Balancing play and science learning:

Developing children’s scientific learning

in the classroom through imaginary play
l Marilyn Fleer

This dilemma can be split into questions about

Abstract starting points and models of teaching, which will
Models of teaching of science in the early years then be considered in turn:
such as Discovery learning, Process approach and 1: Do we plan in relation to everyday exploration and
Guided Enquiry often begin with consideration of thinking that attracts the attention of the child, or
the science concept. But what if we want to begin do plan with science concepts in mind?
with children’s play? In this paper, we will look at
2: Do we draw on models of science teaching that
a model of teaching science that begins with
begin with play or do we use a model that is oriented
imaginary play. Through a case example of
more to the science concept?
children playing being characters in the story of
Robin Hood of Sherwood Forest, we explore how
imagination in play supports imagination in
science. The model presented is called a Starting points for children’s thinking
Conceptual PlayWorld for the intentional in science
teaching of science and was developed from ten A synthesis of longstanding research into children’s
years of research in Australian early years thinking in science across the globe (O’Connor,
settings. The five characteristics that make up a Fragkiadaki, Fleer & Rai, 2021) shows that studies
Conceptual PlayWorld are: selecting a dramatic either focus on the phenomenon, such as how a
story; designing an imaginary space; planning spinning top works, or the concept, such as what is
entry and exit; planning the science problem; and the physics that keeps the spinning top moving?
considering the role of the teacher. The pros and
cons of beginning with the science concept or
beginning with children’s play are explored,
together with a discussion of how to balance play
and the learning of science in the early years.

Keywords: Play, science learning, early childhood,

Conceptual PlayWorld

Introduction
Young children are curious about their world and
express their wonder through active exploration
and play. Evidence of this can be seen when
children are outdoors digging for treasure, acting
‘as if’ archaeologists. Harnessing this active
exploration and motivation for play to bring
forward science learning is the goal of early years
and primary teachers. But how do we do this in a
way that preserves the child’s desire to play, while
systematically deepening their explorations to
support science learning? Balancing play and STEM (Credit: Lara McKinley).

Original Research JES22 January 2022 page 13

The former brings in children’s interests in things in associated science ideas are shown in Table 1.
their everyday lives, such as their toys, whilst the The key question arising is: do we begin with the
latter is more oriented to planning for the scientific phenomenon or do we begin with the concept?
concept. Two examples of phenomena and their There are many scientifically oriented phenomena

Table 1. Do we begin with the phenomenon or do we begin with the concept?.

The phenomenon that Science topic Children’s ideas: What very

is of interest in the early years young children might think

Rainbows Light (e.g. Young children think about darkness rather

(Siry & Kremer, 2011) Ravanis, than light. Being bathed in light during the
Christidou & day means that children do not notice the
Hatzinikita, 2013) light. Some children think that beams of
light are emitted from their eyes (often
depicted in cartoons). Children do not
necessarily think about the light going in
straight lines, that it can be blocked
(shadow), reflected with a mirror, absorbed
by a dark surface or coloured cellophane,
and refracted (rainbow).

Spinning top Force (e.g. Klaar & Stored energy as we see in the spinning
(Samuelsson, 2018) Öhman, 2012) top, and the forces acting that bring the
top to a standstill. Children experience
force as they slide quickly down an icy
slope. Children do not think about all the
forces acting to stop motion, or when it is
equally balanced (object is at equilibrium),
such as when something is stationary.

Table 2.What are the pros and cons for beginning with the phenomenon or the concept?

Beginning with the phenomenon Beginning with the science concept

Pros Cons Pros Cons

Connected to the life of Is more difficult to Big ideas in science give Science concepts are
the child. transfer the knowledge explanatory power to complex, and focusing
of the phenomenon to children, are on concepts may not be
other contexts. predictable personally meaningful
explanations, and can to the child.
be used in different
contexts.

It is of interest to the The science to explain Having knowledge of The concept might not
child and therefore the the everyday scientific concepts be relevant to the
child is more likely to phenomenon may be helps children to cultural community in
want to understand the too complex for early navigate their world which the child lives.
science that explains years. and make scientifically
the phenomenon. informed decisions.

Original Research JES22 January 2022 page 14

Jumping into the story (Credit: Lara McKinley). 3: Guided enquiry: The teacher guides the learner
while giving some aspects of decision‐making
during the enquiry process to the children: for
example, setting up a problem for small groups,
such as how to make dirty water clean.

