Signal and data processing

Basic of signal Processing

The goal of nuclear spectrometry signal processing is to produce
Anlogs/ digital signals that exactly describe the properties of
radiation and radiation-induced events. In a typical nuclear
spectrometry experiment, the energy of radiation, or a charged
particle, is measured in such a way that its energy is absorbed in
solid state, proportional or scintillation detector, and converted into a
pulse of electrical charge.

Pulses also contain information about the type of radiation or particle,

its position, time of arrival, etc. In all cases, the electrical pulse is
degraded and contaminated with noise during its passage through
non-ideal front-end electronic components.

Thus, need tosystem designed whose output has the best signal to
noise ratio, and which the amplitude is proportional to the measured
physical value. For example, it is well known that cusp filtering is the
optimal filter shape for exponential input signals, and which are
produced by standard charge-sensitive preamplifier with resistive
elements in the feedback. In practice, usually only close to optimal
filtering, or shaping of the signal from the detector can be realized.
Signals and data processing
Basic of signal Processing
Signal and data processing
Basic of signal Processing
 Signal and data processing
Proces of signal Processing and Shaping
 Signal and data processing
exmaple Analog to Digital rocessing
Signal and data processing
Basic of signal Processing
Signal and data processing
Basic of signal Processing
 Signal and data processing
Basic of signal Processing

To extract the amplitude or timing information the

electrical signal is coupled to an amplifier, sent
through gain and filtering stages, and finally digitized
to allow data storage and analysis.
Optimal signal processing depends on the primary signal.
Signal can be
(1) a continuously varying signal.
(2) a sequence of pulses, occurring
Periodically, Known time, randomly
Signal and data processing
Signal Processing
Signal and data processing
Signal Processing
 Signal and data processing
Signal generation in Ionization Chamber (Current Mode)
 Signal and data processing
Signal Transmission

Position-Sensitive Detector with Resistive Charge Division

Electrode is made resistive with low-impedance amplifiers at each
end. The signal current divides according to the ratio of resistances
presented to current flow in the respective direction
 Signal and data processing
Magnitude of Signal
Magnitude of signal excitation
= Absorbed Energy / W-value.
Fluctuations in the Signal Charge(Fano-Factor):
Mean ionization energy exceeds the bandgap:
(1) Conservation of momentum requires excitation of lattice
vibrations.
(2) Many modes are available for the energy transfer with an
excitation energy less than the bandgap.
Intrinsic Resolution of Semiconductor Detectors:
E  2.35 FEw
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Preamplifier: The primary function of a preamplifier is to extract the

signal from the detector without significantly degrading the intrinsic signalto-
noise ratio. Therefore, the preamplifier is located as close as possible to the
detector, and the input circuits are designed to match the characteristics of
the detector.
• Matching the Preamplifier to the Detector and the Application
Amplifier :The amplifier is one of the most important components in a pulse
processing system for applications in counting, timing, or pulse-amplitude
(energy) spectroscopy.
Normally, it is the amplifier that provides the pulse-shaping controls needed to
optimize the performance of the analog electronics
 Time Pick up method
The time pick-up method for radiation detection is a technique used to
measure the time interval between the detection of radiation events. This
method is particularly useful in applications where precise timing information is
crucial, such as in particle physics experiments and nuclear spectroscopy

•Detection of Radiation Events: When radiation interacts with the detector,

it produces a signal (e.g., a voltage pulse).
•Time Measurement: The time of arrival of each pulse is recorded using a
high-resolution timing system.
•Data Analysis: The recorded times are analyzed to determine the time
intervals between events, which can provide information about the source and
nature of the radiation.

•Time Coincidence Measurements: Used to detect simultaneous events, which can

help identify specific types of radiation interactions.
•-of-Flight (ToF) Measurements: Used to determine the velocity of particles by
measuring the time it takes for them to travel a known distance.
•Pulse Shape Discrimination: Used to distinguish between different types of radiation
based on the shape of the detected pulses.
 Signal and data processing
Time pick-up Method

A discriminator is a device which

responds
only to input signals with a pulse height
greater than a (adjustable) threshold.
• If this criterion is met the discriminator
issues a standard logic signal.
• If this criterion is met the discriminator
issues a standard logic signal.
Constant Fraction Discriminator
 Signal and data processing
Time Pick-up Methods

Zero-Crossing Disciminator
Constant Fraction Discrimination (CFD) method is a technique used in timing
electronics to accurately measure the arrival time of pulses, especially when the
pulse amplitudes vary. This method is particularly useful in applications like
Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) and particle detection.

