomenal
realm of matter). Jiva is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti through the glue of
desire, and the end of this bondage is moksha.
Sāṃkhya denies the final cause of Ishvara (God). Samkhya does not describe what happens after
moksha and does not mention anything about Ishwara or God, because after liberation there is no
essential distinction of individual and universal puruṣa
Historical development
The word samkhya means empirical or relating to numbers. Although the term had been used in
the general sense of metaphysical knowledge before, in technical usage it refers to the Samkhya
school of thought that evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early centuries CE. The
Samkhya system is called so because "it 'enumerates' twenty five Tattvas or true principles; and
its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva, i.e. the Puruṣa or
soul."
Origins
According to Zimmer and Ruzsa Samkhya has non-vedic origins:
Both the agrarian theology of Śiva-Śakti/Sky-Earth and the tradition of yoga (meditation) do not
appear to be rooted in the Vedas. Not surprisingly, classical Sāṅkhya is remarkably independent
of orthodox Brahmanic traditions, including the Vedas. Sāṅkhya is silent about the Vedas, about
their guardians (the Brahmins) and for that matter about the whole caste system, and about the
Vedic gods; and it is slightly inimical towards the animal sacrifices that characterized the ancient
Vedic religion. But all our early sources for the history of Sāṅkhya belong to the Vedic tradition,
and it is thus reasonable to suppose that we do not see in them the full development of the
Sāṅkhya system, but rather occasional glimpses of its development as it gained gradual
acceptance in the Brahmanic fold.
Emergence as a distinct philosophy
Between 5th and 2nd century BCE, Samkhya thought from various sources started coalescing
into a distinct philosophy. Philosophical texts from this era such as the Katha Upanishad,
Shvetashvatara Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita have clear references to Samkhyan terminology
and concepts. Katha Upanishad conceives the purusha as an individual soul which Ātman (Self)
inhabits. Other verses of the Upanishad consider purusha to be smaller than the thumb.
Samkhya and Yoga are mentioned together for first time in the Shvetashvatra Upanishad.
Bhagavad Gita identifies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge. The three gunas are also
mentioned in the Gita, though they are not used in the same sense as in classical Samkhya. The
Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the devotion (bhakti) of theistic schools and the
impersonal Brahman of Vedanta.
According to Ruzsa, about 2,000 years ago "Sāṅkhya became the representative philosophy of
Hindu thought in Hindu circles", influencing all strands of the Hindu tradition and Hindu texts.
Vedic influences
The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text, Samkhyakarika,
are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita. Earliest
mention of dualism in the Rig Veda, a Hindu text that was compiled in second millennium BCE,
is in the Indra–Vritra myth. In this myth, Indra, leader of the gods, slays Vritra, a serpent demon,
to unleash the creative forces held captive by him. Gerald James Larson, a scholar of religions
and philosophies of India, believes that this myth contains twofold dualism. He writes On one
hand there is dualism of order and chaos.
On the other hand, there is dualism of Indra's power over against both the chaos and the order.
The emphasis of duality between existence (sat) and non-existence (asat) in the Nasadiya sukta
of the Rig Veda is similar to the vyakta–avyakta (manifest–unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya.
The hymn of Purusha sukta may also have influenced Samkhya. It contains the earliest
conception of Purusha, a cosmic being from whom the manifestation arises. Purusha also finds
numerous mentions in the hymns of the Atharvaveda. The Samkhya notion of buddhi or mahat is
similar to the notion of hiranyagarbha which appears in both the Rig Veda and the
Shvetashvatara Upanishad.
Upanishadic influences
The oldest of the major Upanishads (c. 900–600 BCE) also contain speculations along the lines
of classical Samkhya philosophy. The concept of ahamkara in Samkhya can be traced back to the
notion of ahamkara in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chhandogya Upanishad. Satkaryavada,
the theory of causation in Samkhya, can be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize
the primacy of sat (being) and describe creation from it. The idea that the three gunas or
attributes influence creation is found in both Chhandogya and Svetashvatara Upanishads
Upanishadic sages Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni developed the idea that pure consciousness
was the innermost essence of a human being. The purusha of Samkhya could have evolved from
this idea. The enumeration of tattvas in Samkhya is also found in Taittiriya Upanishad, Aitareya
Upanishad and Yajnavalkya–Maitri dialogue in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
Buddhist and Jainist influences
Buddhism and Jainism had developed in Northeastern India by the 5th century BCE. It is
probable that these schools of thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya influenced each other.
A prominent similarity between Buddhism and Samkhya is the emphasis on suffering (dukkha).
However, suffering is not as central to Samkhya as it is to Buddhism. Therefore, it is likely that
Samkhya imbibed this idea from Buddhism. Likewise, the Jain doctrine of plurality of individual
souls (jiva) could have influenced the concept of multiple purushas in Samkhya. However
Hermann Jacobi, an Indologist, thinks that there is little reason to assume that Samkhya notion of
Purushas was solely dependent on the notion of jiva in Jainism. It is more likely, that Samkhya
was moulded by many ancient theories of soul in various Vedic and non-Vedic schools.
Texts
The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the Samkhya Karika
(c. 200 CE or 350–450 CE) of Iśvarakṛṣṇa. There were probably other texts in early centuries
CE, however none of them are available today. Iśvarakṛṣṇa in his Kārikā describes a succession
of the disciples from Kapila, through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha to himself. The text also refers to an
earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called Ṣaṣṭitantra (science of sixty topics) which is now
lost.
The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarikia was the Gauḍapāda Bhāșya attributed to
Gauḍapāda, the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Richard King, Professor of