4: Conceptual PlayWorlds for the intentional

teaching of science: Creating an imaginary play
situation where problems arise, which draws on
specific conceptual knowledge from science,
technology, engineering and maths (STEM) to keep
the story narrative going, such as in the story of
Robin Hood, who needs help with getting into
the castle but does not know about the mechanics
of drawbridges.

If we consider the spread of pedagogical models of

play and science learning that already exist in the
early years’ and primary classrooms, they can be
represented as shown in Figure 1. This figure
shows, on the far left side, children’s play activity
that is not oriented to science. On the far right side
that are of interest to young children and these can
is represented science learning where no play is
be brought into the learning of science concepts.
featured. The graduations between these two
Table 2 (on p.14) gives a snapshot of the
extreme ends show either more play activity or
advantages and disadvantages associated with
more formal learning of science with minimal play.
making a decision about where to begin.
In the early years, children engage with others and
their world through play. Spontaneous play and
Models of teaching science exploration (left side of Figure 1) may not result in
in the early years deep science learning. For example, in discovery
There are many ways of teaching science in the learning, placing magnets and a range of materials
early years, such as: on a science table may lead to children thinking
that cold things are attracted to magnets.
1: Discovery learning: Provision of materials for
self‐learning, separate to the teacher, such as a In the more recently developed models of teaching
science table or display in a pre‐school science in the early years, such as guided enquiry or
2: Process approach: Development of scientific Conceptual PlayWorlds for intentional teaching,
skills, such as observing, classifying, inferring, etc. both play and learning are considered. We will look
For example, giving children hand lenses and at two case studies from the perspective of the
inviting them to observe something specific, such continuum of play and scientific thinking using
as a seed. science concepts.

Conceptual
Discovery Spontaneous
PlayWorld for Guided Science Science
science play and
Children’s play the international science inquiry Process skills learning
learning with everyday
teaching of in play
materials science
science

Figure 1. A continuum between play and science learning – where do you sit?
(Figure 1 copyright Conceptual PlayLab).

Original Research JES22 January 2022 page 15

Case example of forensic science – beginning with 1: Determining guided scientific enquiry process.
the concept They worked with these guided scientific enquiry
Howitt, Lewis and Upson (2011) used a guided process skills:
scientific enquiry model that began with science n Students ask questions;
concepts. They introduced forensic science to early n Students are actively involved in finding
years children by leaving footprints in the answers to their questions;
classroom and inviting children to work out who n Exploring and investigating phenomena
left them. through using materials; and
n Making observations and developing
Their planning was stepped as follows: explanations.

Focus Learning activity Making connections Science process skills

Lesson 1: Discovering Who left these Make cutouts of own Making comparisons –
bear footprints in the footprints? footprints and compare my footprint is
classroom. An evidence board is those to the footprints smaller/bigger.
prepared. found.

Lesson 2: Planting fake Using gloves, tongs and Class code pictograph is Making comparisons –
fur around the ziplock bags, children prepared, and children compare and discuss.
classroom. find and bag the categorise hair colour.
evidence.

Lesson 3: A messy Using cotton buds, the Children make own Observations – using
pawprint is found children take samples fingerprints using magnifying glasses, the
(honey is on the print). of the messy substance. inkpads and paper. children look at their
fingerprints.

Lesson 4: Who left the Children look at the Children plan an Using evidence to make
evidence? evidence board and investigation. The predictions.
draw pictures of who research question was
they believe left the ‘What foods can we
footprint/fur/messy make fingerprints
pawprint. from?’

Lesson 5: Undertaking Children carry out the Fruit is placed on to 5 Observations – using
an investigation. investigation previously plastic sheets. The magnifying glasses, the
planned. children press their children look at their
Visiting the outdoor fingers onto the fruit fingerprints.
area as a group, going and then onto a plastic
on a bear hunt and sheet to leave a trace. Use observations as
finding more evidence. Children look at the evidence.
Then finding a bear fingerprints using
cave and discovering a magnifying glasses. Represent and
note from the bear. Using a worksheet, the communicate their
children match the results.
fingerprints to the fruit.

Table 3.The plan for the forensic science programme studied by Howitt, Lewis and Upson (2011).

