Module 1

LASER and Optical fiber

1.Mention the Characteristics of laser beam. Derive the expression for energy density of
radiation using Einstein’s Coefficients
Consider two energy state E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N 1 be the atoms with energy
E1 and N 2 be the atoms with energy E2 per unit volume of the system. N 1and N 2 called the
number density of atoms in the state 1 and 2 respectively.
In case of induced adsorption
The rate of absorption is directly propotional to the number density of lower energy state N 1
and the energy density is U γ
∴ Rate of absorption α N 1 U γ
¿ Rate of absorption=B12 N 1 U γ … … …(1)
Where, B12 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein co efficient of induced absorption
In case of spontaneous emission
The rate of spontaneous emission is directly propotional to the number density of higher
energy state N 2
∴ Rate of absorption α N 2
¿ Rate of absorption= A 21 N 2 … … …(2)
Where, A21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein co efficient of spontaneous
emission
In case of stimulated emission
The rate of stimulated emission is directly propotional to the number density of higher
energy state N 2 and the energy density U γ

∴ Rate of stimulated emission α N 2 U γ

¿ Rate of stimulated emission=B 21 N 2 U γ … … … (3)
At thermal equilibrium
Rate of absorption=stimulated emission+ spontaneous emission
∴ ¿ Eqn. ( 1 ) , ( 2 )∧( 3 ) , We have
B12 N 1 U γ = A21 N 2+ B21 N 2 U γ

B12 N 1 U γ −B21 N 2 U γ = A21 N 2

(B ¿ ¿ 12 N 1−B 21 N 2)U γ= A 21 N 2 ¿
A 21 N 2
U γ=
(B ¿ ¿12 N 1−B21 N 2 )¿
Rearranging the above equation, we get

[ ]
A21 1
U γ= … … … (4)
B 21 B12 N 1
−1
B21 N 1

According to Boltzmann’s law

N 2 −¿¿¿ ¿
=e
N1
 N 2 −hγ
=e KT
N1
hγ
N1
=e KT … … … .(5)
N2

N2
Substitute the N value from equation (5) in equation (4), it becomes
1

[ ]
A21 1
U γ= hγ
… … … (6)
B 21 B12 KT
e −1
B21
According to Planck’s law

[ ]
3
8 πh γ 1
U γ= 3 hγ
… … …(7)
c KT
e −1

Comparing equation (6) and (7)

A 21 8 πh γ 3
= 3
B21 c

B12
=1∨B12=B21
B 21

Put A 21= A∧B 21=B then density ( equati on … .6 ) become

U γ=
A
B [ ]
e −1
1
hγ
KT
… … …(8)

This is the energy density at thermal equilibrium condition

2.What are semiconductor diode lasers? Describe the construction and working of Semiconductor
laser with the help of energy band diagram
A Semiconductor diode laser is one in which the active medium is formulated by semiconducting materials.
Construction: Gallium-Arsenide Laser is a single crystal of GaAs consists of heavily doped n-type and p-
type. The diode is very small size with sides of the order of 1mm. The width of the junction varies from 1-
100m. The top and bottom surfaces are metalized and Ohmic contacts are provided for external
connection. The front and rear faces are polished. The polished faces functions as the resonant cavity. The
other two faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in that direction.
 The energy
band
diagram of
heavily
doped p-n
junction is
as shown.
At thermal

equilibrium the Fermi level is uniform.

• Because of very high doping on n- side, the Fermi level is pushed in to the conduction band and electrons
occupy the portions of the conduction band that lies below the Fermi level and on p-side, the Fermi level
lies within the valence band and holes occupy the portions of the valence band that lies above the Fermi
level.

• A suitable forward bias is applied to overcome the potential barrier. As a result electrons from n-region and
holes from p-region injected into the junction.

• The current begins to flow following which there will be a region in junction in which the population
inversion can be achieved.

• Initially concentration of electrons in the energy levels at the bottom of the conduction band will be less
than that of energy levels at top of valence band. So that the recombination of electrons and holes result only
in spontaneous emission then junction works as LED.
• When the current exceeds the threshold value, population inversion is achieved in the active region which
is formulated in the junction.

• At this stage the photons emitted by spontaneous emission triggers stimulated emission, over a large
number of recombination leading to build up laser.

• Since the energy gap of GaAs is 1.4eV, the wavelength of emitted light is 8400 Ȧ

3.Discuss the requisites of a Laser system

1) The pumping process:
It is the process of supplying energy to the medium in
order to transfer it to the state of population
inversion is known as pumping process
Optical Pumping: It is the process of exciting
atoms from lower energy level to higher energy
level by using high intensity light or by operating
flash tube as an external source called optical
pumping.
Electrical pumping: It is the process of exciting
atoms from lower energy level to higher energy
level by using dc power supply as an external source called electrical pumping.

