Our experts

advise on INCLUSIVE
PRACTICES
IN ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
TEACHING
Our experts
advise on INCLUSIVE
PRACTICES
IN ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
TEACHING
The OUP ELT Expert Panel

THE OUP OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD ELT POSITION PAPERS

ELT EXPERT Oxford University Press is a department

of the University of Oxford and furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in
The Oxford ELT Position Papers are
the culmination of consultancy with
members of the Panel and are written

PANEL
research, scholarship, and education by by an expert author. With these
publishing worldwide. papers, OUP ELT aims to provide
guidance for decision-makers in ELT,
translating insights from academic
THE OUP ELT EXPERT PANEL research and classroom practice into
recommendations for the following
The Oxford University Press ELT Expert readership:
Panel was set up for consultation • Ministries of Education
on current key issues and trends • Policymakers
affecting English Language Teaching. • Curriculum developers
Consultation with the Panel ensures • School owners
research-based support to inform OUP • Directors of Studies
English language teaching content and • Head teachers
services. This enables Oxford University • Teachers
Press to best meet the needs of English
language learners, their teachers, school
management, and policymakers across
the globe.
The Panel comprises academics and
specialist practitioners in the fields of
English Language Teaching, Applied
Linguistics, and Education. Together,
these experts offer a wide range of
experience, research interests, and
specialisms, providing OUP ELT with a
broad perspective on key issues facing
ELT educators today.

© Oxford University Press 3

The Experts consulted for this paper

THE EXPERTS
CONSULTED
FOR THIS MARIE DELANEY
Marie Delaney is a teacher trainer,
JUDIT KORMOS
Judit Kormos is Professor of Second

PAPER
educational psychotherapist, author, and Language Acquisition at Lancaster
director of the educational consultancy University, UK. She was the chief
The Learning Harbour in Cork, Ireland. investigator on a project that explored
She has worked for many years with the foreign language learning processes
students of all ages who have special of students with dyslexia. She is co-
educational needs, in particular in the author of Teaching Languages to
area of behavioural difficulties. She has Students with Specific Learning
worked with Ministries of Education and Differences (2012), and the author of
trained teachers in several countries Understanding the Second Language
on inclusion policy, curriculum, and Learning Processes of Students with
inclusive pedagogy. Her main interests Specific Learning Difficulties (2017).
are bringing therapeutic approaches She worked on DysTEFL, a European
into teaching and learning, supporting Commission sponsored teacher training
teachers in working with challenging project focusing on dyslexia and
pupils, and promoting inclusive language learning, and is the coordinator
education principles for all. She is the of the Dyslexia for Teachers of English as
author of Special Educational Needs a Foreign Language project.
(2016).

MICHELE DALOISO DARIO IANES ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Michele Daloiso is Lecturer in the English (IN COLLABORATION WITH RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT ERICKSON) Anne Margaret Smith taught English for
Language at Ca’ Foscari University, 25 years in Kenya, Germany, Sweden,
Venice, Italy. He is the founder and Dario Ianes is Professor of Didactics and and the UK, where she worked at the
director of the DEAL Research Group Special Pedagogy at the Free University University of Salford and Lancaster
at the university, which investigates of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy, on the degree University before becoming Senior
the process of language teaching course in Primary Education. He is Lecturer in TESOL at the University
for students with special educational co-founder of Centro Studi Erickson of Cumbria. Co-author of Teaching
needs. He is also author of many in Trento, for whom he edits several Languages to Students with Specific
articles and teaching materials on this series, including guides for teachers Learning Difficulties (2012), she is a
topic, including Supporting Learners and inclusive learning materials. He is dyslexia specialist tutor and assessor,
with Dyslexia in the ELT Classroom the author of various articles and books and provides materials, training to
(2017). His research interests include and editor of the journal Learning teachers, and specialist teaching to
applied neuropsycholinguistics, early Difficulties. In this paper, Professor Ianes learners with dyslexia through her
foreign language learning and teaching, is representing the special educational consultancy, ELT well. She is a founding
language learning strategies, and needs publisher Erickson, whose member of the IATEFL special interest
English language teaching with learners Research & Development Department group Inclusive Practices and SEN.
who have specific needs related to has also collaborated with OUP ELT in
language processing, such as dyslexia the creation of SEN-appropriate content
and language impairment. for the ELT market in Italy.

© Oxford University Press 4

Executive summary

EXECUTIVE English has become a global lingua

franca and is widely perceived as a
prerequisite for success in many areas
participate fully and achieve success.
This unique combination of challenges
and opportunities compels the English

SUMMARY of life. However, language learners with

special educational needs may find that
they are disadvantaged by the way their
learning environment interacts with their
language teaching community to lead in
developing and implementing inclusive
practices.
The implementation of inclusive
individual differences. Such language practices requires support and
learners include both ‘neurodiverse’ leadership at an institutional level.
learners (those with specific learning All school staff need support for the
difficulties) and those who experience collaboration and cooperation involved
social, emotional, and behavioural in developing an inclusive learning
difficulties (SEBD). An attainment gap environment. School management
can develop between these learners and also has a vital role to play in providing
their peers which only increases during continuous professional development
the school years. Bridging this attainment for teachers in inclusive practices.
gap is at the core of the inclusion agenda Equipped to establish an inclusive ethos
developed by international organizations in their classes, teachers can make small
such as UNESCO and the OECD to adjustments to classroom practice and
promote the implementation of inclusive learning materials which meet the needs
educational systems in which all learners of all their learners.
are actively engaged in learning and can This paper outlines the development
reach their potential. of approaches to inclusive education
Learning an additional language and discusses the characteristics of
can present significant challenges some types of neurodiversity and SEBD
to learners with special educational and their impact on language learning.
needs. Consequently, the English It suggests aspects of continuous
language teacher may even be the first professional development that would
to notice indicators of neurodiversity benefit English language teachers,
or SEBD. At the same time, the English and provides guidelines for inclusive
language classroom can provide the practices in the use of learning materials.
ideal environment for addressing It also explores accessibility with regard
these challenges. Through its long to assessment and testing. Finally,
association with learner-centred it advocates collaboration between
communicative methodologies, the stakeholders in the development of
English language classroom offers many inclusive education, from those in
opportunities to implement inclusive the classroom to those involved in
practices which allow all learners to educational policymaking.

© Oxford University Press 5

Contents

01 16
Introduction Guidelines for the
inclusive use of
30
Appendix 1

34
Appendix 2
learning materials

03 21
Inclusive education Assessment and testing
34
Glossary

35
Further reading
and resources

07 26
Commonly identified
causes of difficulties in
Collaboration between
stakeholders
36
Endnotes

37
References
language learning

12
Support and continuous
professional development
29
Conclusions

for teachers

© Oxford University Press 6

 Introduction

INTRODUCTION The English language has become a global lingua franca in our
21st-century world.1 It is used across vast domains of activity:
from education, business, and international politics, to travel,
tourism, and many daily interactions. As a result, English is
widely perceived as a prerequisite for success in many areas
of life. At the same time, the learning of English can present
significant challenges to many learners: there are an estimated
800 million children worldwide whose cognitive development
and educational attainment are affected by a range of conditions
stemming from biological, environmental, and psychosocial
causes.2 These learners can be at a disadvantage pedagogically,
and at risk of experiencing an ever-increasing attainment gap
between themselves and their peers. International organizations
such as the European Commission and the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
recognize the importance of closing this attainment gap,3 and
many countries are working to achieve this by adopting inclusive
approaches in their education systems.

ESTABLISHING INCLUSIVE language learning presents, the English

LANGUAGE EDUCATION language in particular.

The communicative methodologies
In this paper, Oxford University Press and materials commonly used in English
ELT seeks to make a contribution to the language classrooms promote a largely
development and implementation of learner-centred and interactive learning
inclusive language education systems. environment, in contrast to the more
With this paper, we aim to provide traditional teacher-led methods often
support and recommendations for used in other subjects. Communicative
English language teachers, teacher ELT activities can sometimes highlight
trainers, materials developers, and communication or social interaction
other language professionals who difficulties. At the same time, the English
are interested in creating an inclusive language classroom is an environment
learning environment. We also provide which is particularly suitable for inclusive
information on the opportunities and practices because of the opportunities
challenges inherent to the language it provides for promoting cooperation
learning classroom for neurodiverse between learners.
language learners (namely, those With regards to the challenges of
with specific learning difficulties such language learning, neurodiverse learners
as dyslexia) and those with social, may experience several difficulties if they
emotional, and behavioural difficulties have reduced phonological awareness
(SEBD), which may be a consequence (the awareness of the sound structure
of neurodiversity or of environmental of words) and working memory (the
factors alone. type of short-term memory needed for
Two main considerations compel processing and combining information).
the English language teaching (ELT) Difficulties in these areas affect word-
community to lead in this endeavour: decoding and the comprehension
firstly, the opportunities afforded by the and production of written and spoken
communicative methodologies used language.4 The English language is
in ELT; secondly, the challenges that particularly challenging in this regard, as

© Oxford University Press 7

Introduction

THE STRUCTURE OF THIS materials in the classroom, covering

The communicative PAPER differentiation, classroom management,

multisensory and multimodal learning,
This paper explores aspects of inclusive and learning strategies.
and collaborative practice in six sections. Assessment is an integral part of
The first section traces the any learning process, and so Section 5
approaches in development of approaches to inclusive explores inclusive practice within the
education, as part of a worldwide move assessment of progress (assessment
language teaching towards a more inclusive society, as for learning) and the assessment of
outlined in the 1994 UNESCO Salamanca proficiency (assessment of learning).
offer valuable Statement and subsequently developed Providers of national and international
by the European Union and global assessments have a role to play here
opportunities for agencies.5 It includes a brief discussion in offering students opportunities
of the terminology used in the field to demonstrate their true level of
inclusive learning. and gives a definition of an ethos of understanding and language proficiency,
inclusion, based on a principle of equity, without being unfairly penalized for
JUDIT KORMOS followed by an overview of the benefits weaknesses in specific aspects of their
that inclusive education can bring. performance that mean they cannot
The second section discusses the access the test questions and/or
characteristics of some of the most material.
commonly encountered types of The final section of the paper
neurodiversity and SEBD, and how advocates the need for openness
they impact on language learning. It is and collaboration between all the
important to emphasize that assigning stakeholders, from those working in
a diagnostic label to a student with the classroom or training teachers, to
difficulties is the job of a qualified educational management, local and
assessor rather than a teacher. However, national policymakers, publishers, and
the written language only partly reflects teachers can benefit from knowing examining bodies. All these stakeholders
pronunciation and there is often no one- about some of the characteristics of need to work together with the learners
to-one correspondence between sounds neurodiversity and SEBD, as heightened and their families to ensure that the
and letters. awareness can lead to recognition of learners’ voices are heard and their
These two aspects of ELT mean that the need to provide support and to ask needs are met. This will require a
neurodiverse learners and those with for a referral to a qualified assessor if commitment of time, resources, and
SEBD often find that their existing necessary. energy from all involved.
learning strategies are not adequate The third section focuses on the We conclude by summarizing the key
to cope with the extra challenges importance of support and continuous messages of the paper.
of learning English as a second or professional development (CPD) for
foreign language, and specific learning teachers to develop their existing skills
difficulties can become apparent in and knowledge base. It sets out the main
a way that was not detected when areas of inclusive practice that need to
learners were learning their own or be explored, and emphasizes the fact
other languages with more regular that teachers will need the collaboration
writing systems. For this reason, English and cooperation of their colleagues—
language teachers are sometimes the particularly their managers—and of
first to identify underlying neurodiversity learners’ parents (and other caregivers)
and SEBD in their learners, and may where appropriate. Teachers seeking to
need to take a lead in raising the make their practice more inclusive will be
awareness of other members of staff embarking on a journey of exploration.
in the school or college. As English During this journey, many different
language teachers are often specialized strategies and interventions may need to
in communicative methodologies, they be implemented, monitored, reflected
have experience in facilitating supportive upon, and revised, until the best
collaboration between learners. This approach is found for each individual
can put English language teachers in a learner.
strong starting position to implement Section 4 outlines a set of guidelines
inclusive practices. for the inclusive use of learning

© Oxford University Press 8

Inclusive education

01
This section outlines
approaches to inclusive
education that have evolved
over time, and associated
terminology. It then describes
an ethos of inclusion and sets
out the potential benefits
of an inclusive education
system for all involved.
Finally, it introduces the idea
of implementing inclusive
practices on two levels: at
a general level, providing
an accessible learning
environment; and at an
individual level, recognizing
and embracing the individual
differences that occur in any
group.

Inclusive practices
acknowledge
that everyone has
different strengths
and diversity is
celebrated.
INCLUSIVE MARIE DELANEY

EDUCATION
© Oxford University Press 9
 the learning environment and adapting
teaching to suit the learners, rather than
expecting individuals to fit into their
environment.