Religious Studies, thinks it is unlikely that Gauḍapāda could have authored both texts, given the
differences between the two philosophies. Other important commentaries on the karika were
Yuktidīpīka (c. 6th century CE) and Vācaspati‗s Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī (c. 10th century CE).
Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era.
It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika. Commentaries on
this text were written by Anirruddha (Sāṁkhyasūtravṛtti, c. 15th century CE), Vijñānabhikṣu
(Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya, c. 16th century CE), Mahādeva (vṛttisāra, c. 17th century CE) and
Nāgeśa (Laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti). According Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian
philosophy, Charaka Samhita, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also contains thoughts from an
early Samkhya school.
Philosophy
Dualism
While Western philosophical traditions, as exemplified by Descartes, equate mind with the
conscious self and theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body dualism; Samkhya
provides an alternate viewpoint, intimately related to substance dualism, by drawing a
metaphysical line between consciousness and matter — where matter includes both body and
mind.
The Samkhya system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two
"irreducible, innate and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti. While the Prakriti is a single
entity, the Samkhya admits a plurality of the Puruṣas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest,
uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world of
objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its bosom. The Puruṣa is considered as
the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya).
Samkhya believes that the Puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because
an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. It is a pluralistic
spiritualism, atheistic realism and uncompromising dualism.
Puruṣa
Puruṣa is the transcendental self or pure consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free,
imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and
beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, ―nonattributive consciousness‖. Puruṣa is
neither produced nor does it produce. It is held that unlike Advaita Vedanta and like
PurvaMimamsa, Samkhya believes in plurality of the Puruṣas.
Prakriti
Prakriti is the first cause of the manifest material universe — of everything except the Puruṣa.
Prakriti accounts for whatever is physical, both mind and matter-cum-energy or force. Since it is
the first principle (tattva) of the universe, it is called the Pradhāna, but, as it is the unconscious
and unintelligent principle, it is also called the jaDa. It is composed of three essential
characteristics (trigunas). These are:
• Sattva – poise, fineness, lightness, illumination, and joy;
• Rajas – dynamism, activity, excitation, and pain;
• Tamas – inertia, coarseness, heaviness, obstruction, and sloth.
All physical events are considered to be manifestations of the evolution of Prakriti, or primal
nature (from which all physical bodies are derived). Each sentient being or Jiva is a fusion of
Puruṣa and Prakriti, whose soul/Puruṣa is limitless and unrestricted by its physical body.
Samsāra or bondage arises when the Puruṣa does not have the discriminate knowledge and so is
misled as to its own identity, confusing itself with the Ego/ahamkāra, which is actually an
attribute of Prakriti. The spirit is liberated when the discriminate knowledge of the difference
between conscious Puruṣa and unconscious Prakriti is realized by the Puruṣa.
The unconscious primordial materiality, Prakriti, contains 23 components including intellect
(buddhi,mahat), ego (ahamkara) and mind (manas); the intellect, mind and ego are all seen as
forms of unconscious matter. Thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the
extent they receive illumination from Purusha. In Samkhya, consciousness is compared to light
which illuminates the material configurations or 'shapes' assumed by the mind. So intellect, after
receiving cognitive structures form the mind and illumination from pure consciousness, creates
thought structures that appear to be conscious. Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self,
appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus, personalizes the objective activities of
mind and intellect by assuming possession of them. But consciousness is itself independent of
the thought structures it illuminates.
By including mind in the realm of matter, Samkhya avoids one of the most serious pitfalls of
Cartesian dualism, the violation of physical conservation laws. Because mind is an evolute of
matter, mental events are granted causal efficacy and are therefore able to initiate bodily
motions.
Evolution
Evolution in Samkhya:
The idea of evolution in Samkhya revolves around the interaction of Prakriti and Purusha.
Prakriti remains unmanifested as long as the three gunas are in equilibrium. This equilibrium of
the gunas is disturbed when Prakriti comes into proximity with consciousness or Purusha. The
disequilibrium of the gunas triggers an evolution that leads to the manifestation of the world
from an unmanifested Prakriti. The metaphor of movement of iron in the proximity of a magnet
is used to describe this process.
Some evolutes of Prakriti can cause further evolution and are labelled evolvents. For example,
intellect while itself created out of Prakriti causes the evolution of ego-sense or ahamkara and is
therefore an evolvent. While, other evolutes like the five elements do not cause further evolution.
It is important to note that an evolvent is defined as a principle which behaves as the material
cause for the evolution of another principle. So, in definition, while the five elements are the
material cause of all living beings, they cannot be called evolvents because living beings are not
separate from the five elements in essence.
The intellect is the first evolute of prakriti and is called mahat or the great one. It causes the
evolution of ego-sense or self-consciousness. Evolution from self-consciousness is affected by
the dominance of gunas. So dominance of sattva causes the evolution of the five organs of
perception, five organs of action and the mind. Dominance of tamas triggers the evolution of five
subtle elements– sound, touch, sight, taste, smell from self-consciousness. These five subtle
elements are themselves evolvents and cause the creation of the five gross elements space, air,
fire, water and earth. Rajas is cause of action in the evolutes. Purusha is pure consciousness