•Signal Splitting: The incoming

pulse is split into two parts.
•Delay and Attenuation: One part
is delayed, and the other is
attenuated.
•Recombination: The delayed
and attenuated signals are
recombined.
•Zero-Crossing Detection: A
comparator detects the zero-
crossing point of the recombined
signal.
•This point is independent of the •Amplitude Independence: By taking time stamps
pulse amplitude, which helps in at a constant fraction of the pulse height, CFD
reducing timing jitter eliminates timing jitter caused by variations in pulse
amplitude.
•Improved Accuracy: This method ensures
consistent timing across different pulses, making it
ideal for precise measurements
 Signal and data processing

A true coincidence is the result of

the arrival of two pulses at exactly
the same time. In practice, this
“exact coincidence” seldom occurs,
and for this reason, a coincidence
unit is designed to register as a
coincident event those pulses
arriving within a Finite but short time
interval τ. he interval τ, called the
resolving time or the width of the
coincidence, is set by the observer.
A simple coincidence measurement setup

“fast” and clow coincidence measurement

Two or more events are coincident if they occur within the time period τ
 Signal and data processing

A simple coincidence
measurement setup

For a successful coincidence or anticoincidence

measurement, the detector signals should not be
delayed by any factor other than the time of arrival
of the particles at the detector. If it is known that it
takes longer to generate the signal in one detector
than in another, the signal from the fast detector
should be delayed accordingly to compensate for
this difference. his compensation is accomplished
by passing the signal through a delay line before it
enters the coincidence unit
 Signal and data processing

A NaI–Ge(Li) γ–γ coincidence system

 Signal and data processing

NIM (Nuclear Instrument Module): The basic electronic apparatus, e.g., amplifier,
counter, ADC, etc., are constructed as modules according to standard mechanical
and electronic specifications. The NIM system offers enormous advantages in
flexibility, interchange of modules, and ease of updating specific components.
 Signal and data processing
STANDARDS FOR NUCLEAR INSTRUMENTATION:

NIM (Nuclear Instrument Module) or CAMAC (Computer

Automated Measurement And Control) standard. Both of
these are international standards that incorporate a wide range
of mechanical and electrical definitions to facilitate cost and
convenience advantages to the users.
Both NIM and CAMAC standards incorporate modular instruments
that plug into a bin or crate and get their low-voltage power
(usually +/- 6, 12, and 24 V) from a standard power supply
attached to the rear of the crate.
The CAMAC standard differs from NIM in two important ways.
i) The CAMAC crate has a built in digital data bus to provide
computer communications with the modules and
ii) The narrowest CAMAC modules are exactly half the width of the
minimum NIM module.
Signal and data processing
NIM electronic
48.3 cm

22.2
cm
 Signal and data processing
(VME
VME (Versa Module Eurocard
bus) is a computer bus
standard that's been widely
used in various applications,
including industrial controls,
military, medical imaging, and 9U VME crate
telecommunication

The Pixie-16 is a data acquisition system for

nuclear physics and other applications
requiring coincident radiation detection with
large number of channels. Based on the
CompactPCI/PXI standard features:
•Digital spectrometry and waveform analysis for
16 input signals per module
•Coincident data acquisition across channels
and modules
•Up to 500 MSPS sampling rate
•PXI data transfer rates up to 109 MB/sec
 Signal and data processing
Signal Transmission

Electrical transmission lines

Line with characteristic inductance and capacitance per unit length
(Assumed R is negligible )

Cables
Any wire has inductance, capacitance and resistance
 Signal and data processing
Signal Transmission

Central copper core radius r1

, with plastic dielectric,
braided metal shield in
cylindrical geometry radius r2

RG-58A/U 50-Ω Cable with two BNC male plugs.