Interactional Model

There is a growing awareness of

the importance of recognizing and
understanding the individual differences
of learners, and not ascribing their
difficulties only to external factors.
The Interactional Model, as it is called,
considers the interplay between multiple
factors affecting the behaviours and
needs of an individual. These factors
include a learner’s cognitive processing
capacity, individual abilities, and
their personal and wider contextual
circumstances. The Interactional Model
recognizes that difficulties in learning
are the result of an interaction between
THE DEVELOPMENT OF policy and practice: the medical model, individual and environmental factors.

APPROACHES TO INCLUSIVE the social model, and the interactional

model.7
As no two learners respond to the
environment in the same way, the range
EDUCATION Medical Model
of barriers they experience will be unique
to them. It is the Interactional Model that
Inclusive education was first put on The Medical Model takes a ‘deficit informs the approach of this paper.
the map in 1994 by the UNESCO approach’ to difference and disability,
Salamanca Statement.6 This statement, a seeing the problem as being within the
document informed by governments and learner only, rather than recognizing any TERMINOLOGY USED TO TALK
international organizations worldwide,
introduced a rights-based perspective
barriers to learning within the learning
environment. This model prioritizes the
ABOUT DIFFERENCE
to the discussion of inclusive education, diagnosis of the disability or disorder, Just as there are different models of
putting inclusion on the agenda for and the individual receives treatment difference and disability reflecting
educational reform. which aims to enable them to function a range of attitudes, there are also
Today, attitudes towards learner like most other students. Separate competing discourses—ways of talking
differences vary from country to schooling in ‘special schools’, set up to about difference and disability—that
country and also on an individual basis, cater for particular groups of learners reinforce or challenge the dominant
depending on personal experience, with differences or disabilities, are a models. The use of language is fluid
world view, and many other factors. product of the medical model, and are and it is not always possible to advise
Traditional framing of learner differences based on a policy of segregation rather which terms will be acceptable and
uses the term ‘disability’. While in some than inclusion. appropriate in any given situation.
contexts this term has fallen out of use, Indeed, educational professionals need
Social Model
its usage persists in many others; for to develop a wide repertoire so that they
example, in policy documents of EU After the Medical Model came the can choose which terminology to use in
agencies and the UN. It is also used in Social Model, which reframed disability different contexts, with different people.
legislation. Although many neurodiverse in terms of social and environmental
Special educational needs and
learners with an identified specific barriers. In the Social Model,
neurodiversity
learning difficulty would not think of difficulties are attributed not to the
themselves as having a ‘disability’, in individual learner but to a mismatch The term ‘special educational needs’
many countries it is in this term that their between their way of working, the (SEN), first used by H. M. Warnock in her
right to an education is protected by law. physical environment, the design of influential 1978 report,8 is the term that
In the discussion of difference and the curriculum and materials, and is commonly used in educational policy
disability, three models of understanding most importantly, the attitudes of the and institutions. Definitions of SEN vary
have evolved over time which have had educational community. The goal here a great deal from country to country,
a significant impact on educational is to direct every effort towards altering and even from region to region within

© Oxford University Press 10

Inclusive education

countries, and so this term needs to be sufficient when learning English; and with disabilities in mainstream schools.
used with an awareness that it means learners with social, emotional, and Other people conceive of the term in a
different things to different people. behavioural difficulties (SEBD)—whether broader sense, to describe the process
As with all technical terms, educational a consequence of a specific learning of developing strategies that meet
professionals should consider carefully difficulty or of environmental factors everybody’s needs and support quality
what the impact of their language choice such as loss, trauma, or neglect—may learning and participation for all.
might be, bearing in mind that the find the social interaction involved in Inclusion in this broader sense can only
expression ‘special educational needs’ communicative language teaching more start from an engagement of the school
may seem negative to some people, challenging than other learners. This community in supporting learning
setting these learners apart from their paper therefore focuses on learners processes for all. Achieving full inclusion
peers. in these two categories. Learners in is a significant challenge for educational
The term ‘neurodiversity’ is Category A are likely to have had their managers, but is perhaps best conceived
increasingly used in reference to learners needs identified and address, though of of as a process which schools and colleges
with specific learning difficulties, such as course the recommendations made in this go through, constantly evaluating and
dyslexia, autism spectrum condition, and paper can also benefit these learners. refining their systems and outcomes.11
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder For the purposes of this paper, We use the term integration to refer
(ADHD). Neurodiversity embraces the learners who fall into Category B— to students’ physical access to school
idea that all human brains function with specific learning difficulties—are and recognize that it is a necessary but
differently, and some much more so referred to as neurodiverse learners. insufficient step in developing inclusion.
than others. In the educational sphere, We include in Category B learners with Indeed, the integration of a group of
thinking in terms of neurodiversity ‘high-functioning’ autism (also known students without a change in the school
recognizes that specific learning as Asperger’s Syndrome), which is an ethos and practices might lead to a form
difficulties are part of human variation autism spectrum condition in which of exclusion within a common setting.
and need to be catered for. It shifts there is no intellectual impairment. In situations where students are
the emphasis from the ‘problems’ of We use the term special educational integrated rather than fully included,
the learner to barriers in the learning needs (SEN) when referring to OECD teachers can become exhausted
environment and the interaction Categories B and C. and frustrated by trying to fulfil their
between the two.9 responsibilities within an inadequate
framework. Despite this, schools and
Terminology used in this paper
AN ETHOS OF INCLUSION colleges in many countries remain
In 2007, the OECD classified different committed to developing their inclusive
types of special educational needs into An ethos of inclusion is one in which all provision, and teachers all around the
three categories.10 These are: students are valued. Inclusion respects world are seeking more information and
A. disabilities: sensory, physical, and the fact that people are different, that professional development opportunities,
intellectual impairments each individual experiences learning in in order to develop practical skills to
B. learning difficulties: specific learning their own way, and that everyone has their build on their inclusive ethos. Inclusive
differences such as dyslexia, and own strengths and weaknesses. teaching is founded on core values, such
other ‘invisible’ cognitive differences Underpinning inclusion is the principle as those set out by the European Agency
which are not directly linked to socio- of equity, which in education means for Development in Special Needs
economic or linguistic causes, such as ensuring that each learner is provided Education in 2012:12
ADHD with what they need; in other words, • valuing learner diversity
C. disadvantages: difficulties that arise every learner gets the accommodation • supporting all learners
from socio-economic, cultural, and/or or differentiation they need in order to • working with others
linguistic factors. succeed. This is distinct from equality, • continuing personal professional
As stated in the introduction, the which is a ‘one size fits all’ approach development.
communicative methodologies used in where everybody gets the same
ELT and the nature of language learning treatment or resources. Equity is key to
(particularly of the English language) inclusive practice, as it guarantees that
mean that the English language each learner is viewed and valued as an
classroom may be the environment in individual within the larger group.
which signs of OECD Categories B and C
Inclusion versus integration
(learning difficulties and disadvantages)
are first noticed: neurodiverse learners The term inclusion is used in several ways.
with specific learning difficulties such Some people use it in a narrow way, to
as dyslexia may find that their existing describe physical access to a school for
language learning strategies are not all; for example, the presence of students

© Oxford University Press 11

Very often I found that the
problem was not with the other
students in the class, but with the
teachers believing that they had
to treat all the children the same,
when, in fact, a lot of the children
realized that my son needed to be
treated differently from them, and
they didn’t think it was unfair.
David, parent of a child with autism spectrum condition
Inclusive education

THE BENEFITS OF INCLUSION environment that will make the learning

experience more accessible. This in turn
I had quite a few There are many arguments for the will engender a feeling of belonging to a
development of a more inclusive learning community, in which individual
positive comments education system, including: differences are seen ‘not as problems
• the moral justness of offering parity of to be fixed, but as opportunities for
from parents of opportunity to all learners to fulfil their democratizing and enriching learning’.15
potential
Individual level
children in his school, • the advantages to society of building
cohesive communities (increasing the At the individual level, teachers work
who felt that it had sense of well-being that stems from with each learner to identify any
living in a supportive community) barriers that they are experiencing
been good for the • the pedagogical benefits for all as a result of the interplay between
learners. environmental factors and the learner’s
children to meet The pedagogical benefits of inclusive neurodiversity. Once these are
education have been explored by several identified, teachers can put specific
and understand researchers in education. Research by interventions in place and differentiate
the European Commission shows that their teaching to meet the needs of the
people with different for children who are deemed to have individuals they are working with. In
‘additional support’ needs (SEN), there Appendix 1, there are suggestions for
conditions, and it are some advantages to being educated interventions, or practical responses, to
in a mainstream school, in terms of how various indications that students may
also means that he well they do in formal exams and in be experiencing barriers to learning.
integrating socially. It is also worth noting This will enable all learners to study
is a better accepted that children who are not considered to independently and develop their own
have additional support needs benefit strategies, which can also be transferred
member of our local from being taught alongside children beyond education to other areas of their
with SEN in two main ways:13 lives.
community. • they are exposed to and become more
appreciative of diversity in general,
MELANIE, PARENT OF A CHILD WITH AUTISM and thus develop better social
SPECTRUM CONDITION, DYSLEXIA, AND DYSPRAXIA interaction skills and empathy
MARIE DELANEY • they benefit from their teachers’ efforts
to provide an inclusive environment, SUMMARY
which makes the curriculum more
accessible for all learners. This section has offered
an overview of some of
A TWO-LEVEL APPROACH the different perspectives
on barriers to learning
TO INCLUSION
and the terminology used
As stated by UNESCO, ‘Inclusion is a
process that helps overcome barriers to discuss these, and
limiting the presence, participation considered the benefits
and achievement of learners’.14 This of inclusive practices
paper advocates a two-level approach
to inclusion: the general level and the at both a general and
individual level. an individual level. The
General level next section provides
At the general level, teachers need an an overview of the most
understanding of the most common commonly identified
kinds of difficulties that learners with causes of difficulties in
SEN often experience in the classroom.
Teachers can then work towards language learning.
developing a classroom culture and

© Oxford University Press 13

Commonly identified causes of difficulties in language learning

02
To help teachers recognize
barriers to learning, this section
presents key characteristics of
some of the most commonly
identified indications of
neurodiversity and social,
emotional, and behavioural
difficulties (SEBD). It is meant
to empower teachers by
raising awareness of possible
underlying issues that may be
hindering language learning.
This awareness can help
teachers develop ideas on
how to address their learners’
difficulties, and know when
a referral to an assessor
may be appropriate. It is not
meant to encourage diagnosis
by teachers who are not
specifically qualified to do so.

Inclusive practices
aim to remove

COMMONLY barriers so all

students have equal

IDENTIFIED CAUSES chances to learn

successfully.
OF DIFFICULTIES IN JUDIT KORMOS

LANGUAGE LEARNING
© Oxford University Press 14
Commonly identified causes of difficulties in language learning

In the introduction, it was suggested immediately assign a diagnostic label, DYSLEXIA

that language teachers are in a unique but rather monitor the situation and if
position when it comes to identifying necessary refer to a qualified assessor. In This is a cognitive developmental
some cognitive differences, because the meantime, they can start to develop difference which is lifelong in its effects.
neurodiverse learners may experience and adapt activities and materials to Because it affects working memory,
more significant challenges than their work around the difficulties. phonological awareness, and speed
peers when learning a new language. As noted in Section 1, this paper of processing, dyslexia can have a
In the case of English, the irregular focuses on the individual differences particularly noticeable effect on the
writing system presents particular in cognitive function which fall into development of literacy practices, and in
challenges which may bring to light OECD Categories B and C: specifically, some countries it is defined in this way.
unusual processing patterns. In addition, dyslexia, dyspraxia, dysgraphia, high- For example, in the USA it is sometimes
students with communication difficulties functioning autism, attention deficit referred to as a ‘reading disability’ or a
can find interactive methodologies hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and ‘specific learning disorder’.18 However,
challenging and can be unsure of how to SEBD. It is impossible to state with any difficulties with reading, spelling, and
regulate their behaviour. certainty how many people experience writing are only the most easily visible
Students who are facing additional difficulties due to cognitive differences; features of the underlying differences
challenges because of the nature of many people are never formally in cognitive function, which produce
the subject matter or the interaction identified, and the identification criteria obvious discrepancies between oral and
required of them are likely to experience vary from country to country.16 For the written proficiency. People with dyslexia
low self-esteem. They might withdraw occurrence of dyslexia, the International usually also experience difficulties in
from the class emotionally and Dyslexia Association, the European following instructions, organizing their
psychologically, appearing aloof or Dyslexia Association, and the British ideas, and maintaining coherence in
disengaged. Teachers may observe them Dyslexia Association all estimate the both spoken and written texts, and their
behaving in a range of ways: figure to be somewhere between 10– abilities in these areas often do not
• daydreaming or wasting time 15% of the population of their respective match up to their other skills and talents.
• disrupting the class routine (thus areas, with around 4–5% experiencing In terms of learning a foreign language
drawing attention away from their quite severe difficulties. in a formal setting, the difficulties
poor academic performance) There is also a high degree of overlap experienced by students who are
• over-compensating (working extremely between the characteristics of certain identified as having dyslexia are likely to
hard to try to complete the tasks, and learning difficulties, suggesting that co- include:
working through breaks and/or into occurrence is the norm rather than the • a discrepancy between oral and
the night to try to keep up; as this is exception;17 people identified as having written work
not sustainable, it can result in ‘burn dyslexia will often also show some • being unable to recognize and
out’, with these students showing a indications of dyspraxia, for example, or discriminate between sounds
lack of energy and motivation, even of ADHD. • struggling to memorize and apply
falling ill). Appendix 1 provides a list of common grammatical structures in context,
It is important that teachers can get behaviours that might be connected even with practice
to know their learners, to be alert to with the situations described in this • needing a lot of practice to securely
changes in behaviour from lesson to section, along with some suggestions learn new vocabulary
lesson as well as over the course of a for their accommodation in the language • finding it hard to develop good
term. If teachers do become concerned classroom. literacy skills (e.g. accurate spelling,
about a student, they should not coherent writing, smooth line-
tracking, fluent decoding, and
good comprehension, including
remembering what has been read)
• slower-than-typical processing of oral
input and the formulation of responses
• needing to overlearn through the
use of personalized strategies,
accommodations, and structured