absolute, eternal and subject to no change. It is neither a product of evolution, nor the cause of
any evolute.
Evolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of evolution of
Prakriti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha. The 23 evolutes of prakriti are
categorized as follows:
Liberation or mokṣa
Like many other major schools of Indian philosophy, Samkhya regards human existence as seat
of intense suffering. Ignorance (avidyā) is regarded as the root cause of this suffering and
bondage (Samsara). Samkhya offers a way out of this suffering by means of discriminative
knowledge (viveka). Such knowledge, that leads to mokṣa (liberation), involves the
discrimination between Prakriti (avyakta-vyakta) and Puruṣa (jña).
Puruṣa, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance, identifies itself with products of
Prakriti such as intellect (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara). This results in endless transmigration and
suffering. However, once the realization arises that Puruṣa is distinct from Prakriti, the Self is no
longer subject to transmigration and absolute freedom (kaivalya) arises. Other forms of Samkhya
teach that Mokṣa is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination
achieved by meditation and other yogic practices as prescribed through the Hindu Vedas.
Epistemology
Samkhya considered Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense perception), Anumāna (inference), and
Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid sources of
knowledge or pramana.
Causality
The Samkhya system is based on Sat-kārya-vāda or the theory of causation. According to
Satkāryavāda, the effect is pre-existent in the cause. There is only an apparent or illusory change
in the makeup of the cause and not a material one, when it becomes effect. Since, effects cannot
come from nothing, the original cause or ground of everything is seen as Prakriti.
More specifically, Samkhya system follows the Prakriti-Parināma Vāda. Parināma denotes that
the effect is a real transformation of the cause. The cause under consideration here is Prakriti or
more precisely Moola-Prakriti (Primordial Matter). The Samkhya system is therefore an
exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter. In evolution,
Prakriti is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects. Evolution is followed by
dissolution. In dissolution the physical existence, all the worldly objects mingle back into
Prakriti, which now remains as the undifferentiated, primordial substance. This is how the cycles
of evolution and dissolution follow each other. But this theory is very different from the modern
theories of science in the sense that Prakriti evolves for each Jeeva separately, giving individual
bodies and minds to each and after liberation these elements of Prakriti merges into the Moola
Prakriti. Another uniqueness of Sāmkhya is that not only physical entities but even mind, ego
and intelligence are regarded as forms of Unconsciousness, quite distinct from pure
consciousness.
Samkhya theorizes that Prakriti is the source of the perceived world of becoming. It is pure
potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles. The evolution
itself is possible because Prakriti is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands or
gunas – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. In a state of equilibrium of three gunas, when the three
together are one, "unmanifest" Prakriti which is unknowable. A guna is an entity that can change,
either increase or decrease, therefore, pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any
modification.
The evolution obeys causality relationships, with primal Nature itself being the material cause of
all physical creation. The cause and effect theory of Samkhya is called Satkārya-vāda (theory of
existent causes), and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness
– all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another. Samkhya
cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe; the relationship between Purusha and
Prakriti is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system. The strands of Samkhya thought can be traced back
to the Vedic speculation of creation. It is also frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata and
Yogavasishta.
Atheism
Samkhya accepts the notion of higher selves or perfected beings but rejects the notion of God.
Classical Samkhya argues against the existence of God on metaphysical grounds. Samkhya
theorists argue that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever changing world and that
God was only a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances. The Sutras of
Samkhya have no explicit role for a separate God distinct from the Puruṣa. Such a distinct God is
inconceivable and self-contradictory and some commentaries speak plainly on this subject.
Arguments against Ishvara's existence
According to Sinha, the following arguments were given by the Samkhya philosophers against
the idea of an eternal, self-caused, creator God:
• If the existence of karma is assumed, the proposition of God as a moral governor of the
universe is unnecessary. For, if God enforces the consequences of actions then he can do so
without karma. If however, he is assumed to be within the law of karma, then karma itself would
be the giver of consequences and there would be no need of a God.
• Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences. Because the motives
of an enforcer God would be either egoistic or altruistic. Now, God's motives cannot be assumed
to be altruistic because an altruistic God would not create a world so full of suffering. If his
motives are assumed to be egoistic, then God must be thought to have desire, as agency or
authority cannot be established in the absence of desire. However, assuming that God has desire
would contradict God's eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions. Moreover,
desire, according to Samkhya, is an attribute of prakriti and cannot be thought to grow in God.
The testimony of the Vedas, according to Samkhya, also confirms this notion.
• Despite arguments to the contrary, if God is still assumed to contain unfulfilled desires, this
would cause him to suffer pain and other similar human experiences. Such a worldly God would
be no better than Samkhya's notion of higher self.
• Furthermore, there is no proof of the existence of God. He is not the object of perception, there
exists no general proposition that can prove him by inference and the testimony of the Vedas
speak of prakriti as the origin of the world, not God. Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the
various cosmological, ontological and teleological arguments could not prove God.