RG-59A/U 75-Ω Cable with one SHV female plug and
one MHV male plug
Signal and data processing
Signal Transmission
 Signal and data processing
Signal Transmission

Termination and Matching

Boundary conditions at termination
Iinc+ Iref = IL & Vinc+ Vref = VL
apply them (NB Vref = -IrefZ0)
Vref/Vinc = (ZL-Z0)/(ZL+Z0)

VL/Vinc = 2ZL/(ZL+Z0) Coaxial cable limits

•Open circuit termination ZL = ∞ Transmission speed and bandwidth limiting all
Vref/Vinc = +1 VL/Vinc = 2 cables have finite resistance remarkably small.
reflected signal = incident signal For long cables, RC time constant per unit length
•Short circuit termination ZL= 0 becomes noticeable therefore expect delay,
attenuation and finite rise time in fast pulses
Vref/Vinc = -1 , VL/Vinc = 0
inverted fully reflected signal •When is a cable a transmission line?
•matched termination ZL= Z0 Not reasonable to assume transmission line
Vref/Vinc = 0 VL/Vinc = 1 behaviour unless length of line is at least
100% transmission to load ~ 1/8 wavelength
 Signal and data processing
Connectors

BNC (Bayonet Neill–Concelman)

connector is a miniature quick
connect/disconnect radio frequency
connector used for coaxial cable.
Outer
0.570 in (14.5 mm), male
0.436 in (11.1 mm), female
16-pin male
MIL-DTL-5015
Engineer Léon Mouttet Company Founder Amphenol
electrical
LEMO 00 connector
coaxial
connectors
36-pin "Micro ribbon"
(centronics) connector.
They used as front panel connectors in the Nuclear Instrumentation Module (NIM) and
Computer Automated Measurement and Control (CAMAC) modular electronics standards
used in instrumentation for nuclear and particle physics, where it is used as a replacement
for BNC connectors in high density designs (because the LEMO connector is much smaller
in size than a BNC).
Signal and data processing
Connector and cables
•SHV stands for Safe High Voltage.
•It's a type of RF (radio frequency) coaxial connector used for terminating coaxial
cables.
•Bayonet mount design for quick connect/disconnect.
•Thick insulator to prevent accidental contact with live conductors.
•Commonly used in laboratory settings for high voltage application

•BNC stands for Bayonet Neill-Concelman.

•Also an RF coaxial connector used for terminating coaxial cables.
•Bayonet mount design for quick connect/disconnect.
•50 ohm and 75 ohm impedance versions available

•UHF stands for Ultra High Frequency.

•It's a type of threaded RF coaxial connector used for radio frequency
applications.
•Frequency Range: Typically used for frequencies from 0.3 MHz to 300 MHz.
•Design: Features a bayonet mount for quick connect/disconnect

•MHV stands for Miniature High Voltage.

•It's a type of RF coaxial connector designed for high voltage applications.
•Frequency Range: Typically used for frequencies up to 300 MHz.
•Design: Similar in appearance to BNC connectors but not interchangeable
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Linear Pulse: A linear pulse carries information

through its amplitude and sometimes its shape
(pulse shapediscrimination for neutron and
charged-particle measurement)
Logic Pulse: A logic pulse is a pulse of a standard
size or shape, which carries information only by
its presence or absence or by its time of arrival.
Alldetector signal chains start with a linear
pulse train, which may subsequently be
processed into logic pulses
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Type of Linear Pulse:

Fast linear pulses: Such as those produced by a fast, linear (timing-filter)
amplifier (TFA). These usually have poor signal-to-noise properties. However,
their rapid rise and fall times make them useful when extracting time
information or when high counting rates are important.

Linear tail pulses: Such as those produced by preamplifiers. These pulses

may have reasonably rapid rise times but have a long decay time (typically 50
- 100 µs). The rise time is determined by the charge collection time in the
detector while the decay time is determined by the time constant of the
shaping circuit. The pulse amplitude accurately reflects the energy deposited
in the detector. Amplitude and the rise time of the leading edge are the
important characteristics of linear tail pulses..

