ASTU
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CHAPTER ONE
REVIEW
OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
PHENOMENON,
VARIABLES
AND
CIRCUIT
PARAMETERS
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Electric charge
An Electric charge, denoted by Q is associated with a deficiency or the abundance of a group of electrons
and is equal to the product of the number of electrons and the charge on each individual electron.
Electrical charge manifests itself in the form of forces--electrons repel other electrons but attract protons,
while protons repel each other but attract electrons.
The unit of electrical charge is the coulomb(C). The coulomb is defined as the charge carried by 6.24 x
1018 electrons. Thus, if an electrically neutral (i.e., uncharged) body has 6.24 x
1018 electrons removed, it
will be left with a net positive charge of 1 coulomb, i.e., Q =
1 C. Conversely, if an uncharged body has
6.24 x
1018 electrons added, it will have a net negative charge of 1 coulomb, i.e., Q =
-‐1 C.
We can now determine the charge on one electron. It is Qe =
1/ (6.24 x
1018) =
1.60 x
10-‐19 C.
Example - An initially neutral body has 1.7 µC of negative charge removed. Later, 18.7
x 1011 electrons
are added. What is the body’s final charge?
Solution - Initially the body is neutral, i.e., QInitial = 0 C. When 1.7 µC of electrons is removed, the body is
left with a positive charge of 1.7 µC. Now, 18.7 x 1011 electrons are added back. This is equivalent to
of negative charge. The final charge on the body is therefore Qf = 1.7 µC - 0.3 µC =1.4 µC.
Coulombs law
Coulomb determined experimentally that the force between two charges Q1 and Q2 is directly
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. Mathematically, Coulomb’s law states
Where Q1 and Q2 are the charges in coulombs, r is the center-to-center spacing between them in meters,
and k=
9 x
109.
As Coulomb’s law indicates, force decreases inversely as the square of distance; thus, if the distance
between two charges is doubled, the force decreases to (1⁄2)2 =
1⁄4 (i.e., one quarter) of its original value.
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Negative result indicates attractive force and positive value indicates repulsive force.
Exercises:
1. Positive charges Q1 = 2 µC and Q2 = 12 µC are separated center to center by 10 mm. Compute the force
between them. Is it attractive or repulsive?
2. Two equal charges are separated by 1 cm. If the force of repulsion between them is 9.7 x 10-2 N, what
is their charge? What may the charges be, both positive, both negative, or one positive and one negative?
3. After 10.61 x 1013 electrons are added to a metal plate, it has a negative charge of 3 µC. What was its
initial charge in coulombs?
Answers: 1. 2160 N, repulsive; 2. 32.8 nC, both (+) or both (-); 3. 14 µC (+)
Electric Field
By definition, the Electric field strength at a point is the force acting on a unit positive charge at that
point; that is,
The force exerted on a unit positive charge (Q2 =
1 C), by a charge Q1, r meters away, as determined by
Coulomb’s law is
Voltage
In electrical terms, a difference in potential energy is defined as voltage. In general, the amount of energy
required to separate charges depends on the voltage developed and the amount of charge moved. By
definition, the voltage between two points is one volt if it requires one joule of energy to move one
coulomb of charge from one point to the other. In equation form,
where W is energy in joules, Q is charge in coulombs, and V is the resulting voltage in voltsVoltage is
defined between points. For the case of the battery, for example, voltage appears between its terminals.
Thus, voltage does not exist at a point by itself; it is always determined with respect to some other point.
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If
we
are
dealing
with
a
changing
charge
and
energy,
we
have
Example 2 - If it takes 35 J of energy to move a charge of 5 C from one point to another, what is the
voltage between the two points?
Solution
Exercices:
1. The voltage between two points is 19 V. How much energy is required to move 67
x 1018 electrons
from one point to the other?
2. The potential difference between two points is 140 mV. If 280 µJ of work are required to move a
charge Q from one point to the other, what is Q?
Answers: 1. 204 J 2. 2 mC
Current
Assume now that a battery is connected as in Figure 1.1. Since electrons are attracted by the positive pole
of the battery and repelled by the negative pole, they move around the circuit, passing through the wire,
the lamp, and the battery. This movement of charge is called an electric current. The more electrons per
second that pass through the circuit, the greater the current. Thus, current is the rate of flow (or rate of
movement) of charge.
Figure 1.1 electron current through a cross sectional area
Since charge is measured in coulombs, its rate of flow is coulombs per second. In the SI system, one
coulomb per second is defined as one ampere (commonly abbreviated A). From this, we get that one
ampere is the current in a circuit when one coulomb of charge passes a given point (plane) in one second
(Figure 1.1). The symbol for current is I. Expressed mathematically,
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where Q is the charge (in coulombs) and t is the time interval (in seconds) over which it is measured.