5) Mimamsa
Mimamsa, also known as Purva Mimamsa, is one of the six classical schools of Indian
philosophy. It is primarily concerned with the interpretation and analysis of the Vedic texts,
particularly the ritualistic and sacrificial portions. Mimamsa is known for its emphasis on the
importance of rituals (karma) and its methods of textual interpretation. Here's more information
about Mimamsa:

Origins and Development:

Mimamsa originated as a systematic school of thought around the same time as Vedanta, roughly
between the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE. The term "Mimamsa" means "reflection" or

"investigation" and reflects its core focus on examining the Vedic texts to determine their
meaning and proper performance of rituals.

Two Branches:
Mimamsa is traditionally divided into two branches:
Purva Mimamsa (Earlier Mimamsa): This branch primarily deals with the interpretation of the
Samhitas (hymns) and Brahmanas (ritual texts) of the Vedas. It is concerned with understanding
the rules and procedures for performing Vedic rituals, sacrifices, and ceremonies.

Uttara Mimamsa (Later Mimamsa): Also known as Vedanta, this branch focuses on the
Upanishads and philosophical inquiries into the nature of reality, the self (Atman), and the
relationship between the individual and the ultimate reality (Brahman). Unlike Purva Mimamsa,
Uttara Mimamsa is more metaphysical and speculative in nature.

Principles and Key Concepts:

Mimamsa philosophy revolves around certain key principles:

Dharma: Mimamsa places a strong emphasis on dharma, which refers to ethical duty,
righteousness, and moral responsibility. Properly performing one's duties and rituals is believed
to lead to positive outcomes in this life and the next.

Karma: The school stresses the importance of karma (actions) and how ritual actions lead to
desired results and benefits. The focus is on achieving specific material and spiritual goals
through proper performance of rituals.