10-15% 4-5%
practice to achieve automaticity in
language use.

estimation of the population

with dyslexia
estimation of the population
with dyslexia experiencing DYSPRAXIA
quite severe difficulties

© Oxford University Press 15

Commonly identified causes of difficulties in language learning

Sometimes referred to as a DYSGRAPHIA AUTISM SPECTRUM

‘developmental co-ordination disorder
(DCD)’,19 dyspraxia makes it difficult for Although closely related to dyslexia and
CONDITION
people to plan and sequence everyday dyspraxia, this is a term that is usually Autism spectrum condition is a wide-
movements. It can affect gross motor applied when there is a specific difficulty ranging term, spanning from severe to
skills (for example, when running or in producing legible and coherent mild. Mild autism is also known as high-
dancing) and/or fine motor skills (for written text but other language skills functioning autism. As awareness and
example, when using a pencil or playing are not affected. Its prevalence varies understanding of autism improves, more
a musical instrument). There might also from country to country depending people are being identified as having
be an impact on the articulation of on assessment norms; for example, some degree of high-functioning autism
speech, as the small precise movements in the UK it is almost never identified, which causes difficulties in learning, and in
of the lips, tongue, and jaw may not as assessors would normally attribute activities of daily living. The key elements
be sufficiently well co-ordinated. In the difficulties to either dyslexia or that indicate any autistic profile are:20
common with dyslexia, there may be dyspraxia, or a combination of the two. • difficulties in social interaction and
issues around speed of processing, However, some people who have no social communication: for example, in
working memory, and organization, as identifiable difficulties in the areas of maintaining appropriate eye contact,
well as sequencing. Some people with speed of processing, working memory, proximity, and physical contact; in
dyspraxia experience heightened (or or phonological awareness, or in fine turn-taking, making appropriate
reduced) sensitivity to the environment motor control or spatial awareness contributions to conversations, and
(temperature, noise, light, textures, etc.), generally, still experience significant understanding the underlying meaning
also characteristic of autistic spectrum barriers when they come to write a of other people’s contributions
condition. Balance and spatial awareness text. In the context of learning a new • limited or repetitive patterns of
are often affected, making a person language, we might see the following behaviour or interests: for example,
appear physically clumsy or awkward, as difficulties: difficulties in thinking flexibly, or
well as temporal awareness (the ability to • illegible handwriting (relative to age coping with change; an interest in one
perceive how much time has gone by, or and first-language peers) topic bordering on obsession.
to estimate how long a task might take). • inability to maintain lines or margins In common with dyspraxia, autism can
In the language classroom, the main (even when writing on lined paper, in also be characterized by increased
areas of challenge are likely to be: some cases) sensitivity to the environment. Learners
• speech and language difficulties • inaccurate spelling or grammar with high-functioning autism might have
• developing legible handwriting • incoherent structure of the text (i.e. difficulty in forming and maintaining
(relative to age peers), particularly if ideas are presented in a way that relationships, as they might answer
the target language uses a script that appears illogical, or without seeming questions factually but abruptly,
is not yet familiar to connect). with little mitigation of unpleasant or
• pronouncing sounds correctly and in unwelcome information, or display a very
the correct order literal understanding of what is said (that
• organizing the work space (having is, taking words in their most basic or
text books, notebooks, dictionary, usual sense with no understanding of the
stationery, etc. to hand and within a speaker’s intention in context).
confined area) When learning a language, the
• working quickly enough to complete greatest difficulties are likely to be
tasks on time noticed around:
• navigating the built environment (e.g. • understanding other people’s
finding the way to a different location). communicative intentions (e.g. irony,
metaphor, humour)
• understanding the cues for taking turns
• using idiomatic language appropriate
to the audience

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Commonly identified causes of difficulties in language learning

• tolerating inconsistencies in the There are said to be three different

language (e.g. exceptions to ways in which these characteristics can
grammatical rules, or words that have present themselves: predominantly
more than one meaning) inattentive presentation (less excessive
• role-playing situations from an energy), predominantly hyperactive-
unfamiliar perspective (e.g. ‘…but I’m impulsive presentation (more
not a shop-keeper!’) attentional control), and combined
presentation (roughly equal degrees
of difficulty with controlling attention
ATTENTION DEFICIT and harnessing excessive energy). 21

HYPERACTIVITY People with ADHD may also experience

difficulty with regulating their emotions,
DISORDER (ADHD) swinging from elation to fury or despair
in a matter of minutes. As they mature
The key characteristics of attention and learn to regulate their behaviour
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) better, some of these characteristics
include difficulties in focusing and tend to become less noticeable; but
maintaining attention, controlling like the other cognitive differences
impulses, and harnessing excessive described above, ADHD does not ever
energy for productive activities. fully disappear. Many young people are
prescribed medication to reduce the
effects of ADHD, and while some find
this helpful, others prefer to explore
behavioural interventions as well or
instead.
Teachers are likely to notice the
following difficulties in the classroom:
• loss of concentration when reading/
listening for extended periods,
especially if there are no visual cues or
practical input
• difficulty or uncertainty in social
interactions, especially taking turns in
conversations or games
• difficulties in following instructions and
classroom conventions (e.g. putting up
a hand and waiting to be called on to
answer a question)
• working too quickly to maintain
accuracy
• excessive energy manifesting as
fidgeting, restlessness, or moving
around the room.

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Commonly identified causes of difficulties in language learning

SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, MIGRANT AND REFUGEE adjusting to a new physical environment,

AND BEHAVIOURAL STUDENTS as well as a new educational culture

with some differing expectations, and
DIFFICULTIES (SEBD) One group of learners who merit a there may well be uncertainty about how
specific mention here are recently long they will be staying before being
All of the above learning difficulties may arrived learners whose language resettled elsewhere. Teachers should
result at some stage in students with background is different from the therefore not be surprised to see these
specific learning difficulties experiencing majority in the classroom—particularly students experiencing any (or several) of
social isolation and negative emotional migrant and refugee students. Their the difficulties listed above, and should
issues, due to the challenges that they initial barriers to learning may be respond accordingly. Whether or not
are facing. The combination of the largely linguistic, cultural, or emotional. newly arrived learners have cognitive
environmental stresses and the students’ Linguistic barriers my arise if a recently differences in addition to facing the
own reactions to their difficulties may arrived learner has nobody in the class challenges of relocation, the barriers
result in low self-esteem, which could who shares their first language, and to learning they experience must be
manifest as behaviours that are disruptive little or no proficiency in the language addressed.
to others and/or self-harmful. This might of the classroom or the target language, The strategies listed in Appendix 1
well have a negative effect on their leaving them feeling isolated and would also be appropriate for migrant
relationships with their peers, and make confused. Clearly, this is not the same and refugee learners as well as learners
them vulnerable to bullying.22 as having a cognitive difference like with SEN.
There are also some students who the ones described above, but some of
experience SEBD without a learning the effects and consequences may be
difficulty being the cause, sometimes similar, at least temporarily. POSITIVE ATTRIBUTES
as a result of loss, neglect, or trauma. In addition to these linguistic
An uncertain, inconsistent, or even challenges, the impact on learning of Recognizing the specific educational
dangerous home environment could relocation and the possible emotional needs of learners need not be only in
lead to increased stress levels, anxiety, trauma that a refugee or migrant learner terms of the difficulties experienced.
and impulsivity, as well as limiting is experiencing cannot be overstated.23 On the contrary, it is important to look
the development of empathy and In many cases, families will have been for each student’s strengths and to find
logical reasoning. This might result separated, leaving the learner wondering out about their interests, and to draw on
in behaviours characterized by mood about the well-being of close relatives. them in the language learning process.
swings, aggression, a lot of noise or Then there is the additional challenge of The variety of individual differences
movement, and inappropriate reactions,
such as trying to exert power over their About 13–14% of the school population nationwide has a handicapping condition that
classmates, or being unwilling to wait qualifies them for special education. Current studies indicate that one half of all the
their turn in class. Similar to other learning students who qualify for special education are classified as having a learning disability
difficulties, especially ADHD, SEBD is (LD) (6–7%). About 85% of those students have a primary learning disability in reading
likely to present additional challenges to and language processing.
language learning, including:
• not being able to manage emotions
around learning (e.g. frustration at not
knowing something)
• increased general anxiety or feelings 13/100
Have a condition
50%
Have a learning
85%
Have a reading
of vulnerability, which mean that the
learner may not be able to concentrate difficulty and language
processing
on the work
disability
• avoidance of failure (e.g. reluctance to
use new language or try new activities)
• difficulties in listening to and following
100 Students
instructions
• uncertainty around organizational and
problem-solving tasks
• difficulties in social interaction, especially
in terms of taking turns, trusting, and
collaborating with work partners
• difficulties with completing work on
time, and/or accurately.

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Commonly identified causes of difficulties in language learning

is enormous, and identifying learners’ can have a very motivating effect on through the use of colour or diagrams.
strengths and finding out about their their peers, too. Others may find they are skilled in
interests is a key part of getting to know All learners benefit from a holistic thinking (for example, being
them well, letting them know they are structured and well-organized learning able to hold an overall view of how
valued, and ensuring that their individual environment, but those who are something works), enabling them to
characteristics do not get reduced to a experiencing barriers to learning will solve problems in creative ways.
diagnostic label. appreciate it all the more. Students Finally, learners who have worked hard
Without wishing to generalize, there with SEBD in particular might respond to learn often develop deep reserves
are some common strengths that well to openness and support from of determination and can show great
teachers could observe in students their teachers, with whom they can perseverance in their learning.25 By
with SEN. For example, learners with then develop a relationship of trust noticing and praising learners’ strengths,
autism spectrum condition sometimes and respect.24 Migrant and refugee and taking an interest in the things that
have excellent memories for facts and learners may find that, given a safe interest them, teachers reinforce the
rules, making them confident in the and predictable environment, they message that everybody is valued for
grammatical aspects of the language. can contribute their experiences to their individual achievements, individual
They may have a deep interest in (and the classroom, helping their peers to differences, and positive qualities.
knowledge of) a particular topic, which understand and value the differences—
can be directed towards learning and common ground—found between
vocabulary and project work. Students languages and cultures.
with ADHD often have a lot of energy Many neurodiverse learners may
which, if channelled into learning using have innate strengths in visual and/
engaging and varied tasks, can help or spatial reasoning and therefore find
them to keep working for longer. In visually organized activities engaging
practical activities, such as drama or art and accessible. Some may be especially
projects, their enthusiasm and energy good at perceiving and remembering
abstract relationships represented

SUMMARY
This section has offered an overview of the main challenges
that some of the most commonly identified barriers to
learning can bring. The intention is to help teachers
understand what the diagnostic labels might mean in
the classroom, if any of their learners have been formally
assessed, and to appreciate the possible causes of the
difficulties they are having. Migrant and refugee learners
are mentioned, not because being new in a country is
associated with a specific learning difficulty, but because
the impact of relocation can cause social, emotional, and
behavioural difficulties, particularly in the early stages of
settling in. Understanding the possible underlying causes
of students’ difficulties gives teachers a direction to follow
in equipping themselves to support their learners. The next
section outlines other aspects of inclusive education that are
useful for teachers to know about as part of their continuous
professional development.