Shaped linear pulses: These are produced by a linear amplifier. A shaped

linear pulse is a tail pulse whose width has been dramatically reduced (to a
few µs) by one or other of the shaping methods discussed
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Two main classes of logic pulse:

Standard logic pulses: Typically, these are of positive polarity, with widths on
the order of a few µs and are used when the count rate is not excessive
(dead time).
Fast logic pulses: These are used primarily in fast timing circuits and for fast
counting rates. They are usually of negative polarity with widths on the order
of a few hundred nanoseconds. Since the timing marker is usually extracted
from the leading edge, they tend to have very fast rise times (few
nanoseconds).

In order to avoid problems with reflections, fast pulses are usually handled in
systems where all the impedances (input, output and cable) are matched and
set to 50 Ω.
 Signal and data processing
Logic via discrimination

The output of a discriminator is binary. That is, it can be either high or low.
Definition of low and high is arbitrary because one can define any voltage level
to represent high and any other to represent low. For a system that is designed
to work on a certain logic definition, this arbitrariness does not pose a problem.

Pulse discrimination by a two-

level discriminator. Only pulses
that are between the two
preset thresholds are counted
by the subsequent circuity
In standard systems, where it is desired that modules made by other
developers could be integrated into the system, interconversion of logic
levels could pose an engineering problem. To avoid this problem, certain
logic standards have been developed. It is highly recommended that
electronics designers try their best to use one of these standards in their
circuitry
NIM Logic: NIM stands for Nuclear Instrumentation Modules, a set of
modules that were developed for nuclear instrumentation. A logic was
developed specifically for these modules.
 Signal and data processing
ECL and TTL Logic

ECL Logic: The Emitter Coupled Logic or ECL is based on differential

amplification of the digital signals and adjustment of the dc voltage levels
through emitter followers. The ECL logic levels are conventionally defined as
1.6 V for low and -0.75 V for high.

TTL is an acronym of Transistor Transistor Logic. It is perhaps

the most widely used logic standard. As opposed to NIM, it is
defined solely in terms of voltage.

a voltage of 0 V corresponds to logic 0 while the logic is said to

be high if the level is between 2 V and 5 V.
 Signal and data processing
Common Processing Functions
Linear -Linear IN OUT

Preamplifier Linear charge pulse Linear tail pulse

Amplifier Linear Tail Pulse Amplifed and shaped linear pulse

Sum Amplifier Two or more shapes linear Shapes linear pulse with amplitude
pulses to sum of coincidence pulses
Delay Fast linear or shaped linear Identical pulses after a fixed delya
pulse
Linear -Logic In out

Discriminator Shaped linear Pulse Logic pulse if amplitute exceeds

the level
Time Pick-off Fast or shaped linear pulse Logic pulse with some featue of
input signal.
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Logic -Linear In out

Time Amplitude Logic start and stop pulse Shaped pulse with amplitude
converter sepearted by time difference proportional to time difference

Logic -Logic In out

Coincidence Logic pulse at two or more Logic pulse if the pulses appear in
inputs all inputs with time interval
(resolving time)
Scaler Logic pulse One logic puse for every N input
pulses.
 Signal and data processing
Delay Line

Signal transmitted through a coaxial cable is delayed by a time

T= seconds per unit length, where L is the inductance per
unit length and C is the capacitance per unit length.

For ordinary coaxial cables, the delay is about 5 ns/m.

For larger delays, the central conductor of the cable is spiraled to

increase the inductance per unit length

Delay lines are used not only to delay a signal but also to produce
a rectangular pulse for subsequent pulse shaping or for triggering
another electronic unit (e.g., a scaler). The formation of the
rectangular pulse is achieved by reflecting the delayed signal at
the end of the delay line, bringing it back to the input and adding it
to the original signal.
Signal and data processing
Delay Line
 Signal and data processing
Pulse Shaping

Pulse produced at the output of a radiation detector has to be modified or

shaped for better performance of the counting system:
Three main functions of Pulse shaping are:

1. TO PREVENT OVERLAP: Each pulse should last as short a period as

possible, and its effect should be abolished so the system may be ready for
the next pulse. Without pulse shaping, the detector signal lasts so long that
pulses overlap. If only the number of particles is counted, pulse overlap
leads to loss of counts (dead time loss). In spectroscopy measurements,
pulse overlap worsens the energy resolution.
2. TO IMPROVE THE S/N RATIO: Noise is created in the detector and the
early amplification stages accompany the detector signal. Appropriate pulse
shaping can enhance the signal while at the same time reducing the noise.
Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio will improve, which in turn leads to better
energy resolution.
3. For PULSE MANIPULATION: Detector pulse may, in certain
applications, need special pulse shaping to satisfy the needs of certain
units of the counting system. As an example, the signal at the output of the
amplifier needs to be stretched before it is recorded in the memory of a
multichannel analyzer (MCA) , Need pulse within 10 Volt.
 Signal and data processing
Pulse Shaping

The pulse-shaping methods used today are based on combinations

of RC circuits and delay lines.