Infallibility of the Vedas: Mimamsa asserts that the Vedas are eternal and authorless, containing
authoritative knowledge that is beyond doubt. As such, the proper interpretation of Vedic
injunctions is crucial for the achievement of one's goals.

Bhakti: Although Mimamsa emphasizes ritual performance, it also recognizes devotion and
reverence (bhakti) as an important aspect of religious practice.

Method of Interpretation:
Mimamsa developed a sophisticated methodology for interpreting the Vedic texts. Its approach
involves detailed linguistic analysis, examination of the context of the verses, and consideration
of the practical implications of rituals. It emphasizes the need to uphold the precise wording and
order of the Vedic texts to ensure the effectiveness of rituals.

Influence and Legacy:

Mimamsa had a significant impact on Hindu ritual practice and religious thought. Its emphasis
on the importance of rituals and ethical duties contributed to shaping various aspects of Hindu
life. The Mimamsa school of thought also engaged in philosophical debates with other schools,
particularly Vedanta, influencing the development of Indian philosophical discourse.

In summary, Mimamsa is a classical school of Indian philosophy that focuses on the

interpretation of Vedic texts, ritual performance, and ethical duties. It provides a systematic
framework for understanding the significance of rituals, duties, and the role of Vedic injunctions
in guiding human life.
6) Yoga

Yoga is the physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in
ancient India with a view to attain a state of permanent peace. The term yoga can be derived
from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate). The Yoga
Sūtras of Patañjali defines yoga as "the stilling of the changing states of the mind" (Sanskrit::).
Yoga has also been popularly defined as "union with the divine" in other contexts and
traditions.
Various traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. In Hinduism, yoga
is one of the six āstika schools (accepts authority of Vedas) of Hindu philosophy. Yoga is also
an important part of Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhist philosophy.

Pre–philosophical speculations and diverse ascetic practices of first millennium BCE were
systematized into a formal philosophy in early centuries CE by the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
By the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra. It, along with its many
modern variations, is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today. Vajrayana
Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas, has a parallel series of asanas and
pranayamas, such as caṇḍālī and trul khor.

Gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west, following the success of Swami
Vivekananda in the late 19th and early 20th century. In the 1980s, yoga became popular as a
system of physical exercise across the Western world. This form of yoga is often called Hatha
yoga. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary
intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart disease. In a national survey, long-
term yoga practitioners in the United States reported musculo–skeletal and mental health
improvements.

Terminology

In Vedic Sanskrit, the more commonly used, literal meaning of the Sanskrit word yoga which is
"to add", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach" from the root yuj, already had a much more
figurative sense, where the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses takes on broader meanings
such as "employment, use, application, performance" (compare the figurative uses of "to
harness" as in "to put something to some use"). All further developments of the sense of this
word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as "exertion", "endeavour", "zeal", and
"diligence" are also found in Epic Sanskrit

There are very many compound words containing yog in Sanskrit. Yoga can take on meanings
such as "connection", "contact", "method", "application", "addition", and "performance". In
simpler words, Yoga also means "combined". For example, guṇá-yoga means "contact with a
cord"; chakrá-yoga has a medical sense of "applying a splint or similar instrument by means of
pulleys (in case of dislocation of the thigh)"; chandrá-yoga has the astronomical sense of
"conjunction of the moon with a constellation"; puṃ-yoga is a grammatical term expressing
"connection or relation with a man", etc. Thus, bhakti-yoga means "devoted attachment" in the
monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriyā-yoga has a grammatical sense, meaning
"connection with a verb". But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the
Yoga Sutras (2.1), designating the "practical" aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with
the Supreme" due to performance of duties in everyday life

In Hindu philosophy, the word yoga is used to refer to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools
of Hindu philosophy. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are often labelled as Rāja yoga. According
to Pāṇini, a 6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from either
of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate). In the context of the Yoga
Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional
commentators as the correct etymology. In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa (c. 4th or 5th
century CE), who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras states that yoga means
samādhi (concentration). In other texts and contexts, such as the Bhagavad Gītā and the Hatha
Yoga Pradipika, the word yoga has been used in conformity with yujir yoge (to yoke).

Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment
is called a yogi or yogini.

Purpose

The ultimate goal of Yoga is moksha (liberation) though the exact definition of what form this
takes depends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated. In
Shaiva theology, yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva. Mahabharata defines the purpose
of yoga as the experience of Brahman or Ātman pervading all things.