Alternate forms of the above equation are
If we are dealing with time varying charge then we use the equation
Then
Example 3 – If 840 coulombs of charge pass through the imaginary plane of figure 1.1 during a time
interval of 2 minutes, what is the current?
Solution - convert t to seconds
In the early days of electricity, it was believed that current was a movement of positive charge and that
these charges moved around the circuit from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative as
depicted in Figure 1–2(a). Based on this, all the laws, formulas, and symbols of circuit theory were
developed. (We now refer to this direction as the conventional current direction.)
Figure 1.2 conventional and electron flow of electric current
After the discovery of the atomic nature of matter, it was learned that what actually moves in metallic
conductors are electrons and that they move through the circuit as in Figure 1–2(b). This direction is
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called the electron flow direction. However, because the conventional current direction was so well
established, most users stayed with it. Thus, in most books and in the discussions that follow, the
conventional direction for current is used.
Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or, equivalently, as the rate of transfer of energy. The symbol
for power is P. By definition,
where W is the work (or energy) in joules and t is the corresponding time interval of t seconds.
The SI unit of power is the watt. From the above equation, we see that P also has units of joules per
second. If you substitute W =
1 J and t =
1 s you get P =
1 J/1 s =
1 W. From this, you can see that one
watt equals one joule per second.
To express P in terms of electrical quantities, recall that voltage is defined as work per unit charge and
current as the rate of transfer of charge, i.e.,
From voltage equation, W =
QV. Substituting this into Equation for power yields P =
W/t =
(QV)/t =
V
(Q/t). Replacing Q/t with I, we get
Additional relationships are obtained by substituting V =
IR and I =V/R
For non constant (time varying) conditions
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Example - compute the power to each resistor in figure below.
Solution –use the appropriate voltage in the power equation, for resistor R1 use V1 and for resistor R2 use
V2
R1=20Ω R2=100Ω
I
+ V1=10 V - + V2=50 V -
Solution
a.
b.
Exercises
a. show that and
b. A 100 Ω resistor dissipates 169 W. What is its current?
Energy
We defined power as the rate of doing work. When you rearrange this equation, you get the formula for
energy:
If t is measured in seconds, W has units of watt-seconds (i.e., joules, J), while if t is measured in hours, W
has units of watt-hours (Wh). Note that in the above equation, P must be constant over the time interval
under consideration. If it is not, apply the equation to each interval over which P is constant.
For time varying circuits energy can be expressed as
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Example: Determine the total energy used by a 100 W lamp for 12 hours and a 1.5 kW heater for 45
minutes.
Solution - convert all quantities to the same set of units, thus 1.5 kW = 1500 W and 45 minutes = 0.75
h.then,
Example - Suppose you use the following electrical appliances: 1.5 kW heater for hours, a 3.6 kW
boiler for 17 minutes, three 100 W lamps for 4 hours, a 900 W toaster for 6 minutes. At 0.09 birr per
kilowatthour, how much will this cost?
Solution - convert time in minutes to hours. Thus,
Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction
If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field so that it cuts magnetic lines of flux, a voltage will be
induced across the conductor, as shown in Figure 1.3. The greater the number of flux lines cut per unit
time (by increasing the speed with which the conductor passes through the field), or the stronger the
magnetic field strength (for the same traversing speed), the greater will be the induced voltage across the
conductor. If the conductor is held fixed and the magnetic field is moved so that its flux lines cut the
conductor, the same effect will be produced.
Figure 1.3 Induced voltage when a conductor wire passes through a magnetic flux
If a coil of N turns is placed in the region of a changing flux, a voltage will be induced across the coil as
determined by Faraday’s law:
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Where e is voltage induced N represents the number of turns of the coil and dϕ/dt is the instantaneous
change in flux (in webers) linking the coil. The term linking refers to the flux within the turns of wire.
If the flux linking the coil ceases to change, such as when the coil simply sits still in a magnetic field of
fixed strength, dϕ/dt =
0, and the induced voltage e =
N (dϕ/dt) =
N(0)=
0.
Self inductance
Self inductance of a coil is a measure of the change in flux linking a coil due to a change in current
through the coil; that is,
Self Inductance can also be described as the measure opposition that an inductor exhibits to the change of
current flowing through itself, measured in henrys (H). The opposition in the form of an induced voltage
across the inductor is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the current.
The induced voltage is given by the formula
where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of the inductor.
The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical dimension and construction. Inductors (coils) of
different shapes have different formulas. Formulas for calculating the inductance of inductors of different
shapes are derived from electromagnetic theory and can be found in standard electrical engineering
handbooks.