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Support and continuous professional development for teachers

03 SUPPORT AND In the introduction it was

established that inclusive

CONTINUOUS
practice needs to be planned
on two levels simultaneously:
the development of a generally

PROFESSIONAL inclusive environment with

a culture of mutual respect

DEVELOPMENT
and support, alongside work
on an individual level. This
section sets out some ways in

FOR TEACHERS which teachers could enhance

their existing expertise and
develop their practice on
both levels, in line with the
European Agency’s core
value of continuing personal
professional development (see
page 5).26 It suggests some
topics for exploration, as well
as the modes of accessing
professional development
opportunities.

DEVELOPING AN INCLUSIVE
ENVIRONMENT
There is a long tradition in English
language education of using student-
centred methodologies, such as
communicative language teaching
(CLT) or a task-based approach. These
methodologies, which rely on student-
to-student communication, foster
collaboration and cooperation between
learners. When it comes to developing
inclusive practices, English language
teachers often have experience and
knowledge to draw on, and they can
build upon the CLT training already
received and the teaching skills
they have already developed in the
classroom. There is a wide range of

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Support and continuous professional development for teachers

topics that teachers could usefully noise levels are comfortable for DIFFERENTIATING TEACHING
explore in their CPD, which would lead
to the development of a more inclusive
everyone, as far as possible)
• classroom management (making sure
FOR THE INDIVIDUAL
ethos in the classroom. These include all instructions are clear and explicit, Differentiation is the practical response
the topics outlined below. and establishing a shared and to individual differences in the way
democratic system of rules) students learn. Even in an environment
Understanding the principles
• the assessment of progress (allowing where many barriers have been
underpinning inclusive education
students to demonstrate their minimized, students will still need to
• the aims and ethos of inclusive learning in different formats; giving work at their own pace, and in their own
education explicit and constructive feedback, ways. Differentiated teaching involves
• the benefits to all learners of being in focusing on one or two areas for developing a general understanding of
an inclusive learning environment development). neurodiversity and finding out as much
• the difference between inclusion and as possible about how each individual in
Raising awareness regarding
integration (i.e. engagement versus the group learns so that learners can be
issues of diversity and inclusion
access) provided with options which allow them
• teaching and learning methods that With students to develop greater autonomy.
value learners’ diversity. • initiating self-exploratory discussions
Understanding neurodiversity
in the classroom; for example, creating
Making inclusive choices
a values-led class contract with each In order to understand an individual
There are decisions to be made at the class, and encouraging students to learner, teachers need to be able to do
stages of planning the course, planning compare their responses to different the following:
each lesson, and delivering the lesson in tasks or challenges. • recognize the non-typical behaviours
the classroom. Reflection on the results of With colleagues and learning patterns that may
these choices should then inform future • sharing experiences in the staff room; indicate the presence of neurodiversity
choices. These are choices regarding: for example, informal conversations to • understand the common features of
• the methodology (e.g. interactive and compare ideas about how to respond different types of barriers to learning
participatory approaches) to the barriers to learning encountered • know when to refer to an appropriate
• the range of teaching techniques by some learners professional for a full evaluation (in
(the activities that the students will • organizing formal CPD events in the order to apply for additional resources
engage with) school; for example, inviting a speaker or exam access arrangements).
• the range of materials (especially in to offer input on a particular aspect
Developing learner autonomy through
multisensory activities and multimodal of inclusive practice
differentiation
resources that reflect and celebrate • providing a forum for parents to meet
the diversity within the group) and share experiences; for example, Ideally, differentiated teaching provides
• the classroom environment (ensuring setting up a private area on the school students with options that they could
that the lighting, temperature, and website for online discussions choose from—with guidance, if
necessary—so that they also develop
autonomy and engage critically with
their learning. To help their learners
CLASS CONTRACT develop autonomy, teachers need
to consider what they could offer in

IN THIS CLASS, WE:

terms of materials, tasks, expectations,
support, and classroom organization:
• materials: different texts and/or
different text types; having different
formats available
• tasks: allowing students to choose
LISTEN TO EACH OTHER WORK TOGETHER which items to tackle (or to tackle first);
allocating different roles in group work
• expectations: recognizing that not
everybody will produce the same
amount of work in class; accepting
SHOW RESPECT WAIT FOR OUR TURN that often the learning process is more
important than the finished product
• support: allowing students to use
technology or reference materials

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Support and continuous professional development for teachers

whether face-to-face, via video

MATERIALS
conferencing, or in an online chat room.

Action research

Very powerful personal and professional

development can be accomplished
ORGANIZA OM

through an individual action research

TASK
project, with or without external
N
CLASSRO
TIO

resources of input.27 In these kinds of

projects, a teacher would identify an

S
aspect of practice that she or he was
interested in improving—for example,
supporting a student to develop greater
attentional control. After thinking
through the possible reasons for that
issue arising, an intervention would be
S devised—for example, encouraging the

UP
learner to maintain concentration on a
IO N

POR AT task for one minute in the first instance,

S

EC T using a sand timer as a visual prompt,

T EXP
and building up the time gradually.
After a short period of employing this
strategy, the teacher would evaluate how
well it has been working, reflect on what
the factors were that determined its
to varying degrees; setting up MODES OF PROFESSIONAL effectiveness or otherwise (for example,
groupwork so that there is a balance
of abilities and skills; spending more
DEVELOPMENT time of day, the manner in which it was
introduced, the position of the sand
time with students who need more Formal CPD timer, etc.), and why those choices
encouragement, or clarification, at were made. Some modifications to the
particular points in the lesson Teachers are busy people, and gaining technique might be required before
• classroom organization: creating access to high-quality continuous continuing with the intervention, and this
a learning environment in which professional development (CPD) cycle would continue until the strategy
students can be doing different tasks depends on balancing many different was successful for that learner.
within a shared space responsibilities. In recognition of this,
For more information on these points, providers of CPD are beginning to offer a
see Section 4. range of options that teachers can choose SUPPORT FROM THE
It is important to note that there
is no single strategy or intervention
from, to find a pathway that suits them.
This could mean teachers attending a
PROFESSIONAL NETWORK
that will work for every learner. The face-to-face course at a local college in There is a lot that individual teachers
complex interactions between the the evenings, or accessing a course from can do independently to develop their
individuals’ cognitive profiles, their an institution in another town via the own practice in respect of the aspects
personal circumstances, and the learning internet. There are several organizations of pedagogy listed in this section.
environment mean that teachers and offering online courses on topics related However, in order to access and make
other professionals working with learners to inclusive practices, and some are the most of CPD opportunities that
with special educational needs (SEN) free to access. Some starting points are arise, teachers need support from and
need to take each situation on a case- provided in the Further reading and collaboration with those they work with
by-case basis and not assume that resources section at the end of this paper. most closely. These include institutions,
something that has worked before will colleagues, and professional bodies.
Informal CPD
work in every case. With experience,
Institutions
though, teachers can often find a useful More informally, CPD can involve
starting point from which to experiment joining a local teachers’ organization Usually managers will need to agree to
with, reflect on, and refine their and meeting once a month to discuss teachers changing schedules or taking
techniques. issues around inclusion, or simply setting time out to attend training, and also to
aside a lunchtime each week to share provide funding where possible to cover
experiences and ideas with colleagues, costs (in some cases, this might include

© Oxford University Press 22

One of my Year 3 learners was a pleasant
boy who, when the topic caught his
imagination, would have great ideas and
contribute in class discussions. But he
seemed to lose all concentration when it
came to following instructions for follow-up
activities, which I thought was him switching
off. Now that I know he is dyslexic, and have
learned a bit about dyslexia, I understand
that he simply couldn’t retain the
information—it wasn’t that he couldn’t be
bothered. Now I take care to break up my
instructions into one thing at a time, so that
he—and all my other learners—can carry out
the instructions step by step. It was a simple
thing to put into practice, and I’ve seen a
marked improvement in his engagement
with activities since I started this.
Penny, Primary EFL teacher, Spain
Support and continuous professional development for teachers

travel expenses and materials as well as

course fees). In return, managers may
want to see evidence of improvements Specific training for
in student attainment or retention, which
teachers would need to gather and teachers is necessary,
present.

Colleagues
and more effective
Sometimes it might be necessary to alongside hands-on
ask colleagues to provide cover while
another teacher is on a training course. experience.
In return for this kind of support, many
teachers share the information they have MICHELE DALOISO
gained with their team. Colleagues might
also be asked to act as collaborators,
participants, or informants in small-
scale research projects, or simply to
act as sounding boards for ideas about
implementing new strategies.

Professional bodies

In most countries there are local and

national organizations which exist
to support teachers. They might be
asked to provide a forum for teachers SUMMARY
interested in certain topics to meet up,
or to organize talks on a specific issue. In this section some
There are also international organizations suggestions were made
which can put teachers in touch with
colleagues in other countries who are as to how teachers might
working on similar issues. For example, make the most of any
IATEFL now has a special interest group opportunities available
called Inclusive Practices and SEN,
which provides support and advice to for developing their
teachers working with learners who have own inclusive practices.
additional needs. Many professional Progression towards
bodies produce a newsletter or journal
for their members, and might well have an inclusive education
an interest in featuring a report of a system will take time,
research project, or a reflective piece resources, leadership
based on a teacher’s experiences.
from management
and local authorities,
and commitment from
teachers and students. In
order to be sustainable, it
requires both bottom-up
and top-down change:
ideas and engagement
within the classroom
coupled with managerial
leadership and support.

© Oxford University Press 24

Guidelines for the inclusive use of learning materials

04
In this section we offer a set
of guidelines to help teachers
make informed decisions when
using ELT materials for an
inclusive classroom. ELT courses

GUIDELINES
come with an array of print and
digital components that aim to
enrich the teaching and learning

FOR THE INCLUSIVE

experience, offering flexibility
to students, who can access
content in alternative modes.

USE OF LEARNING Guided by a principle of equity,

teachers can make the most of

MATERIALS
the materials available to offer
an inclusive learning experience
to their learners by following
guidelines on differentiation,
classroom management,
multisensory and multimodal
learning, and learning strategies.

APPLY DIFFERENTIATION
PRINCIPLES TO LEARNING
MATERIALS AND TASKS
At the heart of successful differentiation
is teachers knowing their learners well;
that is, understanding their potential and
the challenges they face. Differentiation
is a skill that teachers exercise every time
they teach a group of learners that they
know: whenever they choose a learner
to answer a question, or put learners
in groups or pairs, they are making
decisions based on what they already
know about their learners and what will
help them complete a task successfully.
With regard to ELT materials, there is a
lot that teachers can do to make the most
of what is available to them and their
learners, differentiating their teaching
in the ways they use the materials and
manage the classroom. In many cases,
small changes in the way coursebook
activities are set up can make a big
difference to neurodiverse learners.

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Guidelines for the inclusive use of learning materials

students to exercise some degree of any other and all learners may choose
autonomy in class and at home. Since to use them at times. This avoids the
Language teachers there is no single solution that works for creation of a subgroup of students with
all learners, the teacher should try out SEN working alone on different materials
can provide different solutions, inviting feedback and the damage to social cohesion that
from the learners. This will nurture an this could entail. An inclusive way of
accessible inputs environment of trust and openness, working with adapted materials is to
allowing suitable solutions to be involve learners in creating them; for
for everyone, identified for each learner. example, engaging students in creating
a do-it-yourself grammar revision sheet
Making activities inclusive
differentiating tasks or glossary.
In order to ensure that ELT activities are
Collaborative adaptation of materials
and materials so that inclusive, teachers can work on various
technical skills and strategic skills with Learners can be invited to work in
every learner can be their learners, which work on bottom-up groups to prepare resources for use
and top-down processes needed for in class, such as simplified summaries,
involved. success in tasks focused on the reading, visual mappings of grammar content,
writing, listening, speaking, vocabulary, and illustrated sheets about the
MICHELE DALOISO and grammar (see Appendix 2). More content they have covered. This both
information can be found in Supporting consolidates knowledge for learners who
Learners with Dyslexia in the ELT have already learned a topic from the
Classroom.28 coursebook and introduces it to those
In addition, there are ways that who are not yet familiar with it.
teachers can maximize the accessibility
Differentiating the format of materials of coursebook activities for their
learners. Some activities place a high MANAGE THE CLASSROOM
For most learners, coursebooks are
visually appealing and interesting, with
burden on working memory, which
can be particularly problematic for
INCLUSIVELY
the illustrations, colour, and layout neurodiverse learners. For example, a Collaborative learning
providing a stimulating basis for a lesson. ‘listen and do’ activity with a linguistic
For a minority of learners who find visual output that involves summarizing, Collaborative learning opportunities,
processing difficult, such as those with paraphrasing, or translating, or a through pairwork and groupwork, help
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder listening and reading activity, which to create an inclusive ethos. The range
(ADHD), who do not always know requires learners to process great of collaborative tasks extends from short
what to pay attention to, learners with deal at once linguistically, making it activities such as transactional dialogues,
dyslexia, and those with high-functioning inaccessible for those who experience to more substantial tasks such as project
autism, who can become overwhelmed, difficulties with working memory and work, presenting learners with a variety
this same material can in fact be phonological awareness. The activity of opportunities to sustain this inclusive
visually overburdening. The teacher can be made more accessible if the ‘do’ ethos.
can differentiate by introducing some part requires learners to demonstrate The teacher can adapt task procedures
modifications to help their students. A their understanding by means of a non- in the learning materials to create
simple low-tech solution such as offering linguistic output, such as colouring in, collaborative pairwork or groupwork
‘text windows’ (two L-shaped pieces of completing a map, or choosing a picture. opportunities, for example using a
card), can help learners to focus on one Think–Pair–Share format.29 This will be
Adapted materials
part of the page at a time. A frequently especially beneficial for students who
used intervention for some learners with Sometimes learners will benefit from need more time to process a response.
dyslexia is the use of coloured paper using adapted materials in which the Students who find social interaction
for printing out handouts. Alternatively, content has been simplified and/ difficult can be encouraged to work
there may be digital solutions using or reorganized, with less information with one or two other people initially, in
online resources, such as specially on the page. It is important that any relatively short activities that they will
formatted versions of reading exercises, adapted materials used are based as far find comfortable. They may also benefit
or audio files of reading texts that can be as possible on the original and allow for from some quiet time to work alone, and
slowed down. integrated use. The materials need to be somewhere to go to do this.
If these resources can be shared with used flexibly and inclusively: if treated Peer tutoring is a collaborative
the whole class, teachers can accomplish as an extra classroom resource available learning activity which involves
differentiation whilst encouraging to all learners, they are materials like reciprocal teaching between learners. It