Original Research JES22 January 2022 page 16

2: Understanding the principles of forensic science. Case example of Robin Hood of Sherwood Forest –
They determined that forensic science involved: beginning with imaginary play
The second case study example begins with
n Application of systematic scientific children’s play. The context of the play is introduced
process and knowledge to a legal problem; through a book or storytelling, where problems
and arise that need scientific solutions. For instance, the
n Every contact leaving a trace (e.g. story of Robin Hood from Sherwood Forest sets up
fingerprints, hair, fibres, soil, pollen, etc.). social problems of poverty and the need to retrieve
the treasure from the castle and redistribute the
3: Making connections between everyday ideas wealth to the villagers. Creating an imaginary
and scientific concepts within the forensic science situation by being players in the story of Robin
programme. This is shown in Table 3, Column 3: Hood, and meeting problems during the play –
such as how to get the drawbridge up – drives
Part of guided scientific enquiry is the teacher the children’s play and amplifies the science
supporting the children as they try to make sense of learning opportunity.
the phenomena under study – such as the principles
of forensic science. The beginning point is the The Conceptual PlayWorld for the intentional
science enquiry skills and the science concept. teaching of STEM involves five characteristics

Selecting a dramatic story (Credit: Lara McKinley).

Original Research JES22 January 2022 page 17

that are thoughtfully planned and implemented. Conceptual Playworld for learning science (simple
They are shown in Table 4. Developing children’s machines and how they work). The imaginary play
imaginary play (Robin Hood) and imagination in situation can last a morning, or it can take place
science (how to get the treasure out of the castle) over a whole term. This example of Robin Hood
is supported through the five characteristics of a took a full term.

Characteristic Details

1. Selecting a The story of Robin Hood was selected because it is full of drama and
dramatic story excitement – social problems arise because children want to help the
villagers, who are poor. There are many different kinds of adventures
(chapter books) or storylines that children or teachers can introduce so that
the imaginary play situation can be dramatic and last for days, weeks or
even months.

2. Designing an The outdoor area with its play equipment becomes Sherwood Forest. The
imaginary play space climbing equipment becomes the castle, where a drawbridge with a double
pulley can be secured.

3. Planning the entry The fort becomes the time machine that takes the children back into the
into the Conceptual time of Robin Hood. Entry into the time machine has a countdown and
Playworld children are taken back in time. Children return to the classroom through the
time machine.

4. Planning the Problem 1: How to get into the castle to rescue the treasure to give back to
problem that needs the villagers who are starving.
science concepts Research: Find out how drawbridges work. Make prototypes of castles and
drawbridges. Study YouTubes about the science of drawbridges.
Problem 2: Designing an escape plan to quickly escape and then to hide in
Sherwood Forest.
Research: Look at Google Earth to see castles, the children’s school, their
neighbourhood. Parent shows the children how to draw from a bird’s eye
view, front view, cross‐sections – to help them design their plans. Look at
books containing pictures of castles with cross‐sections.
Problem 3: Friar Tuck goes into the time machine and visits the children,
carrying a letter from the Dragon who is stuck in the dungeon and
needs help.
Research: After visiting the Castle Engineer back in time, the children plan
a simple machine to use to retrieve the treasure. Children look at YouTubes
of cranes, and the science surrounding cogs and wheels.
Problem 4: How to design a simple machine to retrieve the treasure.
Research: The children use a pulley system, role‐play being links in a
chain, cogs and wheels, and make, with support, a prototype of their
simple machine.

5. Planning the role of The teachers are characters in the play, taking on a role and role‐playing
the teacher together with the children. Sometimes they ask for help, sometimes they
give help, and sometimes they do things equally together. The different roles
allow the educators to model or support the asking of questions, the
investigation process, predicting, planning and trying out ideas, gathering
evidence, discussing the evidence, presenting and communicating their
ideas, etc.

Planning a Conceptual PlayWorld for the intentional teaching of STEM (Fleer, 2020).

Original Research JES22 January 2022 page 18

Table 4 shows how imaginary play is used for the Figure 2. An invitation to consider the balance in
teaching of STEM concepts. For the children’s play your context for beginning with a science concepts
to continue, they need to do some research. They or beginning with children’s play.
take back into the play their ideas, such as their
escape plan, which they take to the Castle Engineer
Begins with a play
for advice. Similarly, children take their hand‐held Begins with the
problem that needs
devices and record how the castle drawbridge science concept
science concepts
works, and then return with their data to the
classroom, and discuss how to build a prototype
of a drawbridge. As the children learn more
about drawbridges, simple machines and design Conceptual
drawing, their play is enriched with science in the
imaginary Conceptual PlayWorld of Robin Hood. Guided PlayWords
Further examples are shown as videos in the science for the
resource list below.
inquiry in intentional
play teaching of
Conclusion science
In this paper, two case studies of science teaching
were presented. One approach began with the
science concept and the other with children’s play.
Table 5 presents some pros and cons of both ways
into science learning. Figure 2 invites you to
t
consider the balance of play and science learning in
your programme.