2) Active medium. A medium in which light gets amplified is known an active medium. The medium may
be solid, liquid or a gas. Out of the different atoms in the medium, only a small fraction of atoms of
particular species are responsible for stimulated emission and consequent light amplification. They are
called active centres. The remaining bulk of the active medium acts the role host which supports active
centres.

3) Laser cavity:
A laser device consists of an active medium bound between two parallel mirrors of high reflectivity. The
mirrors reflect the photon to and fro through the active medium. Thus the two mirrors along with the
medium is called cavity. Inside the cavity two types of waves exist, one moving towards the right and other
to the left. These waves interfere constructively or destructively depending on the phase difference. In order
to arrange for constructive interference, the distance ‘L’ between the two mirrors should be such that the
λ
cavity should support an integral number of half wavelength, i.e. L=m
2
where m is an integer. This results in the amplification of stimulated emission of radiation which is the laser
light.

4.Describe the application of Laser as barcode scanner, Laser Printer and Laser cooling.
Laser as barcode scanner

Barcode Reader
A barcode is a printed series of parallel
bars or lines of varying width that is used for entering data into a computer system.

A barcode scanner/reader is a device with lights, lenses, and a sensor that decodes and captures
the information contained in barcodes. Laser scanners use a laser beam as a light source and
typically employ oscillating mirrors or rotating prisms to scan the laser beam back and forth across
the barcode. A photodiode then measures the reflected light from the barcode. An analog signal is
created from the photodiode, and is then converted into a digital signal.
Laser Printer
Laser printers ware invented at XEROX in 1969 by by re- searcher Gary Stark weather .Laser Printers
are digital printing devices that are used to create high quality text and graphics on plain printer. A
Diode Laser is used in the process of printing in LASER Printer.
Working Principle
1. A laser beam projects an image of the page to be printed
onto an electrically charged rotating Photo sensitive drum
coated with selenium.

2. Photo conductivity allows charge to leak away from the

areas which are exposed to light and the area gets
positively charged.

3. Toner particles are then electrostatically picked up by the

drum’s charged areas, which have been exposed to light.

4. The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct

contact and heat, which fuses the ink to the paper.
Laser cooling
Principle of LASER Cooling Laser cooling is the use of dissipative light forces
for reducing the random motion and thus the temperature of small particles,
typically atoms or ions. Depending
𝑐 𝜆 on the mechanism used, the temperature
achieved can be in the millikelvin, microkelvin, or even nanokelvin regime. If an
atom is traveling toward a laser beam and absorbs a photon from the laser, it will
be slowed by the fact that the photon has momentum It would take a large number
of such absorptions to cool the atoms to near 0K. The following are the types of
laser cooling
• Doppler Cooling.
• Sisyphus Cooling.

5.Derive an expression for angle of acceptance in an optical fiber with the help of a neat
diagram.
Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle ‘θ0’ enters into the fiber. Let ‘θ1’ be the angle of refraction for
the ray OB. The refracted ray OB incident at a critical angle (90 ̊- θ1) at B grazes the interface between core
and cladding along BC. If the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, it undergoes total internal
reflection. Thus θ0 is called the waveguide acceptance angle and sinθ0 is called the numerical aperture.

Let n0,
n1 and
n2 be the

refractive indices of the surrounding medium, core andcladding respectively.

Applying Snell’s law at O, no sin θ0 = n1 sin θ1
n1
sin θ0 = sin θ1 … … … … … … ..(1)
n0
Applying Snell’s la B, The angle of indices is 90−θ1 The angle of refraction is 90 0
n1 sin (90-θ1) = n2 sin90
n1 cos θ1= n2
n2
cos θ 1= … … … … … … ..(2)
n1

From expression (1)

n1
sin θ0 = sin θ 1
n0
 n1
sin θ0 =
n0
√ 1−cos 2 θ 1
Substituting for cos θ1 from (2) we get

√( )
2
n1 n2
sin θ0 = 1−
n0 n1

sin θ0 =
n0 √√
n1 n 21−n22
n21
n21 −n22
sin θ0 =
n0
If the surrounding medium is air, then n 0=1
sin θ0 =√ n21−n22 … … … … ..(3)
Where sin θ0 is called Numerical aperture

N . A=√ n21−n22
6.Explain the different types of optical fibers with the help of suitable diagrams.