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Guidelines for the inclusive use of learning materials

THINK-PAIR- CLAP-BACK Second language

SHARE TECHNIQUE classrooms should
The class are given two minutes to think, and
one minute to discuss in pairs.*
The teachers clap a short rhythm to the
class, who respond by clapping back the
be interactive and
same rhythm. The teacher then claps another
Then the pairs are asked to share their ideas
with the class.
rhythm for the class to copy, and so on until encourage students
the class is once again ready to listen.
to get to know each
* timing depends on the type and difficulty of the task

other and work

together.
has positive effects both on the student where the use of non-verbal cues and
who plays the role of tutor, and on the signals can be effective in keeping noise MARIE DELANEY
student who is being taught. It can also and associated stress to a minimum.
produce significant progress with regard For example, teachers can establish a
to interpersonal relationships, and to ‘clap-back’ routine which they can use
the motivation and self-esteem of the to manage pairwork and groupwork
students. The role of tutor needs to be activities, as it signals to the class that it
rotated amongst the class members, is time to listen to the teacher.
giving every student the opportunity to is available, including digital materials
play the role. such as integrated video, interactive

Managing the environment

CREATE MULTISENSORY AND whiteboard materials, and apps that

It is useful for collaborative learning if

MULTIMODAL LEARNING help with vocabulary learning (for
example, Quizlet) and organization of
the teacher can organize the layout of OPPORTUNITIES learning (for example, online diaries).
the classroom effectively to facilitate Audio versions of texts allow students
interaction opportunities; for example, Multisensory activities involve the to listen as they read a text and thereby
putting chairs into pairs, or laying out the use of more than one of the senses— develop a sense of the rhythm and
tables and chairs for small groupwork or most commonly in the ELT classroom: intonation of the language. ‘Low-tech’
individual quiet working time. sight, hearing, and touch. Using a resources such as paper-based materials
Once they know their learners, the variety of senses simultaneously whilst and real-life objects are also valuable,
teacher can also find ways to minimize focused on the same information has as their tactile qualities help to bring
distraction; for example, seating learners two advantages: the activation of the relevance of the ‘real world’ into the
away from the window if they are likely to different senses increases the number classroom.31
get overstimulated. They might take the of routes to memory, and the use of
Visual organizers
same approach to sensitivities regarding different senses increases its potential
the type of lighting and the temperature for learner engagement. Both of these Language teaching is often based
in the room, to ensure that every aid learning.30 Successful multisensory largely on the use of written text,
student feels comfortable in the physical activities do not ask the learner to but accessibility can be increased if
environment. perform different tasks simultaneously, information is presented in visual ways.
as this would place extra demands Mind maps, flow charts, diagrams,
Facilitating communication
on working memory. For example, a and timelines are all clear and simple
It is easy for some learners to ‘get listening activity requiring simultaneous visual techniques which can be used
lost’ during activities, but there are reading of another text in order to to show relationships between ideas,
straightforward strategies for keeping complete the task is not an example of a or to summarize concepts and facts.
the class together. These may be multisensory activity, whereas providing These ‘visual organizers’ can support
strategies around working memory; the audio version of a reading text is, and enrich the learning experience for
for example, staging instructions or and can help the learner decode the neurodiverse learners. For example,
breaking down rubrics in coursebooks text. the traditional, verbal presentation of
so that learners do them together, one Multimodal resources refer to grammar points in tables and boxes is
step at a time. Other strategies may help different types of resources, typically suited to analytical minds, but some
with establishing classroom routines, exploiting the wide range of media that learners may benefit more from the

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Guidelines for the inclusive use of learning materials

use of mind maps or flow charts, which can include learners who struggle to experiences, and using their individual
would offer a more visual and holistic consolidate their learning with writing strengths and talents. Sometimes
representation of the same concepts. activities. students will feel unable to start a
Mind maps can also be useful for task, or to complete one aspect of it,
identifying links between items in a because of barriers to learning such as
vocabulary set which are otherwise HELP STUDENTS DEVELOP not being able to remember grammar
presented separately. Teachers can
guide learners by demonstrating how
LEARNING STRATEGIES rules or vocabulary, or not having
enough time to do everything that
to create these visual organizers, and One of the most profound positive needs to be done. By identifying what
encouraging them to experiment and impacts a teacher can have on learners the barrier is, students have the key to
see what works best for them. with SEN is to help them understand access solutions for overcoming it. For
themselves better, and to find their example, some neurodiverse students
Physical interaction with learning
most effective ways of learning and can be overwhelmed by the amount of
resources
managing their behaviour. As students text involved in reading comprehension
Physical interaction with language explore different ways of learning, they activities, and will need explicit guidance
learning resources should be encouraged will become more aware of what works in how to approach these tasks. ELT
as much as possible, to engage learners’ best for them, both in class and in coursebooks often provide guidance on
visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic channels. independent study. reading comprehension strategies that
Communicative ELT methodologies teachers can encourage learners to use,
Thinking about thinking
are rich in activities involving physical such as previewing a text, predicting
interaction, such as acting out a dialogue, Metacognitive (or ‘thinking about content from the title and images, and
or indicating understanding by holding thinking’) activities are a type of noticing how it is structured.
up cards or responses on personal reflective activity which enables learners Developing self-awareness is important
whiteboards. In addition, teachers to make their own thought processes for everyone, but learners who experience
can help learners to grasp abstract explicit and gain an appreciation of greater challenges in their daily lives
concepts involved in language learning the most appropriate strategies for benefit particularly from this. Often, self-
by providing opportunities for physical them to use in different situations. Such awareness leads to higher self-esteem,
interaction with resources. For example, self-reflection may be challenging for as learners realize they have particular
learners can use coloured tokens or learners at first, but the rewards for strengths and talents that they can draw
counters to discuss and map out word persevering can be immense: equipped on. The teacher also has an important role
order. The act of physically building new with an understanding of how to make to play in the development of self-esteem,
sentences, and talking through those their own learning more effective and as their praise and positive evaluation of
sentences as they are being built, can help efficient, the learner will be able to learners’ work will be of great significance
learners understand the concepts being work more confidently and achieve their to the learners. If learners believe that
explored.32 personal goals. they can achieve success, and are
These activities could take the form encouraged to see their own strengths
Songs and chants
of individual questionnaires (using and the progress they are making, they
Singing songs and chants are appropriately graded language), will be more motivated to put in the
multisensory activities that can provide pairwork interviews, or small group required effort and to persist when faced
a valuable change of pace and focus. discussions around the topic of how with a challenge.
Younger learners enjoy learning through students approach different aspects of
songs, and chants, which often include learning. Games also offer opportunities standing
Under
trengths
the use of visual aids and actions. Once to understand and reflect on the need your s
the learners are familiar with them, for rules, listening, turn-taking, and
songs and chants can be lifted out of working together—skills which some
Se
s

their original context and used as part of learners find difficult. Card-matching
ein
es
ucc

gp

classroom routines; for example, singing activities or even a board game format
DEALING
Achieving s

rogre

‘the rainbow song’ to review colours at could be developed to provide a tactile

the start of the lesson, or using the last element and visual focus to support the
WITH NEW
ss

five minutes of the lesson before lunch auditory content of the activity.
to do a food chant with actions.
Strategies for tackling new challenges
CHALLENGES
Multisensory activities and multimodal
lf
rs e

resources can add variety to the process An important aspect of metacognitive

Pu

ou
t ti

of recapping and recycling language development work is providing learners g y

n

in in
the ng
points that teachers provide as part with strategies for tackling new effo
rt B eli evi
of the language programme, and challenges, based on their previous

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Guidelines for the inclusive use of learning materials

 ith dyslexia, English is especially hard

W
because it’s not pronounced the way SUMMARY
you write it. When I was 13, my dad and Selecting the best options
I went to England for a summer course. from the vast array of
materials available can
He loves English and wanted us to learn require some thought,
it together. Throughout school he would especially for teachers
read my graded readers out loud in the seeking to accommodate
a diverse group of
evening, and I would do the exercises students. This section has
after each chapter. My English teacher offered a set of guidelines
in school was the best: She let me take to inform planning and
working in an inclusive
photos of the whiteboard so I could classroom. Following
focus on the class without taking notes. these guidelines should
When I finished school I went back to help to ensure that

England on my own. By then I could all materials, whether

used as published or
make friends with people from all over slightly adapted, can
the world in English, and I’m still friends be used inclusively,

with them today. without the need for

extensive rewriting
Oleg, English language student with dyslexia and modification,
elaborate technical
solutions, or a lot of
preparation time. Finally,
all learners will benefit
from opportunities to
explore different ways of
learning, allowing for the
development of greater
self-awareness and
learner autonomy.

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Assessment and testing

05
In this section we discuss
the different purposes for
assessment and outline ways
of maximizing accessibility for
learners in both formal and
informal assessment situations.

ASSESSMENT
Assessment plays a crucial role
in teaching and learning, and
it is important to remember

AND TESTING
that any barriers that students
encounter in learning may well
be magnified in an assessment
situation.

THE PURPOSES OF
ASSESSMENT
Students’ proficiency levels are
often measured through summative
assessment, also known as assessment
of learning. This type of assessment
is usually carried out by national or
international testing organizations or
exam boards, using formal methods,
and is considered ‘high-stakes’ since
important outcomes, such as school-
leaving qualifications, university
entrance, and employment or training
opportunities may depend on the
results. Such high-stakes exams can be
extremely daunting for neurodiverse
learners and those with social, emotional,
and behavioural difficulties (SEBD), but it
is possible to accommodate their needs,
as we describe in this section.
It is just as important to assess
learners’ progress throughout the
learning journey, highlighting their
strengths and weaknesses, and using
the information to adjust teaching
and learning strategies. This kind of
assessment, which feeds back into the
teaching and learning programme, is
sometimes referred to as formative
assessment or assessment for learning33
and can be done using formal or informal
methods. Examples of this kind of
assessment are provided in this section.