The exact shape and size of the output pulse depend on the relative
magnitudes of the time constants C1 R1 and C2 R2 . The use of the CR–
RC circuit combination provides, in addition to pulse shaping, a better
signal-to-noise ratio by acting as high-pass and low pass filter for
undesired frequencies.
 Signal and data processing
Pulse Shaping

If one adds more RC integrating circuits, the pulse will approach a

Gaussian shape.

Commercial amplifiers usually

provide either singly or doubly
differentiated pulses. In all cases,
the initial pulse is the result of
repeated application of CR–CR
circuits. The pulses produced by
the application of many RC and CR
circuits, called unipolar and bipolar
pulses, respectively.
 Signal and data processing
Single Channel Analyser

The height of a pulse depends on the energy deposited by the radiation,

one might want to count pulses corresponding to some energy range of
interest.
if one intends to look at all radiation-induced pulses since there are always
low-level noise and high-level spurious pulses.

A single-channel analyzer is an instrument that discriminates the pulses

based on set thresholds and produces logic outputs.

Here LLD and ULD stand for upper-level

and lower-level discriminators, respectively.
In most modern commercial single-channel
analyzers the thresholds can either be set
through potentiometer knobs available on
the front panel or through an external port

After the pulse is discriminated and a logical output is generated, it must be counted. Most
commercially available SCAs lack counting functionality and therefore, a separate counting
module must be used for this purpose.
 Signal and data processing
Multi Channel Analyser (MCA)

A multi-channel analyzer can be considered a modified version of

a single-channel analyzer and a counter, as it essentially performs
the same task with multiple threshold windows.

MCA eliminates the need to count pulses at each threshold

window individually, making the process faster and less
vulnerable to uncertainties related to time variations in radiation
flux.

In terms of internal functioning, multi-channel analyzers are quite

different from single-channel analyzers since they digitize the
input signal for analysis as opposed to the all-analog processing
by single-channel analyzers
 Signal and data processing
Multi Channel Analyser (MCA)

Block diagram of a simple multi-channel analyzer designed for pulse height analysis.
The height of the amplified pulse is then digitized. ADC output is linearly related to
the input analog voltage, therefore the counts thus obtained correspond to the
energy deposited by the radiation. After digitization, a count in the corresponding
memory bin is incremented.
MCA has memory in terms of the number of channels, such as 512, 1024, or more,
giving the user some choice in selecting the appropriate resolution. Each of these
channels actually corresponds to memory locations that can be addressed by the
corresponding ADC counts and thus incremented. The system can be tuned such
that the whole dynamic range is covered.
Most multi-channel analyzers can be operated in two different modes. One is the usual
pulse height analysis second the multi-channel scalar mode.
 Signal and data processing
Analog to Digital Coverters
For data storage and subsequent analysis, the analog signal at the shaper output must be
digitized.
Important parameters for analog-to-digital converters (ADCs or A/Ds) used in detector
systems are
(i) Resolution: The “granularity” of the digitized output.
(ii) Differential non-linearity: How uniform are the digitization increments?
(iii) Integral non-linearity: Is the digital output proportional to the analog input?
(iv) Conversion time: How much time is required to convert an analog signal
to a digital output?
(v) Count-rate performance: How quickly can a new conversion commence
after completion of a prior one without introducing deleterious artifacts?
(vi) Stability: Do the conversion parameters change with time?