In the specific sense of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, yoga is defined as citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ (the
cessation of the perturbations of the mind). This is described by Patanjali as the necessary
condition for transcending discursive knowledge and to be one with the divinely understood
"spirit" ("purusha"): "Absolute freedom occurs when the lucidity of material nature and spirit
are in pure equilibrium." In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali indicates that the ultimate goal of yoga
is a state of permanent peace or Kaivalya.

Apart from the spiritual goals, the physical postures of yoga are used to alleviate health
problems, reduce stress and make the spine supple in contemporary times. Yoga is also used as
a complete exercise program and physical therapy routine.

History

The origins of yoga are a matter of debate. It may have pre-Vedic origins. Several seals
discovered at Indus Valley Civilization sites depict figures in positions resembling a common
yoga or meditation pose. Ascetic practices, concentration and bodily postures used by
Vedic priests to conduct Vedic ritual of fire sacrifice may have been precursors to yoga. Pre-
philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500–200 BCE. Between
200 BCE–500 CE philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking
form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge. The Middle Ages saw the
development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Yoga came to the attention of an educated
western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy.

Origins

The origins of yoga are a matter of debate. According to Crangle, Indian researchers have
generally favoured a linear theory, which attempts "to interpret the origin and early
development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis"
just like traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the source of all spiritual knowledge.
Other scholars acknowledge the possibility of non-Aryan components. Some argue that yoga
originates in the Indus Valley CivilizationAccording to Zimmer, Yoga is part of the pre-Vedic
heritage, which also includes Jainism, Samkhya and Buddhism. Samuel argues that yoga
derives from the Śramana tradition:

Our best evidence to date suggests that [yogic practice] developed in the same ascetic circles
as the early sramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth
and fifth centuries BCE.

Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization sites, dating to the mid 3rd millennium
BCE, depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, showing
"a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga," according to archaeologist
Gregory Possehl. Ramaprasad Chanda, who supervised Indus Valley Civilization excavations,
states that,

Not only the seated deities on some of the Indus seals are in yoga posture and bear witness to
the prevalence of yoga in the Indus Valley Civilization in that remote age, the standing deities
on the seals also show Kayotsarga (a standing posture of meditation) position. It is a posture
not of sitting but of standing.

Some type of connection between the Indus Valley seals and later yoga and meditation
practices is speculated upon by many scholars, though there is no conclusive evidence. Many
scholars associate the Pashupati seal with Shiva. Yet, White notes:

[P]rior to the end of the first millennium CE, detailed descriptions of āsanas were nowhere to
be found in the Indian textual record. In the light of this, any claim that sculpted images of
cross- legged figures—including those represented on the famous clay seals from third
millennium BCE Indus Valley archeological sites—represent yogic postures are speculative at
best.

Vedic period

Textual references
According to White, the first use of the word "yoga" is in the Rig Veda, where it denotes a
yoke, but also a war chariot Yoga is discussed quite frequently in the Upanishads, many of
which predate Patanjali's Sutras. The actual term "yoga" first occurs in the Katha Upanishad
and later in the Shvetasvatara Upanishad. White states:

The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the
term is found in the Hindu Kathaka Upanisad(Ku), a scripture dating from about the third
century BCE It describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents—the senses, mind, intellect,
etc.—that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical
system grounds the yoga of the YS, Bhg, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8).

According to David Frawleyverses such as Rig Veda 5.81.1 which reads,

Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically [yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence
show that "at least the seed of the entire Yoga teaching is contained in this most ancient Aryan
text".An early reference to meditation is made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliest
Upanishad (c. 900 BCE). In the Mahabarata yoga comes to mean "a divine chariot, that carried
him upward in a burst of light to and through the sun, and on to the heaven of gods and heroes."

Ascetic practices

Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct
yajna (Vedic ritual of fire sacrifice), might have been precursors to yoga. Vratya, a group of
ascetics mentioned in the Atharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which probably
evolved into yogic asanas. Early Vedic Samhitas also contain references to other group
ascetics such as, Munis, the Keśin, and Vratyas. Techniques for controlling breath and vital
energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas (ritualistic texts of the Vedic corpus, c. 1000–800
BCE) and the Atharvaveda. Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests the presence of an early
contemplative tradition.