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Assessment and testing

SETTING TARGETS understanding of a reading text or students’ progress. However, they may
grammar point, teachers could ask need to be adapted to make them more
Learners with SEN benefit from students to show their understanding by suitable for learners with SEN. The tests
manageable targets being set, producing pictures, symbols, diagrams, first need to be evaluated, taking into
particularly if they are not attaining the or mind maps; or they could ask students account, for example, the type of task,
targets expected for their age and level. to demonstrate what they know by length of texts, font size, page layout,
Students can be involved in setting making an audio or video recording. and the clarity of instructions, and then
their own targets and measuring their These outputs, instead of traditional adaptations made, where necessary, to
progress. It can be helpful to think text-based ones, would then be used as meet the specific needs of students.
of targets that are SMART: Specific, the basis for assessment.
Assistive technology
Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and
Self-assessment
Timed. Some learners may also need Classroom technology can help learners
goals which help them to measure Self-assessment is another useful tool with SEN with assessment for learning.
their social, emotional, and behavioural which can be used for informal classroom- These tools can help to reduce barriers
progress as well as their learning based assessment. Assessing their own to learning, enabling students to
progress. Teachers can use various work gives learners the opportunity use alternative ways of showing their
means to help students record their to raise their awareness of the areas understanding and demonstrate more
progress. For example: of language proficiency they need to easily what they know. For example, text-
• visual progress charts: these allow develop, as well as other skills, such as to-speech technology can make it easier
students to record the completion of a organization and time management. It for students with reading difficulties to
task or stage in a project also encourages learner autonomy and complete reading comprehension tasks.
• jigsaws: as the students complete boosts self-esteem, as students feel Making a personal reflective video blog
each stage of their work, the teacher empowered to take control of their own (or ‘vlog’) can help students reflect on
gives them a piece of the jigsaw, and learning.35 Another important benefit is what they have learned and how they
explains exactly what they have to do that students compare their work with learned it, and teachers can record
to collect the next piece their own previous performance rather targeted feedback for them. A wide
• class pictures: for example, using a than with the work of other students, range of tools exists and more are being
picture of a tree with lots of leaves, the so they are able to focus on their own developed all the time, so it is worth
students colour in the leaves and write progress over time. checking what is available and evaluating
their names on them as they achieve a its suitability for individual students.
Peer assessment
target
Using formal tests in a formative way
• checklists: students track their own Peer assessment is another type of
progress in, for example, group informal assessment that can be used Many assessment of learning tasks can
participation and communication skills with an inclusive ethos. Learners may be adapted and used for assessment for
against a checklist of targets. need some explicit guidance in how to learning purposes. For example, instead
make the most of this activity, and how of giving a weekly, summative test with
to offer their ideas constructively and grades, teachers can set a test without a
INFORMAL ASSESSMENT FOR supportively. They may, for example, grade and give feedback in the form of

LEARNING be set a task in which they have to

find two things they like in their peer’s
comments instead. This allows students
to focus on what they have done well
Carefully planned assessment of work, and identify (and explain) one and what they can do to improve without
students’ performance in specific aspect for further attention. In peer comparing their work with that of their
classroom tasks induces lower levels of assessment activities, students who may peers.
anxiety than formal testing,34 and not be encountering difficulties have peers
Introducing new approaches gradually
only yields information about language who can act as role models to support
proficiency but also about the students’ their learning. Students can find out It is worth pointing out that introducing
effort and persistence. In this section we what their peers do in various learning a new approach to classroom-based
consider some ways of going about this situations, and this allows them to assessment may take time. Students
kind of informal assessment. consciously reflect on their own learning might not immediately respond well to
strategies and become more self-aware. a new approach, particularly if they have
Multisensory assessment
All learners can benefit from this aspect no previous experience of it or are used
Just as learners with SEN benefit from of peer assessment. to a focus on grades. It is important,
multisensory learning opportunities, therefore, to introduce new approaches
Format of progress tests
they will also benefit from a multisensory gradually, explaining them clearly and
approach to classroom-based Progress tests provided in coursebook providing support and encouragement.
assessment. For example, to assess packages can help teachers monitor Over time, students will understand the

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Assessment and testing

value of new approaches and learn to comparison with their peers. Teachers Environment
become more independent learners. should be aware of national assessment Many neurodiverse learners who
regulations, which in some countries experience attentional control issues
provide specific instructions about what find that noise and other activity during
FORMAL ASSESSMENT is or is not to be tested depending on the tests distract them. Some learners might

AND SUGGESTED type of difficulties being experienced.

For students who routinely experience
be particularly sensitive to the type
of lighting and the temperature in the
ACCOMMODATIONS difficulties in learning, there are some room. Therefore, if possible, the option
important factors to consider; for to take the test separately in a quiet
When planning more formal example, students should be told in room may be offered, where the physical
assessments, whether assessment for advance about tests, and helped to environment can be adjusted to suit the
learning or assessment of learning, three prepare for them, to avoid unnecessary learner.
important questions need to be asked: anxiety. Some of the following aspects of
Format
1. Are the assessment methods and assessment may be possible to modify,
tasks accessible to all students? especially in assessments for learning. Clear and logical visual organization
2. Can all aspects of proficiency be In formal assessments of learning, it may assists all learners, and this is
assessed? be necessary to apply for exam access particularly helpful for students for
3. Can neurodiverse students in the arrangements, as discussed below. whom sequencing and tracking are
class meet the standards set for the challenging. These learners might
Timing and length
general population? otherwise find it difficult to navigate
If in answering these questions there are In real life, most second language through the tasks, or leave out tasks
doubts, ways in which the assessment interactions are not carried out under accidentally. Some learners experience
can be changed need to be considered. time constraints; however, tests are visual stress or scotopic sensitivity (visual
For example, language learners who usually timed, creating an additional distortions experienced when people
experience issues around rapid auditory challenge for students who process look at text, usually in black type on
processing (perhaps as part of a dyslexic information more slowly than is typical, white paper, and the text appears to
profile) may be disadvantaged by as well as increasing their anxiety. To swirl, blur, or disappear, making reading
listening comprehension tasks, especially give these learners a fair chance of impossible). For these learners, the
if they are time-restricted. They may demonstrating their language abilities following adjustments to format should
therefore be given additional time to alongside other students in the testing be considered:
listen to the texts, and if that is not group, it may well be necessary to • printing the test on coloured paper
sufficient, they could be excused from allow them extra time to complete or encouraging the use of coloured
that part of the assessment. Similarly, the tasks. The precise amount of extra overlays
learners who experience difficulties with time required (usually 25–50%) will vary • using a large font size and a sans serif
spelling accurately might be exempted according to: font
from the evaluation of their spelling skills • the severity of their difficulties • allowing more generous spacing.
or be allowed to use a spellchecker. • whether they need short breaks It is important that the instructions
Teachers and test designers might also during the test (to compensate for and guidance given to learners is clear
set different learning targets for some concentration difficulties and fatigue) and easily accessible. Short, simple
students in second language reading • whether they use a scribe to write on instructions presented in clear stages,
and writing, and put the emphasis their behalf perhaps with examples of completed
on attaining proficiency in speaking • whether they use an electronic device items, benefit all test takers, not just
and listening. For learners with high- rather than writing by hand. neurodiverse learners. Instructions might
functioning autism, the assessment of It is also important to keep in mind that: need to be read out to students with
interaction skills could be particularly • students’ levels of tiredness and visual processing issues, or written down
demanding and it might be necessary alertness vary across the daily school for those with auditory processing issues.
to structure very simple interactions in routine, so it may be better to take a In terms of responding to the
a pair or a small group. In some cases test in the morning rather than late in questions, neurodiverse students may
it may be appropriate to exclude some the afternoon benefit from:
tasks from the test, although any such • some neurodiverse students will • responding to questions orally, or
decision needs careful consideration. have a shorter attention span, so the using speech-to-text software or a
Some learners might be assessed on number of questions or items in each scribe to record their answers
vocabulary and grammar knowledge and task could be reduced, the input could • shorter responses instead of longer
all the skills of speaking, writing, listening, be shortened, or reading and listening answers, or even alternative responses
and reading, but the expected level of texts could be broken up into shorter (e.g. matching or underlining;
attainment might be lower for them in sections to accommodate this. producing visual organizers or mind

© Oxford University Press 32

My son started a new school,
and this school uses assistive
technology. So they use an LMS
(learning management system),
and the teachers put all of the
assignments onto the LMS so that
my son can read them, and then he
uses a spellchecker when writing
his assignments, so this has been
really good for him. The second
thing that he sometimes uses is
voice recognition software, and this
allows him to get all of his ideas out
onto paper, so that he can really
show what he knows.
Amanda, parent of a teenager with dyslexia

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Assessment and testing

maps) instead of gap-fill or short- MARKING AND FEEDBACK be very discouraging for them to see a
answer tasks piece of work returned full of highlighted
• not having to listen and read, or listen Teachers need to decide whether they or corrected errors. Excessive error-
and write, at the same time (instead, will use the same criteria for evaluating correction is demotivating and might not
it may be fairer to allow students to the work of neurodiverse learners as even be effective for improving learners’
have additional time to preview the for their peers. In many countries, accuracy in the short term.39 Instead, it is
questions, read the test items, and neurodiverse learners are given helpful to praise successful uses of newly
listen to the text more than once) individualized/personalized learning learned language, to boost the self-
• some support from the teacher, such plans, which are used to inform the esteem of these students.
as verbal encouragement and positive evaluation criteria. If the assessment is for
reinforcement, and prompting to move internal use (for example, a class progress
on to the next question. check to inform the teacher which PREPARING FOR FORMAL
Content
language points have been securely
learned and which require more work),
EXTERNAL EXAMS
Generally, for a language assessment then modifications in scoring can be put When preparing neurodiverse learners
to be valid, it is essential that more in place. These should take into account and those with SEBD for external exams
than one task and more than one the students’ individual strengths and (which are usually assessments of
type of task is used for evaluating weaknesses and the nature of the learning), the accommodations raised
students’ attainment.36 Ideally, tasks difficulties that a student is experiencing. above may be harder for a classroom
should be designed in such a way Some students might be exempted from teacher to implement but still need to be
that they give students a feeling of the evaluation of certain aspects of their kept in mind. If exam access arrangements
success and attainment and minimize performance, or their work might be are required, whether accommodations or
chances of failure. Whenever possible, evaluated using different criteria. modifications to the paper, then a formal
assessment tasks should be interesting, Language concerns communication, application will need to be made to the
motivating, authentic, and relevant for so the teacher should include exam board well in advance of the exam,
the students’ language use context communicative aspects in their supported by evidence of the difficulties
outside the classroom.37 For students evaluation criteria. For example, an oral the student experiences.40 Teachers
who find change and new situations presentation could be evaluated on the themselves can do a lot to support
stressful, it is helpful if the tasks within basis of communicative strategies, not neurodiverse learners by:
the test are similar to the type of task just grammar and vocabulary. There • making sure the demands of the exam
they have encountered within their might be some cases where non-verbal are clear, and encouraging them to
language lessons; the most appropriate aspects could be used as criteria for prepare systematically (e.g. setting up
tasks are those that are part of the evaluation; for example, the use of body a revision timetable, recapping on the
general repertoire of tasks used in the language (in a culturally appropriate main topics or language points that
classroom, and are therefore familiar and way) during role-plays. Amendments to need to be secure)
do not produce high levels of stress and criteria should be recorded and reported • suggesting relaxation techniques that
anxiety. These aspects of test design with the scores or results to students, students can use before and during an
may be implemented by teachers setting parents or educational authorities who exam (regular breathing, mindfulness,
internal assessments, but they are the make use of the data.38 etc.)
responsibility of exam boards in external All students—but particularly • ensuring that the students are familiar
assessments. However, teachers have an those who experience difficulties in with the location of the exam, the route
important role to play in giving feedback learning—need to be rewarded for their to the venue, and the procedures on
to the exam boards, to help them achievement when it shows effort and the day (e.g. what to bring and what to
develop more accessible and inclusive progress, even if it might fall short of the leave at home, where to sign in, and
assessments. required standards. Feedback should: how long they will be there).
• be positive and encouraging Most external exams are marked by
• emphasize what they can do now the exam board that provided the
rather than what they cannot do yet paper, and any accommodations or
• present gaps in learners’ knowledge as modifications need to be recorded and
areas for further development. reported when the scripts are submitted.
Learners with attentional and In some cases, modifications to the
emotional difficulties need immediate format or the marking of the paper
feedback if it is to seem relevant and be appear on the certificate, and it may be
useful. Students who are experiencing perceived that the students’ scores have
difficulties in learning often have lower a different meaning from the scores of
self-esteem than their peers, and it can other learners. To reduce the number

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Assessment and testing

of modifications that need to be made, PREPARING FOR FORMAL

providers of formal assessments need to EXTERNAL EXAMS
work towards producing more inclusive
and accessible assessments. Making use
of technology to provide online papers
that can easily be modified is one way SYSTEMATIC
that this could be accomplished. This
will require some investment in the
PREPARATION
professional development of item writers
and designers so that they understand
the challenges facing neurodiverse
students. This is a longer-term project, RELAXATION
but one which teachers and educational
managers could contribute to by making
TECHNIQUES
their assessment providers aware of the
issues raised here.

PRACTICAL
DETAILS

SUMMARY
This section has shown that assessment serves multiple
purposes, not just measuring what students know or have
learned, but also informing teachers’ decision-making on
what areas of language need more teaching or revision.
Assessment should be planned alongside the teaching of a
course, and carried out in as inclusive a manner as possible.
When taking formal exams, whether internal or externally set,
neurodiverse learners and those with SEBD may need exam
access arrangements in place to enable them to demonstrate
their true level of knowledge and skills. Teachers may, to some
degree, be able to influence exam boards in their design of
assessments by raising their awareness of the issues faced by
learners. It is important to ensure that all language learners
experience feelings of success as a result of testing, so that
they do not lose their motivation, and their self-esteem and
self-worth does not decrease.

In the next section, the focus is extended to include

policymaking and pastoral care, and the interaction between
the many stakeholders in an education system will be
discussed.