Based on the refractive index profile and mode of propagation, There are three types of optical fibers,
1. Single mode fiber
2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber
(i) Single mode fiber

• Single mode fibers have a core material of

uniform refractive index value.
• Cladding material also has a uniform
refractive index but of lesser value than that of
core.
• Thus itsrefractive index profile takes a shape
of a step. The diameter of the core is about 8-10
µm and the diameter of the cladding is about
60-70 µm.
• Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a
single mode as shown in above figure.
• Single mode fibers are the extensively used
ones ant they are less expensive. They need
LASERs as the source of light.
(ii) Step index multimode fiber
• A step index multimode fiber is very much
similar to the single mode fiber except that its
core is of large diameter. A typical fiber has a
core diameter 50 to 200 µm and a cladding
about 100 to 250µm outer diameter.
• Its refractive index profile is also similar to
that of a single mode fiber but with a larger plane region for the core.
• Due to the large core diameter it can transmit a number of modes of wave
• The step index multimode fiber can accept either a LASER or an LED as source of light.
• It is the least expensive of all and its typical application is in data links which has lower bandwidth
requirements.
(iii) Graded index multimode fiber
• It is also called GRIN.
• The refractive index of core decreases in the radially
outward direction from the axis of the fiber and becomes
equal to that of cladding at the interface but the
refractive index of the cladding remains uniform.
• Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
• It is the expensive of all. It is used in telephone trunk
between central offices.
7. What is attenuation? Discuss the various factors which cause attenuation in optical fiber
communication.
• Attenuation is the loss of optical power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through a fiber also
called as the fiber loss.

α=
−10
L [ ]
log
Pout
P¿
db /km

• There are three mechanisms through which attenuation takes place. Attenuation can be caused by three
mechanisms.
(i)Absorption losses
• Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper in the silica
glass of which the fiber is made of.
• During signal propagation photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms and the electrons are excited
to higher energy levels.
• Then the electrons give up their absorbed energy either in the form of heat or light energy.
• The re-emission of light energy will usually be in a different wavelength; hence it is referred as loss of
energy.
• The other impurity such as hydroxyl (OH) ions which enters into the fiber at the time of fabrication causes
significant absorption loss.
• The absorption of photons by fiber itself assuming that there are no impurities and in-homogeneities in it is
called as intrinsic absorption.
(ii) Scattering losses
• Scattering of light waves occurs whenever a light wave travels through a medium having scattering objects
whose dimensions are smaller than the wavelength of light.
• Similarly when a light signal travels in the fiber, the photons may be scattered due to the sharp changes in
refractive index values inside the core over distances and also due to the structural impurities present in the
fiber material.
• This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. Scattering of photons also takes place due to
trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of manufacturing.
• A scattered photon moves in random direction and leaves the fiber.
(iii) Radiation losses
Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic bends.
Macroscopic bending:
 All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent
below that specification of radius of curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding interface will not
satisfy the condition of total internal reflection. This causes loss of optical power

7.Discuss the point-to-point communication using an optical fibre with the help of a block
diagram.

Optical fiber communication process : The communication using Optical fiber is as follows. First voice
is converted into electrical signal using a transducer. It is digitized using a Coder. The digitized signal,
which carries the voice information, is fed to an optical transmitter. The light source in optical transmitter
(LED or LASER Diode) emits modulated light, which is transmitted through the optical fiber. At the other
end the modulated light signal is detected by a photo detector and is decoded using a decoder. Finally the
information is converted into analog electrical signal and is fed to a loud speaker, which converts the
signal to voice (sound).
8.Define LASER and explain interaction of radiation with the matter for induced
absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission

Interaction of an electromagnetic wave with matter

leads to transition of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the transition
is from lower state to higher state it absorbs the incident energy. If the transition is from
higher state to lower state it emits a part of its energy.
Emission or Absorption takes through quantum of energy called photons. hʋ is called
quantum energy or photon energy.
h=6.643 ×10 Joules Second is Planck’s
−34

constant and ‘ʋ’ is the frequency.

If ΔE is the difference between the two energy
levels ∆ E=E2− E1
According to Max Planck, ∆ E=h v=E2−E 1
Three types of interactions, which are possible,
are as follows:

1) Induced Absorption:
“The process in which an atom in a lower energy state is raised to a high energy state by
absorbing a suitable photon is called stimulated absorption.”
Consider two energy states with energies E1∧E 2. Let a photon of energy, ∆ E=E2− E1be
incident on the atom. The atom absorbs the energy of the photon and itsenergy becomes
equal to∆ E+ E1=E2 . Hence it makes a transition to the exitedstate E2. This is called induced
absorption.Induced absorption can be represented as
atom + photon → atom*
2) Spontaneous Emission:
“The process in which an atom in the higher
energy state falls to the lower state by emitting
a photon on its own is called spontaneous
emission.”
Consider an atom in the excited state, the atom
voluntarily emits a photon of energy ∆E equal
to E2− E1 and falls to the energy state E1. The
emission where an atom emits a photon without
any aid by external agency is called
spontaneous emission. The photons emitted
may have any direction and phase.
Hence they are incoherent.
This process can be represented as atom*→ atom + photon
3) Stimulated Emission:
“The process of the emission of a photon by a system
under the influence of a incident photon of suitable
energy, due to which the system transits from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state is called
stimulated emission.”
Consider an atom in the exited state with energy E2.
Let a photon of energy∆ E=E2− E1 interacts with this
atom. As a result, the atom emits a photon and transits
to the lower energy state. The emitted photon will
have same phase, energy and direction of movement
as that of the incident photon.”
The electromagnetic waves associated with the two photons will have same phase and thus
they are coherent. This kind of emission is responsible for laser action. This process can be
represented as
atom* + photon→ atom + 2 photon

Numerical problems
1.An optical fiber of length 2 km has input power of 200 mW, which
emerges out with power of 160 mW. Calculate the attenuation co-efficient
of the fiber.
Given data: L=2km P¿ =200 mW Pout =160 mW α =?
Solution :
α=
−10
L
log
P¿ [ ]
Pout
db /km

α=
−10
2
log
[
160 ×10−3
200 ×10−3
db /km
] α =0 . 485

2. In diffraction grating experiment the LASER light undergoes first order

diffraction with diffracting angle 23.86°. The grating constant is 1.66 ×10−6 m
Calculate the wavelength of LASER source.
Given data: θ=23.86 D=1.66 × 10−6 m m=1 λ=?
Solution :
D si nθ
λ=
m

−6
1.66× 10 sin ⁡(23.86) −7
λ= λ=6.714 × 10 m
1
3.The ratio of population inversion of two energy levels is 1.059 ×10−30 Find the
wavelength of Light emitted by spontaneous emissions at 330K.
Given data:
N2 −30
ratio of population inversion ( N1
¿=1.059 × 10 T=330K λ=?

Solution:
−h c
N 2 −hc N 2 −h c λ=
=e λkT By simplification ln = N2
N1 N 1 λkT ln kT
N1

−( 6.63 ×10−34 ) (3 ×10 8)

λ= =632nm
ln ( 1.059 ×10−30 ) ( 1.38 ×10−23) (330)

4. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 30°, when kept in air. Find
the angle of acceptance when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33.
refractive index of refractive medium:n I0=1.33 I
θ0 :?
angle of acceptance of an optical fiber = θ0 =30

Solution :
sin θ =
√n −n When surrounding medium is air n =1 and
2
1
2
2
0 θ0 =30
0
n 0
√ n −n =sin 30(1)
2
1
2
2 √ n −n =0.5
2
1
2
2

When surrounding medium is of refractive index 1.33 letθ0I be acceptance angle

I
θ0 =sin
−1
( 1.33
0.5
)=22

5. In a diffraction grating experiment the laser light undergoes second

order diffraction for diffraction angle 1.48. The grating constant is 5.08 ×10−5
m and the distance between the grating and the source is 80 cm, find the
wave length of LASER light.
Given data: θ=1.48 D=5.08 × 10−5 mm=2 f =80 cm λ=?
Solution :
D sinθ
λ=
m
−5
5.08× 10 sin ⁡(1.48)
λ= λ=656 nm
2
6. A LASER source has a power output of 10−3 W. Calculate the number of
photons emitted per second given the wavelength of LASER 692.8
nanometer.
Given data:
power out: 10−3
wavelength of LASER λ : 692.8nm = 692 ×10−9
number of photons emitted per second( N)=?
Solution:
h c ( 6.63 ×10 ) (3 ×10 )
−34 8
−16
∆ E=h v= = −9
=2.874 × 10
λ 692× 10

The energy difference become the energy of each of the emitted photon if N is
the number of photons emitted per second to give a power output of 10−3
−3
N × ∆ E=10
−3
10 12
N= −16
=3.47 ×10
2.874 × 10

7. Obtain the attenuation co-efficient of the given fiber of length 1500 m

given the input and output power 100 mW and 70 mW.
Given data: L=1500m=1.5km P¿ =100 mW Pout =70 mW α =?
Solution :
α=
−10
L
log[ ]
Pout
P¿
db /km
 [ ]
−3
−10 70 ×10
α= log −3
db /km α =1 . 03
1 .5 100 ×10

8. Given the Numerical Aperture 0.30 and RI of core 1.49 Calculate the
critical angle for the core-cladding interface.
Given data: NA:0.30 n1=1.49 θ0 =?