The Vedic Samhitas contain references to ascetics, and ascetic practices known as (tapas) are
referenced in the Brāhmaṇas (900 BCE and 500 BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas. The
Rig Veda, the earliest of the Hindu scripture mentions the practice. Robert Schneider and
Jeremy Fields write,

Yoga asanas were first prescribed by the ancient Vedic texts thousands of years ago and are
said to directly enliven the body's inner intelligence.

According to Feuerstein, breath control and curbing the mind was practiced since the Vedic
times., and yoga was fundamental to Vedic ritual, especially to chanting the sacred hymns

Preclassical era

Diffused pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500–200

BCE such as the middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Mokshadharma of the
Mahabharata. The terms samkhya and yoga in these texts refer to spiritual methodologies
rather than the philosophical systems which developed centuries later.

Upanishads

Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless
meditation and elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition. The
earliest reference to meditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest
Upanishads

Chandogya Upanishad describes the five kinds of vital energies (prana). Concepts used later
in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and veins (nadis) are also described in the
Upanishad. Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses.

The term "yoga" first appears in the Hindu scripture Katha Upanishad (a primary Upanishad c.
400 BCE) where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of
mental activity, leads to the supreme state. Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early
Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence
according to their proximity to the innermost being Ātman. Yoga is therefore seen as a process
of interiorization or ascent of consciousness. It is the earliest literary work that highlights the
fundamentals of yoga. Shvetashvatara Upanishad (c. 400-200 BCE) elaborates on the
relationship between thought and breath, control of mind, and the benefits of yoga. Like the
Katha Upanishad the transcendent Self is seen as the goal of yoga. This text also recommends
meditation on Om as a path to liberation. Maitrayaniya Upanishad (c. 300 BCE) formalizes the
sixfold form of yoga. Physiological theories of later yoga make an appearance in this text.

While breath channels (nāḍis) of yogic practices had already been discussed in the classical
Upanishads, it was not until the eighth-century Buddhist Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti, that
hierarchies of chakras were introduced. Further systematization of yoga is continued in the
Yoga Upanishads of the Atharvaveda (viz., Śāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, Mahāvākya)

Classical yoga

During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta era (c. 200 BCE–500 CE) philosophical
schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical
system of yoga began to emerge.

Early Buddhist texts

Werner notes that "only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon" do we have the
oldest preserved comprehensive yoga practice:

"But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a
systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first
and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety"
 Another yoga system that predated the Buddhist school is Jain yoga. But since Jain sources
postdate Buddhist ones, it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school
and elements derived from other schools. Most of the other contemporary yoga systems
alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost to time.

The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which the Buddha
borrowed from the ascetic (shramana) tradition. One key innovative teaching of the Buddha
was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition. Meditative states
alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not
liberating. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity
must take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness The
Buddha also departed from earlier yogic thought in discarding the early Brahminic notion of
liberation at death. While the Upanishads thought liberation to be a realization at death of a
nondual meditative state where the ontological duality between subject and object was
abolished, Buddha's theory of liberation depended upon this duality because liberation to him
was an insight into the subject's experience. The Pali canon contains three passages in which
the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling
hunger or the mind, depending on the passage. However there is no mention of the tongue
being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā. The Buddha used a posture
where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modern postures used to
stimulate Kundalini.

7) Adhyatma
"Adhyatma" is a Sanskrit term that is often used to refer to the spiritual or metaphysical aspect of

life and existence. It is a concept that is deeply rooted in Indian philosophical and religious
thought, and it encompasses the innermost nature of reality, the self, and the spiritual dimension
of human experience. Here's more information about the concept of Adhyatma:
Etymology and Meaning:
The word "Adhyatma" is derived from two Sanskrit words:
"Adhi" means "beyond" or "above."
"Atma" means "self" or "soul."

When combined, "Adhyatma" can be understood as that which is beyond or above the self, often
referring to the spiritual, transcendental, or inner dimension of existence.