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Collaboration between stakeholders

06
COLLABORATION BETWEEN
STAKEHOLDERS

The establishment of an inclusive culture in the language talking to other education professionals
classroom is only one component in the development of a truly to use diagnostic terms such as ‘dyslexia’
or ‘social, emotional, and behavioural
inclusive education system. Keeping in mind that ‘working with difficulties’ (SEBD). On the other hand,
others’ is one of the core values of inclusive practice identified it may be clearer and more acceptable
by the European Agency (see page 5),41 this section examines to the students and their families to use
more functional descriptions of what
the roles that all the stakeholders in an education system play in has been observed or identified (such as
developing equitable and transparent procedures and providing ‘Learner X seems to forget things quite
accessible education for all. quickly’ or ‘Learner Y, you often seem to
be feeling quite angry or upset when you
come to class’).
Apart from the teachers and the can be achieved by all stakeholders In order for an inclusive approach
students, there are many other parties working together, as this section to education to be sustainable in the
involved. Parents need to be sure that proposes. longer term, teachers will need the
their children and young people will be active support of the management
supported and enabled to develop their team in their institution as well as the
talents. Head teachers and directors of THE ROLE OF TEACHERS involvement of the students themselves
schools have a responsibility to ensure and, where appropriate, their families.
that national and local regulations Teachers may well find themselves in
are adhered to, regarding academic the position of being responsible for
standards, health and safety, and mediating communication between SCHOOL–HOME LINKS
pastoral care. Policymakers at regional the different parties involved in the
or national level must be sure that their development of an inclusive institution. Cooperation between school/college
vision for education meets the long-term Ultimately, they may also liaise with and home allows for the sharing of
needs of their communities with respect other parties in the wider education detailed information about students’
to the knowledge, skills, and qualities system, as they will have contact in needs and their existing learning and
that are likely to be required. Providers different ways with everyone involved. coping strategies. There are a number
of formal assessments and published They will need to make choices about of ways in which this can be initiated and
materials also have a role to play in the appropriate language to use when maintained, and they work particularly
ensuring that the materials they produce talking with different people, in order to well if each student has a designated
are as accessible as possible. Tensions communicate clearly while maintaining contact member of staff. This could
may sometimes arise between these their professional authority and be a class tutor or head of year, or in
parties when their aims or priorities are encouraging inclusive attitudes in others. some cases there is a member of staff
perceived to be contradictory, but more For example, it may be appropriate when who is responsible for overseeing the

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Collaboration between stakeholders

interventions for students who require When seeking the support of

additional support. Other members of parents, teachers need to consider the
staff should channel enquiries through best course of action. In the case of
this person, to avoid the confusion of learners who have reached the legal
parents receiving several messages from age of adulthood, local data protection
different people at different times.42 laws are likely to prevent the sharing
In some schools, a home visit by the of information with parents. Some
named member of staff is arranged adolescent learners may be reluctant
when a new student enrols, particularly for their parents to find out about their
if the student may have additional difficulties, perhaps through fear that
needs, or is arriving midway through this knowledge might not result in
the term. It is quite common for schools support. Teachers should approach this
to organize ‘parents’ evenings’, where sensitively with the learner in question
teachers can have face-to-face meetings and respect their wishes.
with the parents. In some countries, the
students also attend and take part in the
discussions. In the case of adult learners, RAISING AWARENESS AMONG
a termly (or more frequent) tutorial fulfils
this function.
STUDENTS AND TEACHERS
However it is organized, keeping these Teachers can also contribute enormously
two-way communication channels open to an inclusive environment by raising
is an important way of demonstrating awareness of neurodiversity and SEBD
to students that their teachers are not among their colleagues and students,
judging them negatively but working with both through formal in-house CPD
them to support their learning and include events and informal interactions in the
them in the class. It is also an efficient course of the working week. When
method for sharing knowledge of the students understand the barriers to
issues and challenges being faced by the learning that their classmates are facing,
learners. Teachers may have theoretical they are much better equipped (and
knowledge about potential areas of usually more inclined) to work with them
difficulty, but parents and the students supportively. Teachers can match up
themselves will be able to add to this students with contrasting skills so they
knowledge base by offering concrete can see how the other works and explore
observations of situations that present different study strategies. In this way,
challenges. They may also be able to everyone can feel that their contributions
provide some background information are valued and appreciate the diversity
and family history which might help to in their groups.
explain some of the behaviours seen in Formal CPD sessions might include
the classroom. Working with the student running experiential activities with
and parents in this way requires a shift in groups of colleagues43 or discussing
perspective from ‘teacher as the expert’ local case studies. Less formally,
to ‘teacher as a partner’. teachers could initiate conversations
Teachers might also be able to in the staff room about differentiation
suggest local support groups for the and the use of multisensory activities,
parents of students to contact, as even sharing some ideas for making the
they too may be experiencing some classroom more inclusive.
frustration, anxiety, or uncertainty about Language teachers already have
how best to support their child or young a range of interpersonal skills and
person. Here, they can find out about classroom management techniques
strategies that other learners with the at their disposal, which they can build
same difficulties use, or equipment and on to accommodate the needs of all
technology that would make their lives learners. These could usefully be shared
easier. Equally, parents themselves may with colleagues who want to develop
be able to suggest people from these their own inclusive practices. For
support groups who can talk to staff at example, it is common practice in many
the school. ELT classrooms to plan activities with

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Collaboration between stakeholders

part of the usual way of working in that interests to ensure that learners are
institution. The implementation of any enabled to access the curriculum and
Institutions support new procedure should be monitored to to demonstrate their true level of
determine its impact on both staff and proficiency when assessed, so that the
inclusion through students. A process of reflection and results can be trusted by all the parties
review should lead to any necessary identified in this section. Teachers,
inclusive policies, modifications being made, so that it managers, and policymakers all have an
meets the needs of the organization and important role to play in encouraging
through their enhances its overall inclusiveness. The exam boards and publishers to enhance
potential benefits of inclusive practice the inclusivity of their products, by being
organization and are significant to the institution, as they discerning consumers who give their
include increased attainment levels, custom to more inclusive companies,
curricular choices, higher retention rates, and the resulting wherever possible.
enhancement of the institution’s
and through valuing reputation.

and training teachers.

POLICYMAKERS SUMMARY
DARIO IANES
Once local managers are engaged in the This section has set
process of developing more inclusive out the role that all
classroom practices and organizational
systems, they may also be persuaded the stakeholders in an
to lend official support to teachers education system must
who want to influence policymakers by play if inclusive practice
passing on their suggestions and ideas
through official channels. They might is to become the norm.
also support teachers and students It does not only depend
different interaction patterns throughout who lobby policymakers through on students requesting
a lesson (for example, individual work, petitions and campaigns to bring
pairwork, small groups, teams, whole- about changes that would benefit all accommodations in
class discussions). These changes in class learners. Grassroots activity may be the the classroom and in
dynamics can be utilized to make the catalyst for improving opportunities examinations, or on
lesson more accessible for students who for neurodiverse learners, but it is likely
have shorter attention spans, or who find to remain localized and temporary individual teachers
it challenging to work with large groups unless there is leadership and support acting as advocates
of people. Once teachers have tried out from higher levels of management and for their learners. Nor
a technique that is new to them, they government.
should be encouraged to reflect on its can it be imposed
effectiveness, and possibly revise or from above, if the
adapt it to suit the needs of their class. PROVIDERS OF ASSESSMENTS systems do not support
AND TEACHING MATERIALS practitioners in adopting
THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT Exam boards—especially those who new practices. Change
provide internationally recognized must be supported
It takes time and commitment to qualifications—and educational
develop an inclusive classroom culture publishers have an enormous impact from the top down,
and for this to filter into the culture of on the way that subjects are taught, as well as demanded
the wider institution. Teachers need as discussed in Sections 4 and 5. from the bottom up;
to give feedback to their managers As awareness of inclusive teaching
about the positive effects of inclusive practice grows globally, exam
this is essential for the
practices that they have implemented. boards and publishers may find that sustainability of an
The management team will need to it makes good commercial sense to inclusive education
work together, acknowledging teachers’ offer more accessible materials and
innovations and, where appropriate, exams, so as to position themselves as
system.
ensuring that these innovations become inclusive providers. It is in everybody’s

© Oxford University Press 38

Conclusions

CONCLUSIONS Inclusive education means embracing

the inherent diversity of any group of
learners, understanding and valuing the
contribution made by each one, and
working towards making the curriculum
accessible to all. It is based on a
principle of equity, in which each learner
is provided with what they need in order
to achieve success. Importantly, research
demonstrates that inclusive practices
have benefits for all learners. These
include social benefits, as learners’
appreciation of diversity is raised and
their empathy for others is deepened, as
well as pedagogical benefits, resulting
from teachers’ work on enhancing the
accessibility of their lessons.
Teachers have a central role to play in
the development and implementation
of inclusive practices, but they
cannot achieve or sustain positive
change without support from the
wider educational community. School
management needs to provide teachers
with ongoing support through the
provision of continuous professional
development. Schools also need to
facilitate collaboration between all those
involved in the students’ education and
well-being, including school staff, the
students’ families, and the students
themselves. Beyond the school,
policymakers, educational publishers,
assessment providers, and other
stakeholders all need to commit to a
shared vision of an inclusive educational
system in which diversity is celebrated
Approaches to inclusive education have been evolving over the and all learners have equal chances to
past three decades and many countries are already working learn successfully.
We encourage all those involved in
towards adopting inclusive approaches in their education English language education to use the
systems, with the support of international organizations such as guidance in this paper in considering
UNESCO and the OECD which have long promoted inclusive their own particular contexts.
Developing inclusive practices results in
education. The English language teaching community has much educational systems where all learners
to contribute to this positive shift, and is compelled to do so have the opportunity to realize their full
for two key reasons. On the one hand, it is recognized that potential.

language learning poses particular challenges for learners with

special educational needs (both ‘neurodiverse’ learners and those
with social, emotional, or behavioural difficulties). On the other
hand, the interactive methodologies associated with the English
language classroom can provide an ideal environment in which to
address these challenges.

© Oxford University Press 39

Appendix 1

APPENDIX 1:
FREQUENT INDICATIONS OF SEN
AND SUGGESTED INTERVENTIONS
The table below is intended to provide some support for teachers who notice indications of
neurodiversity or social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties (SEBD) in their students. It is not a
diagnostic tool, and nor is it an exhaustive list of all possible actions or strategies. The interventions
provide a starting point that can be helpful in finding the best way forward with each individual
learner. They are for trying out, discussing with the learner, and reviewing and modifying to suit the
situation and the learner.

Indications noticed in class Suggested interventions

PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS The student has difficulty Spend some time doing focused practice on the sounds,
discriminating between and starting with recognition in isolation, recognition in
- LISTENING AND SPEAKING producing sounds (even when other context, and then giving explicit instruction in how to
students from the same language produce the sounds in isolation and in context. Offer
background have no problem with frequent positive feedback.
them).

WORKING MEMORY The student finds it hard to Use multimodal approaches, such as singing an example
remember grammar rules; or if they sentence containing the target structure, to increase
seem to be learned, they are not automaticity, or creating a mind-map that is easy to refer
applied in context back to.

Learning vocabulary takes a long Help students to develop their own memorization
time. techniques, using pictures, rhymes, or games.

READING Reading is often inaccurate or Encourage discussion of the topic before reading; help
comprehension is not complete. students to make use of all the contextual information
available. Highlight cultural elements of the text to make
them clear for all.

Reading a text takes longer than for Encourage the use of holistic reading techniques. Try
their peers. a coloured background or overlay. Explore the use of
technology, e.g. a screen reader to support reading of
long passages. It may be helpful to focus on reading
comprehension strategies. Try splitting the text into
smaller parts and engaging students in comprehension
tasks right after they have read each part.

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Appendix 1

Indications noticed in class Suggested interventions

WRITING Spelling is often erratic and Teach common spelling patterns; draw attention to other
inconsistent. patterns of morphology and syntax; use mnemonics to
remember the difficult parts of irregular words.

Writing is slow. Help students to develop planning strategies to capture

their ideas first, and then write/type them up later. This
may be due to dyspraxia or dysgraphia, in which case
providing students with additional support, e.g. in the
form of technology, may help.

Writing is hard to read and/or the Experiment with different writing implements to see what
text layout is untidy. works best. Encourage the use of paper with guidelines
and draw attention to elements such as margins, spacing,
etc. Explore the use of technology, e.g. word-processing
instead of handwriting, or even speech-to-text software.

SPEAKING The student takes longer than his/ Allow additional time for students to answer questions.
her peers to process oral input and Repeat the same question again, more slowly.
formulate responses. Reformulate the question using simpler language and
reinforcing the idea with visuals/gestures/mimes. Let
each student know which questions they will be asked to
answer in advance and allow time for preparation. Teach
the linguistic (and paralinguistic) strategies needed to
explain ideas even if the vocabulary is not known.

Ideas in speech and writing appear Suggest different methods of planning, such as using
disorganized. post-it notes to capture ideas, or mind-mapping to
generate and then organize ideas before writing. Recap
and reformulate the student’s response, praising the
content and modelling a different way of organizing the
ideas.