Solution: sin θ0 =
√n −n 2
1
2
2
n0

n2
√ n −n =NA
2
1
2
2 0.30=√ 1.492−n22 SBS
−1
n2 =1.45θ c =sin (
n1
)

θc =sin−1 ( 1.45
1.49 )
=76.6

9. Calculate the ratio of population for a given pair of energy levels

corresponding to emission of radiation 694.3 nm at a temperature of 300 K.
N2
Given data: ratio of population inversion ( N1
¿=? T=300K λ=694.3 nm

Solution:
N 2 −hc
N1
=e λkT By simplification

(6.63 × 10−34) (3 × 108 )

N 2 ( 694.3× 10
30
=1.11 ×10
−9
) ( 1.38 ×10−23 ) (300)
=e
N1

10. Find attenuation in an optical fiber of length 500m when a light signal
of power 100mw emerges out of the fiber with a power of 90mw
Given data: L=500m=0.5km P¿ =100 mW Pout =90 mW α =?
Solution :
α=
−10
L
log
P¿ [ ]
Pout
db /km

α=
−10
0.5
log
[
90 ×10−3
100 ×10−3
db /km
] α =0 . 915
Module 2
Quantum Mechanics

1. State and explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Show that an electron does not exist
inside the nucleus on the basis of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.
Statement: “It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and momentum of a particle
accurately. If we make an effort to measure very accurately the position of a particle, it leads to large
uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice versa”.
If ∆ x and
ΔP x are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the particle then the
uncertainty can be written as
∆ x . ΔP x ≥ (h/4π)
In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of the particle, the product of the
corresponding uncertainties inherently present in the measurement is equal to or greater than h/4π.

Non- existence of electrons in the atomic nucleus:

According to the theory of relativity, the energy E of a particle is:
 2
mo c
E = mc² =
√1−( v /c )
2 2

Where ‘m0’ is the rest mass of the particle and ‘m’ is the mass when its velocity is ‘’.
2 4 2 6
2 mo c mo c
i.e. E = = 2 2 -------------------------- (1)
1−( v 2 /c 2 ) c −v
If ‘p’ is the momentum of the particle:
mo v
i.e. p = mv =
√
2 2 2
1−( v 2 /c 2 )
mo v c
p² = 2 2
c −v
Multiply by c²
2 2 4
mo v c
p²c² = 2 2 -------------------------------------------- (2)
c −v
Subtracting (2) by (1) we have
2 4 2 2
mo c (c −v )
E² - p²c² = 2 2
c −v
E² = p²c² + m2o c 4 ------------------------------------------ (3)
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that
h
∆ x .Δ P x ≥ ---------------------------------------------- (4)
4π
The diameter of the nucleus is of the order 10-14m. If an electron is to exist inside the nucleus, the
uncertainty in its position ∆ x must not exceed 10-14m.
i.e. ∆ x ≤ 10-14m
The uncertainty in the momentum
−34
h 6.63× 1 0
Δ Px ≥ ≥ ≥ 0.5 × 10-20Ns --------- (5)
4 π Δx 4 π ×1 0−14
The uncertainty in the momentum of the electron
Δ P x ≥ 0.5 × 10-20Ns ------------------------------ (6)
Consider eqn. (3)
E² = p²c² + m2o c 4 = c² (p²+m2o c 2)
m o= 9.11 × 10-31 kg
If the electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be
E² ≥ (3 × 108)2[(0.5 × 10-20)2 + (9.11 × 10-31)2(3 × 108)2]
i.e. E² ≥ (3 × 108)2[0.25 × 10-40 + 7.4629 × 10-44]
Neglecting the second term as it is smaller by more than the 3 orders of the magnitude compared to
first term.
Taking square roots on both sides and simplifying
−12
-12 1.5 ×1 0
E ≥ 1.5 × 10 J ≥ −19 ev ≥ 9.4 Mev
1.6 ×1 0
If an electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be greater than or equal to 9.4Mev. But kinetic energy of
the electrons in beta decay is of the order of 3 to 4 MeV. This shows that electrons cannot exist in the
nucleus.

2. What is wave function? Give its physical significance and properties.

Definition: A physical situation in quantum mechanics is represented by a function called wave function. It
is denoted by ‘ψ’. It accounts for the wave like properties of particles. Wave function is obtained by solving
Schrodinger equation.
Physical significance of wave function:
1. It gives a statistical relationship between the particle and wave nature.
2. It is a complex quantity and hence it may be positive or negative.
 3. It is a function of wave and time coordinate.
4. It describes the behaviour of a single particle or photon and not for number of particles.
It is of probabilistic nature and can be expressed in terms of probability density.