Mutual inductance
In addition to inducing an opposing voltage in the original coil, change in current in a certain coil can also
induce voltage across the terminals of another coil placed in its vicinity. This phenomenon is called
mutual inductance.
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Figure 1.4 – mutual inductance in the primary and secondary coil of a transformer
Let us consider two coils, where the first one is called a primary coil (p) and the other one the secondary
(s). The magnitude of es, the voltage induced across the secondary, is determined by
where Ns is the number of turns in the secondary winding and ϕm is the portion of the primary flux ϕp that
links the secondary winding.
If all of the flux linking the primary links the secondary, then ϕm =
ϕp
The mutual inductance between the two coils of the above figure is determined by
Circuit elements
Resistance and Resistors
A resistor is a material that provides an opposing force to the flow of charge through it. This opposition,
due to the collisions between electrons and between electrons and other atoms in the material, which
converts electrical energy into another form of energy such as heat, is called the resistance of the
material. The unit of measurement of resistance is the ohm, for which the symbol is Ω (omega).
At a fixed temperature of 20°C (room temperature), the resistance is related to three factors by
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where ρ (Greek letter rho) is a characteristic of the material called the resistivity, l is the length of the
sample, and A is the cross-sectional area of the sample.
The voltage- current relation of a resistor is determined by ohms law which is given by
where I is the current through the resistor and V is the voltage
Power
Power is an indication of how much work (the conversion of energy from one form to another) can be
done in a specified amount of time, That is, a rate of doing work. In terms of the electrical quantities V
and I,
By direct substitution of Ohm’s law, the equation for power can be obtained in two other forms:
Energy
The energy (W) lost or gained by any system is therefore determined by
The wattsecond, however, is too small a quantity for most practical purposes, so the watthour (Wh) and
kilowatthour (kWh) were defined, as follows:
Example – How much energy (in kilowatthours) is required to light a 60 W bulb continuously for 1 year?
Solution –
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Exercise – How long can a 205 W television set be on before using more than 4 kWh of energy? Ans =
19.51 hours
Capacitance and Capacitor
A
circuit
element
that
is
composed
of
two
conducting
plates
or
surfaces
separated
by
a
dielectric
(non
conducting)
materials.
If
a
voltage
source
(v)
is
connected
to
the
capacitor,
+ve
charge
will
be
transferred
to
one
plate
while
–ve
charge
will
be
transferred
to
the
other
plate.
Let
the
charge
stored
at
the
capacitor
≡q,
then
if
v
increases
q
also
increases
Then
from
the
above
relation
it
can
be
found
that
Where
c
is
the
capacitance
of
the
capacitor
The
capacitance
can
also
determined
using
the
following
relation
Where
A=surface
area
of
each
plate
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d=distance
between
the
two
plates
=
Permittivity
of
free
space
Current
in
capacitor
We
know
that
Then
Voltage
in
capacitor
Where
to
is
the
initial
time
The capacitor is a passive element and follows the passive sign convention
Inductance
and
Inductors
Inductors
are
circuit
elements
that
consist
of
a
conducting
wire
in
the
shape
of
a
coil
(N=1).
If
a
current
is
flowing
in
the
inductor,
it
produce
a
magnetic
field,
Φ.
Where
L
is
the
inductance
and
measured
in
Henry
[H]
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As
the
current
increases
or
decreases,
the
magnetic
field
spreads
or
collapse
The
change
in
magnetic
field
induces
a
voltage
across
the
inductor.
Current
in
inductors
Integrate
both
sides
Electric
sources
1.
Independent
voltage
source:
is
a
2-‐terminal
sources
that
maintains
a
specific
voltage
across
its
terminals
regardless
of
the
current
through
it.
The
circuit
symbol
of
independent
voltage
sources
is
given
below,
2.
Dependent
voltage
source:
is
a
2-‐terminal
sources
that
generates
a
voltage
that
is
determined
by
a
voltage
or
current
at
a
specified
location
in
the
circuit.
The
circuit
symbol
of
dependent
voltage
sources
is,
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3.
Independent
current
source: is a 2-terminal sources that maintains a specific current through it
regardless of the voltage across it terminals.
The
circuit
symbol
of
independent
current
sources
is
given
below,
4.
Dependent
current
source:
is
a
2-‐terminal
sources
that
generates
a
current
that
is
determined
by
voltage
or
current
at
a
specified
location
in
the
circuit.
The
circuit
symbol
of
dependent
current
sources
is
given
below,
Example
-‐
Compute
the
power
that
is
absorbed
or
supplied
by
each
of
the
elements
in
the
following
circuit
1IX
IX=4A R1
+
_
+ 12 V -
IR2 IR3=
+ 2A +
Vs=36 V 24 V 28 V
R2 R3
- -
Solution
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