 Detector systems place greater emphasis on differential non-linearity and count-rate

performance. The latter is important, as detector signals often occur randomly, in
contrast to systems where signals are sampled at regular intervals.
 As in amplifiers, if the DC gain is not precisely equal to the high-frequency gain, the
baseline will shift. Further following each pulse it takes some time for the baseline to
return to its quiescent level.
 For periodic signals of roughly equal amplitude these baseline deviations will be the
same for each pulse, but for a random sequence of pulse with varying amplitudes, the
instantaneous baseline level will be different for each pulse and affect the peak
amplitude.
 Signal and data processing
Resolution of ADC
To convert an analogue value, eg voltage, to digital two parameters are
required:
(1) Range (ii) Number of bits
channel or quantum = ΔV = (Vmax-Vmin) × 2-N
also referer as least significant bit (LSB).
e.g 10 bit or 10 K ADC ΔV= 1 V /1024 = 1 mV.

The ADC output is in the form of the so-called digital word, which is simply a
number. This number should be directly proportional to the analog input at the
Analog to Digital Conversion full dynamic range of the system. The lowest number
that the ADC can assign to a meaningful analog input determines its resolution

The resolution of an ADC is generally represented in bits. An-bit ADC ideally

has a resolution of
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Digitization incurs approximation, as a continuous signal distribution is

transformed into a discrete set of values. To reduce the additional errors
(noise) introduced by digitization, the discrete digital steps must correspond
to a sufficiently small analog increment

Resolution is defined by the number of output bits. i.e.

• If all counts of a peak fall in one bin,

the resolution is ΔV.
• If the counts are distributed over
several bins, peak fitting can yield a
resolution of 10-1 – 10-2 ΔV, if the
distribution is known and reproducible
 Signal and data processing
NonLinearity in ADC

Differential non-linearity is a measure of the non-uniformity of channel profiles

over the range of the ADC. Depending on the nature of the distribution, either a
peak or an rms specification may be appropriate

Integral Non-Linearity
Integral non-linearity measures the
deviation from proportionality of the
measured amplitude to the input signal
level
 Signal and data processing
ADC parameters

•Conversion time:
The time it takes the ADC to perform one complete conversion. It depends not only on th
A/D conversion method but also on the pulse height.

•Rate effects results may depend on rate of arrival of signals

typically lead to spectral broadening
•Stability
temperature effects are a typical cause of variations
 Signal and data processing
ADC parameters

•Dead Time: The total time it takes the ADC to acquire a signal, complete the
conversion, and become available for the next acquisition is called dead time
because during this time it can not accept a new signal. The dead time
typically consists of:
▶ signal acquisition time, ▶ conversion time,
▶ data transfer to buffers, ▶ reset time.
 A/D Conversion Method
Digital Ramp ADC: This technique involves a digital to analog converter (DAC),
which is used to convert the output of a binary counter. .

A comparator compares this output to the

analog input signal height to decide whether
the counter should continue with counting or
stop. The counter is stopped when the two
voltages are within the set tolerance level.
The counter is provided with a clock pulse
through either a built-in or an external
oscillator
At the start of the conversion cycle the DAC
output is lower than the input voltage and
consequently, the comparator output goes
high. This forces the counter to start counting
up with each clock pulse.
The output is then fed directly to the DAC,
which outputs a slightly higher voltage. This
voltage is then again compared with the input
voltage. If the input voltage is still higher than
the DAC output, the comparator output will
remain high and the counter will continue with
counting.
 A/D Conversion Method
The counter is provided with a clock pulse through either a built-in or an external
oscillator
At the start of the conversion cycle the DAC output is lower than the input voltage and
consequently, the comparator output goes high. This forces the counter to start
counting up with each clock pulse.
The output is then fed directly to the DAC, which outputs a slightly higher voltage. This
voltage is then again compared with the input voltage. If the input voltage is still higher
than the DAC output, the comparator output will remain high and the counter will
continue with counting.
This counting process stops as soon as the DAC output exceed the input voltage,
since at that point the comparator’s output goes low.
To read out counter’s value at that point, a shift register is provided which loads the
binary count as soon as the comparator’s output becomes low. This low output of the
comparator also causes the counter to reset to zero and become available for the next
cycle.