The acceptable wave function has to possess the following properties:

1) ‘ψ’ is single valued everywhere: The function f( x ) has three values at x = p. Since f1 ≠ f2 ≠ f3, it is to
state that if f( x ) were to be the wave function. The probability of finding the particle has three different
values at the same location which is not true. Thus, the wave function is not acceptable.

2)‘ψ’ is finite everywhere: The function f( x ) is not finite at x =R but f( x )=∞. Thus, it indicates large
probability of finding the particle at a location. It violates uncertainty principle. Thus, the wave function is
not acceptable.

2) 3)‘ψ’ and its first derivatives with respect to its variables are continuous
everywhere: The function f( x ) is truncated at x =Q. the state of the system at x
=Q is not defined. The wave function is not acceptable.
4) For bound states ‘ψ’ must vanish at infinity. If ‘ψ*’ is a complex function, then
ψ* ψ must vanish at infinity.
The wave function which satisfies the above 4 properties are called Eigen
functions

3. Setup time independent Schrodinger wave equation for free particle

in one dimension
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’. The De Broglie
wavelength ‘λ’ is
h h
λ= = ----------------------------- (1)
mv P
Where ‘m’ is the momentum of the particle.
The wave eqn. is
i (kx −ωt )
ψ= A e -------------------------- (2)
Where ‘A’ is a constant and ‘ω’ is the angular frequency of the wave.
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to ‘t’ twice
2
d ψ 2 i (kx−ωt ) 2
2
=− A ω e =−ω ψ ----------------------------- (3)
dt
The equation of a travelling wave is
2 2
d y 1 d y
2
= 2 2 Where ‘y’ is the displacement and ‘’ is the velocity.
dx v dt
Similarly for the De Broglie wave associated with the particle
2 2
d ψ 1 d ψ
2
= 2 2 ---------------------------------- (4)
d x v dt
where ‘ψ’ is the displacement at time ‘t’.
From eqns (3) & (4)
2 2
d ψ −ω
2
= 2
ψ
dx v
But ω = 2πυ and v =υ λ where ‘υ’ is the frequency and ‘λ’ is the wavelength.
2 2 2
d ψ −4 π 1 −1 d ψ
2
= 2
ψ or 2 = 2 2 ----------------- (5)
dx λ λ 4π ψ dx
2 2 2
1 2 m v P
K . E= m v = = ------------------------- (6)
2 2m 2m
h2
=
2 mλ 2 ------------------------------------ (7)
Using eqn. (5)

( )
2 2 2 2
h −1 d ψ −h d ψ
K . E= = ------ (8)
2 m 4 π 2 ψ d x 2 8 π 2 mψ d x 2
Total Energy E = K.E + P.E
h2 d 2 ψ
E=− +V
8 π 2 mψ dx 2
h2 d 2 ψ
E−V =− 2
8 π mψ dx 2
d2 ψ 8 π2 m
=− ( E−V ) ψ
dx 2 h2
2 2
d ψ 8π m (
2
+ 2 E−V ) ψ =0
dx h
4. Discuss the wave functions, probability densities and energy level for a particle in a box by
considering the ground and the first two excited State
Let us consider the most probable location of the particle in the well and its energies for first three cases.
Case I → n = 1
It is the ground state and the particle is normally present in this state.
The Eigen function is
π
ψ1= D sin a ∵from eqn. (7)
x

ψ1 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a
But ψ1 is maximum when x = a/2.
The plots of ψ1 versus x and | ψ1|2 verses x is
shown in the above figure.
|ψ1|2 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a and it is
maximum for x = a/2. i.e., in ground state the
particle cannot be found at the walls, but the
probability of finding it is maximum in the middle.
The energy of the particle at the ground state is
h2
2
E1 = 8 ma = E0

Case II → n = 2
In the first excited state the Eigen function of this state is
2π
x
ψ2 = D sin a
ψ2= 0 for the values x = 0, a/2, a.
Also, ψ2 is maximum for the values x = a/4 and
3a/4.
These are represented in the graphs.
| ψ2|2 = 0 at x = 0, a/2, a, i.e., particle cannot be
found either at the walls or at the centre.
a 3a
|ψ 2|2 = max imum for x= , x=
4 4
The energy of the particle in the first excited state is E2 = 4E0.