Concept in Indian Philosophy:

Adhyatma is a central concept in various Indian philosophical and spiritual traditions, including
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It emphasizes the exploration of the nature of the self
(Atman) and its connection to the ultimate reality (Brahman, Nirvana, etc.). In Hinduism,
Adhyatma is often used interchangeably with "spirituality" and encompasses practices such as
meditation, self-inquiry, and the study of sacred texts to understand the deeper truths of
existence.
Adhyatma in Yoga and Meditation:
In the context of yoga and meditation, Adhyatma refers to the inner or spiritual dimension of the
practice. It involves exploring one's inner experiences, understanding the nature of
consciousness, and connecting with the higher self. Practices like meditation, mindfulness, and
contemplation are all ways to access the Adhyatmic realm and delve into the spiritual aspects of
life.
Adhyatmic Literature:
Indian philosophical and spiritual literature often contains texts that explore Adhyatma in depth.
For example:
The Upanishads, which are a collection of ancient Indian texts, delve into the nature of reality,
the self, and the connection between the individual soul and the ultimate reality (Brahman).
The Bhagavad Gita, a sacred text within Hinduism, explores the concepts of duty, righteousness,
and the path to spiritual liberation.
The Buddhist and Jain scriptures also contain teachings that emphasize the inner journey toward
enlightenment and liberation.
Adhyatma in Daily Life:
Adhyatma isn't limited to the realm of meditation or philosophical discussions. It's also about
recognizing the spiritual dimension in everyday life. It involves cultivating qualities like
compassion, self-awareness, and a sense of interconnectedness with all living beings.
Conclusion:
Adhyatma is a multifaceted concept that encompasses the spiritual dimension of life, the
exploration of the self, and the connection between the individual and the transcendent reality. It
is a concept that resonates deeply in various philosophical and religious traditions in India and
provides a framework for understanding the deeper aspects of human existence.

8) Meditation
Meditation is a practice that involves focusing the mind, often to achieve mental clarity,
emotional calmness, relaxation, and an enhanced sense of awareness. It has been a part of
various cultures, spiritual traditions, and philosophical systems for centuries. Meditation
techniques vary widely, and they can have different goals and effects depending on the approach.
Here's some information about meditation:

Origins and Background:

Meditation has been practiced for thousands of years in various cultures and traditions around the
world. It is an integral part of spiritual practices in many religions, including Buddhism,
Hinduism, Taoism, Christianity, and Islam. However, meditation can also be practiced as a
secular activity focused on improving mental and emotional well-being.

Types of Meditation:
There are numerous types of meditation, each with its own techniques and goals. Some common
forms include:

Mindfulness Meditation: This involves observing your thoughts, feelings, and sensations without
judgment. The goal is to cultivate present-moment awareness and acceptance.

Concentration Meditation: This involves focusing on a single point, such as your breath, a
mantra, a candle flame, or an image. The aim is to develop greater concentration and mental
clarity.
Loving-kindness Meditation (Metta): This practice involves cultivating feelings of compassion
and kindness toward oneself and others. It's intended to foster a sense of goodwill and love.

Transcendental Meditation (TM): A technique involving the repetition of a specific mantra. The
goal is to reach a state of restful awareness and transcendence.

Zen Meditation (Zazen): Central to Zen Buddhism, this meditation involves sitting in a specific
posture and observing thoughts and sensations without attachment.

Vipassana Meditation: Originating from Buddhism, this technique involves insight into the
impermanence and nature of reality through deep self-observation.

Benefits of Meditation:
Meditation has been studied extensively, and research suggests it can have numerous benefits,
including:
 Reduced stress and anxiety
 Improved focus and concentration
 Enhanced emotional regulation
 Increased self-awareness
 Lower blood pressure
 Enhanced feelings of well-being
 Improved sleep quality
 Pain management
Practical Tips for Meditation:
Here are some tips for starting a meditation practice:
 Choose a Comfortable Environment: Find a quiet and peaceful place where you won't be
easily disturbed.
 Comfortable Posture: Sit or lie down in a comfortable position. Keep your back straight
to maintain alertness.
  Focus: Choose an object of focus (breath, mantra, etc.) and gently direct your attention to
it.
 Non-Judgmental Observation: When thoughts arise, observe them without judgment and
gently return your focus to your chosen point of attention.
 Consistency: Start with a few minutes a day and gradually increase the duration.
Consistency is more important than the length of each session.
 Patience: Meditation takes practice. Be patient with yourself, and don't get discouraged
by wandering thoughts.

Conclusion:
Meditation is a versatile practice that can be adapted to various lifestyles and preferences.
Whether you're seeking spiritual growth, mental clarity, or stress relief, meditation offers a
powerful tool to cultivate mindfulness and inner peace. It's important to find a technique that
resonates with you and to approach your practice with an open mind and heart.

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