Two major problems:

Slow Sampling. The fact that the counter has to count from zero at each
conversion cycle makes the process very slow and unsuitable for high-rate
applications.
Irregular Sampling. Since the counter keeps counting until the DAC output does
not exceed the input voltage, the conversion time depends on the height of the
signal. This implies that the sampling is irregular for time-varying input signal,
making the readout timing and analysis difficult.
 Signal and data processing
Flash ADC

 The signal is fed in parallel to a bank of threshold

comparators.
 The individual threshold levels are set by a resistive
divider.
 The comparator outputs are encoded such that the
output of the highest level comparator that fires yields
the correct bit pattern.
 The threshold levels can be set to provide a linear
conversion characteristic where each bit corresponds to
the same analog increment to provide increments
proportional to the absolute level, which provides
constant relative resolution over the range.

Big advantage- conversion process takes place in a signal process and

conversion time is less than 10 ns.
Drawbacks-component count and power consumption, as one comparator
is required per conversion bin.
 Signal and data processing
Wilkinson ADC

Wilkinson ADC belongs to a class of slope or integrating ADCs.

The main idea behind this type of ADC is to save the input pulse on an
analog memory capacitor and then allow it to discharge slowly. A counter
keeps on counting during the linear discharge of the capacitor. The final
digital word is proportional to the analog input.

Schematic of a Wilkinson ADC: Cm is a

memory capacitor, Si is a current
source, and Vt is the reference voltage
used by the comparator to make the
conversion start/stop decision. Normally
Vt is kept at the ground potential, in
which case the comparator is called a
zero-crossing comparator.
 Signal and data processing
Wilkinson ADC
1. The input pulse amplitude is stretched to
a wide pulse using a pulse stretcher
circuitry.
2. The stretched pulse is transferred to a
memory capacitor.
3. The capacitor is disconnected from the
pulse stretcher circuit.
4. A current source is connected to the
capacitor, which starts discharging it
linearly.
5. At the same time, a counter is started to
count the number of clock pulses it takes Since this time is proportional to the
the voltage on the capacitor to reach the digital counter, therefore, the final
baseline voltage. If the source provides a digitized word is proportional to the
constant current throughout the discharge input voltage
then it will take time to completely discharge

the capacitor having capacitance C. Here

is the input voltage.
 Signal and data processing
Wilkinson ADC

N
Since this time is proportional to the digital
counter, therefore, the final digitized word is
proportional to the input voltage.

here n is the ADC resolution in bits and is The processing of the pulse in a
the period of counter’s clock having frequency Wilkinson ADC. (a) Input pulse, (b)
Hencea12-bit (n = 12) Wilkinson ADC charge capacitor voltage, (c) gate stops
having a clock frequency of 100 MHz will other pulses, (d) oscillator clock, and
complete one conversion in about 41 µs (e) pulse storage
 Signal and data processing
Successive approximation ADC

The DAC is controlled to

sequentially add levels proportional
to 2n, 2n-1, ...20. The corresponding
bit is set if the comparator output is
high (DAC output < pulse height).

 The input pulse is sent to a pulse stretcher, which follows the signal
until it reaches its cusp and then holds the peak value.
 The stretcher output feeds a comparator, whose reference is provided
by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
 The DAC is cycled beginning with the most significant bits (I V).
 The corresponding bit is set when the comparator fires, i.e. the DAC
output becomes less than the pulse height.
 Then the DAC cycles through the less significant bits, always setting
the corresponding bit when the comparator fires.Thus, n-bit resolution
requires n steps and yields 2n bins.
Advantages- Efficient use of circuitry and is fairly fast, High-resolution devices,
with conversion times of order µs, 16-K ADC have a conversion time of 1 µs (1
MS/s) requires about 100 mW.
Drawbacks-differential non-linearity need to set the DAC levels must be
extremely accurate.
 Signal and data processing
Wilkinson ADC
Principle: After the peak amplitude has been acquired, the output of the
peak detector initiates the conversion process. The memory capacitor is
discharged by a constant current while counting the clock pulses. When
the capacitor is discharged to the baseline level VBL the comparator output
goes low and the conversion is complete.
The peak signal ampliude is acquired by a
combined peak detector/pulse stretcher
and transferred to a memory capacitor.
The output of the peak detector initiates
the conversion process:
 The memory capacitor is disconnected from the stretcher,
 a current source is switched on to linearly discharge the capacitor with
current IR, and simultaneously.
 a counter is enabled to determine the number of clock pulses until the
voltage on the capacitor reaches the baseline level VBL
The time required to discharge the capacitor is a linear function of pulse height, so the counter content
provides the digitized pulse height. The clock pulses are provided by a crystal oscillator, so the time
between pulses is extremely uniform and this circuit inherently provides excellent differential linearity.
Advantages- Excellent differential linearity, Efficient use of circuitry and allows low power dissipation.
Drawbacks: Relatively long conversion time
TC = n × Tclk, n is channel number crosseponng to the pulse height
 Signal and data processing
Timing Measurements