Case III → n = 3
In the second excited state,
3π
x
ψ3= D sin a
ψ3 = 0, for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a.
ψ3 is maximum for x = a/6, a/2, 5a/6.
These are represented in the graphs.
a a 5a
|ψ 3|2 = maximum for x= , x= , x=
| ψ3 |2 = 0 for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a. 6 2 6
The energy of the particle in the third excited state is E3=9 E0
5..Obtain the expression for Eigen value and Eigen function for particle in a box.
(OR)
Starting from Schrodinger time independent wave equation, obtain the expressions for energy eigen
values and normalized eigen wave function for a particle in one dimensional infinite potential well.
(OR)
Setup time independent Schrodinger wave equation for free particles in one dimension
Energy Eigen values of a particle in one dimensional, infinite potential well (potential well of infinite depth)
or of a particle in a box.
Let us Consider a particle of a mass ‘m’ free to move in one
dimension in x -direction between x =0 to x =a. The potential
energy outside this region is infinite and within the region is 0. The
particle is in bound state. Such a configuration of potential in space
is called infinite potential well. It is also called particle in a box.
The Schrödinger equation outside the well is
d2 ψ 8 π2 m
∵V = ∞
+ 2 ( E−∞ ) ψ =0
dx 2 h --------------------- (1)
For outside, the equation holds well if ψ = 0 & |ψ|² = 0. That is particle cannot be found outside the well and
also at the walls.

The Schrodinger’s equation inside the well is:

d2 ψ 8 π2 m
∵V = 0
+ Eψ=0
dx 2 h2 ------------------- (2)
2 2
h d ψ
− =Eψ
8 π m dx 2
2
------------------------ (3)
This is in the form Ĥψ = Eψ
This is an Eigen-value equation.
8π2m
2
E=k 2
Let h in eqn. (2)
2
d ψ 2
+ k ψ=0
dx 2
The solution of this equation is:
ψ = C cos k x + D sin k x -------------------------------- (4)
at x = 0 → ψ = 0

∴C=0
0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0

Also x = a → ψ = 0
0 = C cos ka + D sin ka
But C = 0

∴D sin ka = 0 --------------------------------- (5)

D0
i.e., ka = nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… (quantum number)
 nπ
k = a ------------------------------- (6)
Using this in eqn. (4)
nπ
ψ n =D sin x
a ----------------------------- (7)
Which gives permitted wave functions.
To find out the value of D, normalization of the wave function is to be done.
a
∫|ψ 2n|dx=1
i.e., 0 ----------------------------------- (8)
using the values of ψn from eqn. (7)
a

∫ D2 sin2 nπa x dx=1

( )
0
1−cos 2 θ
∵ sin2 θ =
a
D
2
∫ ¿¿ 2
0

[ ]
a a
D2 2 nπ
2
∫ dx−∫ cos a
xdx =1
0 0

D2
2
x−[ a
2 nπ
sin
2 nπ a
x =1
a 0 ]
D2 2
[ a−0 ]=1⇒ D a=1
2 2 ⇒ D=
2
√ a
Hence the normalized wave functions of a particle in one dimensional infinite potential well is:

ψ n=
√ 2
a
sin
nπ
x
a ----------------------------------- (9)

Energy Eigen values:

Energy Eigen values are obtained by operating the wave function ‘ψ’ by the energy operator
(Hamiltonian operator).
h2 d2
− 2 +V
8 π m dx 2
Ĥ=
Inside the well 0 < x < a, V=0
h2 d2
− 2 2
Ĥ = 8 π m dx ----------------------------- (10)
The energy Eigen value eqn. is
Ĥψ=Eψ -------------------------------------- (11)
From equation (10) and (11)
2
h2 d ψ n
− =Eψ
8 π 2 m dx 2
h 2 d 2ψ
− 2 2
=Eψ n
i.e. 8 π m dx -------------------------------- (12)
It is the Eigen value equation.
Differentiating eqn. (9)

√
dψ n 2 nπ nπ
= cos x
dx a a a
Differentiating again
 √
d2 ψn
dx 2
=− ( ) 2 nπ 2
a a
sin
nπ
a
x

d2 ψn
dx 2
=−
a ( )
nπ 2
ψn
Using this eqn. in (12)
h 2 nπ 2
8π2m a ( )
ψ n=Eψ n

n2 h 2
E=
8 ma 2 ------------------------------- (13)
It gives the energy Eigen values of the particle in an infinite potential well.
n = 0 is not acceptable inside the well because ψ n = 0. It means that the electron is not present inside
the well which is not true. Thus the lowest energy value for n = 1 is called zero point energy value or ground
state energy.
h2
E zero− po int =
i.e., 8 ma 2
The states for which n >1 are called exited states

6. What is wave function, Probability density and normalization of wave function

Wave function: A physical situation in quantum mechanics is represented by a function called wave
function. It is denoted by ‘ψ’. It accounts for the wave like properties of particles. Wave function is obtained
by solving Schrodinger equation

Physical significance of wave function:

1. It gives a statistical relationship between the particle and wave
nature.
2. It is a complex quantity and hence it may be positive or negative.
3. It is a function of wave and time coordinate.
4. It describes the behaviour of a single particle or photon and not for
number of particles.
It is of probabilistic nature and can be expressed in terms of probability
density.