LISTENING The student is not able to follow This may be due to working memory issues, in which
instructions easily. case it may help to provide students with multimodal
instructions (e.g. oral and written) and activities which
have been divided into small steps. Provide instructions
in a visual format, for example in bullet points or as a
sequence of pictures showing the actions required. Ask
learners to underline the key words of the rubrics and
then tell the teacher what they have to do, so as to get
immediate feedback on their comprehension.

ORGANIZATION There are books and papers all over Encourage a tidy desk policy in the class; help the
the student’s workplace, but he/she student to develop better storage systems for papers
can’t find anything. and stationery; introduce boxes or drawers with clear
labels.

The student is often late for class. Initiate a class discussion about the best route to take,
and how long it takes to get to different parts of the
building. Set up a class survey of what people do in the
morning and how long it takes them to get ready to
leave the house. Encourage students to develop their
own reminders, for example on their phones or using a
coloured timeline.

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Appendix 1

Indications noticed in class Suggested interventions

ORGANIZATION The student does not complete tasks Discuss with the student what the barriers are, and
on time or meet deadlines. suggest setting pre-deadlines for different stages of
the work, or allowing extra time for some tasks. Make
use of study-buddies to help with keeping on track for
deadlines.

The student works quickly but not Encourage the student to take more time over the work,
accurately. by suggesting that they count to ten between each
question, and that they go through it twice to make sure
it is right.

SPACIAL AWARENESS AND The student often bumps into things Keep aisles and floors clear. Encourage slow and careful
or misjudges distance (e.g. goes actions in the classroom through mindfulness activities.
PHYSICAL COORDINATION to put something on a table but Build a culture of helpfulness and consideration through
misses). the class contract.

The student finds it difficult to fasten Provide a lot of activities to develop manual dexterity,
buttons, tie a tie/bow or shoelaces or using blocks, beads, pinboards, etc.
put other clothes on properly.

PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT The student appears to find his/her Check if the temperature is comfortable for everyone;
clothes uncomfortable and tugs at suggest some appropriate modifications to clothing
them or refuses to wear some items (e.g. removing a tie, wearing a sweatshirt but not a shirt
of clothing. underneath).

The student appears restless Provide something that the student can play with that is
or fidgety; leaves his/her chair silent, and non-breakable (Blu Tack is good). Find reasons
frequently or rocks on the chair. for the student to get up during the lesson (collecting
materials, cleaning the board, etc.). Arrange a signal for
the student to give you if he/she needs to get up and
move around.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Loud noises seem to cause more Monitor the noise levels in the class. Allow the student to
anxiety than expected. wear ear defenders/headphones if necessary. Provide a
quiet place for students to go if the noise levels get too
high. Arrange a discreet signal that the student can give
to let you know that things are getting difficult.

The student complains about the Ensure that the lights are not flickering (i.e. that the bulbs
lighting in the room, or shields his/ are IEEE-compliant) or ask the rest of the class if it is
her eyes from the lights. possible to manage just with daylight.

SOCIAL INTERACTION The student does not make eye Try to find out what makes the student more anxious
contact when talking or listening. and see if it is possible to alleviate that in the classroom.
Talk to the student about the role of eye contact in
communication, and try to encourage him/her to include
it as part of the language they are learning (but without
insisting on it).

The student does not observe usual Make it clear what the expectations are for your context
conventions concerning physical regarding physical contact and proximity. Try to elicit
proximity or contact. how it may be different in the student’s home context, if
applicable. Initiate a class discussion, perhaps leading to
poster-making, about what norms the students in your
class feel comfortable with. Create stories, scenarios, or
role plays to explore the effects of different interaction
patterns.

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Appendix 1

Indications noticed in class Suggested interventions

SOCIAL INTERACTION The student does not wait to take Create a list of ‘classroom rules’ with the class to display
turns in talking or playing games. on the wall. In a one-to-one conversation with the
student, explain why taking turns is appropriate in the
classroom. Set this as a personal target for the student
and give a lot of praise when you see him/her managing
to wait, even for a little while longer than usual.

Some of the student’s contributions Collect some examples and have a quiet chat with
appear unconnected to the topic or the student later, asking them to help you see the
show that he/she has not understood connections they saw. Point out any linguistic or
the intention of the previous speaker. paralinguistic clues in the prompts that they may have
missed. Teach the linguistic (and paralinguistic) strategies
needed to ask for clarification.

CHANGE TO ROUTINE Changes in routine upset the Make it clear ahead of time (if possible) when something
student. will change in the routine; talk to the student about how
things will be different and ask him/her to imagine what
it might feel like.

Inconsistencies in the language make Point out inconsistencies in the language and ask
the student upset or anxious. students to think where they might have come from—
sometimes knowing the reason behind an anomaly can
be helpful. Acknowledge the inconsistency and name the
anxiety (e.g. ‘This pattern is a bit irregular, which can be
annoying/confusing at first.’).

SELF-ESTEEM The student avoids tackling tasks Set some tasks that start with easy successes, to draw the
that are likely to be challenging, by student in. Encourage him/her to stick with it, even when
leaving the class or disrupting the it becomes harder, and give a lot of praise if he/she does.
lesson.

The student is withdrawn and Provide a quiet corner for students to go to if they are
unwilling to engage in class. overwhelmed by the environment. If a student spends a
lot of time there, talk to him/her about the reasons why
and suggest a meeting with a counsellor if necessary.
Try to help the student to focus on the task rather than
the personal interactions in the class. For multicultural
classes, initiate tasks that allow students to share
aspects of their home cultures (e.g. producing a recipe
book of favourite dishes), valuing the range of diverse
experiences in the group.

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Appendix 2

APPENDIX 2:
STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES FOR
DEVELOPING COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS
Technical skills Strategic skills
bottom-up processes top-down processes

Break the listening task into smaller units Help students formulate hypotheses
about the text
Pre-teach keywords and expressions Move from global to detailed
comprehension
Avoid ‘listen and read’ (unnecessary here) Start with context, then language

Activate communicative and

linguistic resources for speaking Enhance pragmaticand
interactional skills to help
Move from controlled to free practice compensate for weaknesses

Pre-teach keywords
Use metacognitive perspective
Present text in both audio
in comprehension tasks
and visual format
Check text layout accessibility
Explicitly teach ‘before, while,
Introduce accommodations (e.g.
after’ reading comprehension
silent reading, differentiated texts)
strategies

Activate linguistic resources (words,

expressions) for the writing task Teach text planning
Introduce shared/pair writing
Move from short to longer texts
Introduce accommodations Use strategies for content
(e.g. spellchecker, online dictionary) and language review

VOCABULARY GRAMMAR
Presentation Presentation
few target words per lesson notice/analyse structures in context
avoid similar-sounding words multisensory techniques (e.g. colour-coding)
pronunciation–meaning mapping > introduce other
information about target word Practice
Practice accessible exercises
structured practice
accessible exercises
memorization strategies

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Glossary

GLOSSARY
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING INCLUSION PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS
An evaluation of learning which informs A system of education whereby every The ability to recognize and discriminate
the next phase of teaching. learner can access and engage with the between different aspects of phonology
curriculum alongside his/her age peers, (e.g. phonemes, intonation patterns,
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING regardless of ability. volume).
An evaluation of learning which
determines whether targets have been INFORMAL ASSESSMENT SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND BEHAVIOURAL
met or standards achieved. Methods of assessing proficiency levels DIFFICULTIES (SEBD)
and progress that may allow candidates A term used in educational contexts
BARRIER TO LEARNING to work with others, use reference to describe learners whose social,
Anything that prevents a learner materials, and take the time they need to emotional, or behavioural responses
from progressing, whether due to complete tasks. adversely affect their learning.
environmental factors, personal
attributes, or the interaction between INTEGRATION SEGREGATION
the two. A system of education whereby all A system of education whereby
learners are taught in the same physical some learners are removed from the
CO-OCCURRENCE location (i.e. in the same building, or on ‘mainstream’ environment and taught
The presence of more than one the same site), but not all learners have instead in a ‘special’ school, usually
identifiable specific learning difference the same opportunities to engage with engaging with a limited curriculum.
within an individual’s cognitive profile. the curriculum.
Dyslexia and dyspraxia often co-occur, SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS (SEN)
for example. INTERVENTIONS The term commonly used in educational
Strategies, techniques, or equipment, settings to identify a student’s needs.
COGNITIVE FUNCTION DIFFERENCES including assistive technology, that make
Activity in the mind/differences in the learning more accessible. SPEED OF PROCESSING
way the mind works (e.g. in terms of How quickly a person can process
memory, speed of processing, etc.). MULTISENSORY ACTIVITIES information that is presented, either
Learning activities that simultaneously visually or orally.
EQUITY activate several different senses.
The provision of resources, support, etc. WORKING MEMORY
according to individual need. This is in MULTIMODAL RESOURCES The ability to hold some information
contrast to equality, where everybody Resources that include multimodal in mind while adding to it or otherwise
gets the same. components (e.g. coursebooks that have manipulating it, before using it to
videos/CDs/tactile elements integrated complete a task or action.
FORMAL ASSESSMENT into their programmes).
Methods of assessing proficiency levels
and progress that typically require NEURODIVERSE/NEURODIVERSITY
candidates to respond individually under Used increasingly in reference to
timed conditions, without access to learners with specific learning difficulties,
other resources. neurodiversity embraces the idea that all
human brains function differently, and
some more so than others.

© Oxford University Press 45

Further reading and resources

FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES

Delaney, M. (2016). Special educational Smith, A. M. (2017). Raising awareness of International Dyslexia Association:
needs. Oxford: Oxford University Press. SpLDs. Morecambe: ELT well. https://dyslexiaida.org
Additional online resources: www.oup.
com/elt/teacher/itc British Dyslexia Association: www. The National Attention Deficit Disorder
bdadyslexia.org.uk Information and Support Service
Daloiso, M. (2017). Supporting learners (ADDISS): www.addiss.co.uk/allabout.
with dyslexia in the ELT classroom. Dyspraxia Foundation: https:// htm
Oxford: Oxford University Press. dyspraxiafoundation.org.uk
Additional online resources: www.oup. The National Autism Association: http://
com/elt/teacher/supportingdyslexia dysTEFL: www.dystefl.eu nationalautismassociation.org

Kormos, J., & Smith, A. M. (2012). European Dyslexia Association: www. The National Autistic Society: www.
Teaching languages to students with eda-info.eu autism.org.uk
specific learning differences. Bristol:
Multilingual Matters. FutureLearn: www.futurelearn.com/
courses/education-for-all
Sánchez-López, C., & Young, T. (2018).
Focus on Special Educational Needs. IATEFL Inclusive Practices and Special
Oxford: Oxford University Press. Educational Needs Special Interest
Group: https://ipsen.iatefl.org

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Endnotes

ENDNOTES
INTRODUCTION 02 COMMONLY IDENTIFIED CAUSES OF 05 ASSESSMENT AND TESTING
DIFFICULTIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
1 Crystal (2012) 33 Shute & Kim (2014)
2 Carpenter (2005) 16 E veratt, Reid, & Elbeheri (2013) 34 Hashemi (2011)
3 European Commission (2013); 17 Reid, Elbeheri, & Everatt (2015) 35 Gholami (2016)
UNESCO (2006, 2017) 18 American Psychiatric Association 36 Kormos & Smith (2012)
4 Schneider & Crombie (2003); (2013) 37 Kung, Fitzgerald, & Amendum
Kormos & Smith (2012), Kormos 19 Gibbs, Appleton, & Appleton (2013)
(2017) (2007) 38 Kormos & Smith (2012)
5 UNESCO (1994, 2017), OECD 20-21 American Psychiatric Association 39 Pawlak (2014)
(2007); European Commission (2013) 40 Kormos (2017)
(2013) 22 European Commission (2013)
23 Taylor & Sidhu (2012)
24-25 Delaney (2016) 06 COLLABORATION BETWEEN
01 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION STAKEHOLDERS

6 UNESCO (1994) 03 SUPPORT AND CONTINUOUS 41 E uropean Agency for Development

7 Kormos (2017) PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR in Special Needs Education (2012)
8 Warnock (1978) TEACHERS 42 Delaney (2016)
9 Daloiso (2017) 43 Smith (2017)
10 OECD (2007) 26 E
 uropean Agency for Development
11 European Commission (2013) in Special Needs Education (2012)
12 European Agency for Development Altrichter, Feldman, Posch, &
in Special Needs Education (2012) 27 Somekh (2013)
13 European Commission (2013)
14-15 UNESCO (2017) 04 GUIDELINES FOR THE INCLUSIVE USE OF
LEARNING MATERIALS

28 Daloiso (2017)
29 Johnson & Johnson (1999)
30 Kormos (2017)
31 Daloiso (2017)
32 Kormos & Smith (2012)

© Oxford University Press 47

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