Pulse height measurements discussed up to now emphasize

accurate measurement of signal charge
Timing measurements optimize determination of time of
occurrence. For timing, the figure of merit is not signal-to-noise,
but slope-to-noise ratio.

Typically, the leading edge is not linear, so the optimum trigger level
is the point of maximum slope.
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Consider a system whose bandwidth is determined by a

single RC integrator. Time dependence puse amplitude
can be wriiten as

The rise time commonly expressed as the interval between the points
of 10% and 90% amplitude. Thus,

and Band width

e.g. an oscilloscope with 100 MHz bandwidth has 3.5 ns

rise time.
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Choice of Rise Time in a Timing System:Assume a

detector pulse with peak amplitude V0 and a rise time tc
passing through an amplifier chain with a rise time tra.
The cumulative rise time at the amplifier output (discriminator
output) is

The electronic noise at the amplifier output is

For a single RC time constant the noise bandwidth

Thus, number of cascaded stages increases, the noise

bandwidth approaches the signal bandwidth.
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

The timing jitter

The second factor assumes a minimum when the rise time of the
amplifier equals the collection time of the detector tra= tc.

• At amplifier rise times greater than the collection time, the time
resolution suffers because of rise time degradation.
• For smaller amplifier rise times the electronic noise dominates.
Thus, timing resolution improves with decreasing collection time √tc
and increasing signal amplitude V0
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Thus, The integration time should be chosen to match the rise

time. Since the time resolution improves directly with increasing
peak signal amplitude, the differentiation time should be set to
be as large as allowed by the required event rate.
 Signal and data processing
Signal Formation

Time Walk: For the fix trigger lever, the time of threshold
crossing depends on pulse amplitude.

Accuracy of timing measurement limited by

• jitter (due to noise)

• time walk (due to amplitude variations)

If the rise time is known, “time walk” can be compensated in

software event-by-event by measuring the pulse height and
correcting the time measurement.

This technique fails if both amplitude and rise time vary, as is

common. In hardware, time walk can be reduced by setting
the threshold to the lowest practical level, or by using
amplitude compensation circuitry.
Signal and data processing
Signal Formation
 3. Experimental methodology and data processing
Clover detectors

 Four HPGe crystals are physically joined but

electrically separated and acts as separate
detectors in add-back mode.

 It increases the total photo peak counts by

adding the Compton scattered gamma rays in
add-back mode.
Clover
detectors
Sum Mode : HPGe crystals
total counts = 2

γ1 C1 C2
Add-back Mode :
γ2
total counts = 4
C3 C
γ3 4
γ4
 3. Experimental methodology and data processing
Indian National Gamma Array (INGA)

 Detection efficiency for

gamma rays can be
enhanced by using large
array of clover detectors.

 INGA is such an array

which can mount 24 clover
detectors with BGO anti-
Compton shield

 The detectors are arranged

in 4π geometry.

INGA at Inter University Accelerator Centre

(IUAC), New Delhi
 3. Experimental methodology and data processing
DCO and polarization measurement

 In the linear polarization mesurement,

clover detectors are used as Compton Compton
scattering
polarimeter.
Event-1 C1 C2 Event-2
 The Compton scattered γ-ray photon
detected to determine the electric and
magnetic properties of the transitions
af ( Eγ) N ┴− N ║ C3 C4
Δ=
af ( E γ ) N ┴ + N ║
Event-3 Event-4

N ║ (unpolarized )
a f (E γ )= Beam
N ┴ (unpolarized) direction

N║ : Number of event scattered Event-1 & Event-4 N┴

parallel to beam direction
N┴: Number of event scattered Event-2 & Event-3 N║
perpendicuar to beam direction