As teachers, we need to make decisions about features of a species – food source). This is the kind
what approach will work best for the particular of scientific thinker that we hope will emerge in the
children and the setting that will draw on individual early years.
pedagogical beliefs about how children learn and
develop. For example, in providing opportunities This paper invited you to consider how to preserve
for a child to go outside and look for slaters the child’s wish to play and systematically deepen
(woodlice), they are building ideas of the play area their explorations for the learning of science
as a habitat, looking for a species under its food concepts. We investigated beginning with the
source of rotting logs. In this example, the child has phenomenon, a play problem or the scientific
built a rudimentary relational model of a core concept. There are many pros and cons associated
concept of an ecosystem (habitat – structural with making decisions about teaching and learning

Beginning with play Beginning with the science concept

Pros Cons Pros Cons

Children are highly Children may not be The science concept Children may not be
motivated in play. interested in bringing and the process skills motivated to focus on
When they want to help science concepts into drive the learning the science or the
the character to solve their play. activities. There is more process skills.
the problem, they are confidence that the
really in tune with the science is being
science concept. covered.

Table 5.What are the pros and cons of beginning with the play or the concept?

Original Research JES22 January 2022 page 19

in science in the early years. What is key for References
effective learning is planning a programme that Fleer, M. (2020) ‘Engineering PlayWorld–a model of
brings to children not just scientific lenses for practice to support children to collectively
understanding their world, but a passion and design, imagine and think using engineering
motivation for scientific activity and thinking. concepts’, Res Sci Educ.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165‐020‐09970‐6
Howitt, C., Lewis, L. & Upson, E. (2011) ‘”It’s a
Further information and resources mystery!” A case study of implementing forensic
Go to the project website for a wide range of science in preschool as scientific inquiry’,
examples and supporting materials, including a Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 36, (3),
planning proforma to design your own Conceptual 45–55
PlayWorld for the intentional teaching of science: Klaar, S. & Öhman, J. (2012) ‘Action with friction:
https://www.monash.edu/conceptual‐ a transactional approach to toddlers’ physical
playworld/early‐childhood‐educators/playworld‐ meaning making of natural phenomena and
starters‐for‐educators processes in preschool’, European Early
Childhood Education Research Journal, 20, (3),
Early years in school: The Secret Garden 439–454.
Overview: https://youtu.be/U0u55FDiu88 https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2012.704765
Characteristic 1: Select a O’Connor, G., Fragkiadaki, G., Fleer, M. & Rai, R.
story: https://youtu.be/_fZ2PVNQaDY (2021) ‘Early childhood science education from 0
Characteristic 2: Design the to 6: A literature review’, Educ. Sci., (11), 178.
space: https://youtu.be/ArS_‐F‐E0Vw https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11040178
Characteristic 3: Plan entry and Ravanis, K., Christidou, V. & Hatzinikita, V. (2013)
exit: https://youtu.be/kXykFMxeKUA ‘Enhancing conceptual change in preschool
Characteristic 4: Plan the play children’s representations of light: a socio‐
inquiry: https://youtu.be/NtVrL2x_6OM cognitive approach’, Research in Science
Characteristic 5: Plan teacher Education, 43, (6), 2257–2276
interactions: https://youtu.be/S47u8W5r4jU Samuelsson, R. (2018) ‘Children’s explorations of
the concept of spinning in preschool: Science
learning in mediated activity’, Learning, Culture
and Social Interaction, (17), 90–102.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2018.01.002
Siry, C. A. & Kremer, I. (2011) ‘Children explain the
rainbow: using young children’s ideas to guide
science curricula’, International Journal of Science
Education and Technology, 20, (5), 643–655

Professor Marilyn Fleer, Conceptual PlayLab,

School of Educational Psychology and Counselling,
Monash University, Australia.
E‐mail: marilyn.fl[email protected]

Original Research JES22 January 2022 page 20