Probability density: If ψ is the wave function associated with a particle,

then |ψ|² is the probability of finding a particle in unit volume. If ‘τ’ is the volume in which the particle is
present but where it is exactly present is not known. Then the probability of finding a particle in certain
elemental
volume dτ is given by |ψ|2dτ. Thus |ψ|² is called probability density. The probability of finding an event is
real and positive quantity. In the case of complex wave functions, the probability density is |ψ|² = ψ * ψ
where ψ* is Complex conjugate.
Normalization:
The probability of finding a particle having wave function ‘ψ’ in a volume ‘dτ’ is ‘|ψ|²dτ’. If it is
certain that the particle is present in finite volume ‘τ’, then
τ
∫|ψ|² dτ=1
0
∞

If we are not certain that the particle is present in finite volume, then
∫ |ψ|² dτ=1
−∞

∫|ψ|² dτ ≠1
In some case and involves constant.
The result obtained is equated to unity, the constant is to be determined and substituted in the equation for
‘ψ’ which becomes a working equation for the wave function. This process is called normalization.
 7. Derive expression for de Broglie wavelength. Mention different forms for de Broglie wavelength
De Broglie wavelength:
According to De Broglie’s hypothesis, there is wave associated with the moving particle. Such waves are
called matter waves and wavelength associated with particle is called De-Broglie wavelength.
Expression for De Broglie wavelength:
A particle of mass m moving with a velocity c possess energy given by
E = mc2 (Einstein’s mass energy relation) (1)
According to Planck’s quantum theory the energy of quantum of frequency ‘υ’ is
E = hυ (2) where υ = c/λ
Therefore from (1) and (2)
mc2 = hυ  mc2=h c/λ
hc h
λ= 2 =
That is mc mc
Since velocity of radiation (λ) = velocity of light (c)
The above equation can be written as
h
λ=
mν
This relation is known as De Broglie equation and λ is referred as De Broglie wavelength.

The other forms are

h h
λ= =
√2 meV √2 mE K
1. 226
λ= nm
√V
h
λ=
√3 mkT
7. State and explain Heisenberg Uncertainty principle and Principle of Complementarily.
Statement: “It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and momentum of a particle
accurately. If we make an effort to measure very accurately the position of a particle, it leads to large
uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice versa”.
If ∆ x and Δ P x are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the particle then the
uncertainty can be written as
∆ x . Δ P x ≥ (h/4π)
In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of the particle, the product of the
corresponding uncertainties inherently present in the measurement is equal to or greater than h/4π.

Complementarity is an interesting concept that was introduced by Neils Bohr in the year 1928.
 We know that the consequence of the uncertainty principle is both the wave and particle nature of the
matter cannot be measured simultaneously. In other words, we cannot precisely describe the dual
nature of light.
 Now suppose that an experiment is constructed in such a way that it is designed to measure the
particle nature of the matter.
 This implies that, during this experiment, errors of measurement of both position and the time
coordinates must be zero or absent, this in turns explains that the momentum, energy and the wave
nature of the matter are completely unknown. Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring
the wave nature of the particle, then the errors in the measurement of the energy and the momentum
will be zero, whereas the position and the time coordinates of the matter will be completely
unknown.
 From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when the particle nature of the matter is measured
or displayed, the wave nature of the matter is necessarily suppressed and vice versa. The inability to
 observe the wave nature and the particle nature of the matter simultaneously is known as the
complementarity principle.

1. Estimate the potential difference through which an electron is needed to be accelerated so that its de-Broglie
wavelength becomes equal to 20 Å
2. A particle of mass 0.5meV/c2 has kinetic energy 100eV. Find its de Broglie 4 wavelength, where 'C' is the velocity
of light.
3. In a measurement of position and velocity of an electron moving with a speed of 6 ×10−5 m/s, calculate highest
accuracy with which its position could be determined, if the inherent error in the measurement of its velocity is
0.01% for the speed stated.
4. Compute the deBroglie wavelength for a neutron moving with one tenth part of velocity of light. Given the mass
of the neutron is 1.674×10-27 kg
5.An electron has a speed 100m/s the inherent uncertainity in its measurement is 0.005% calculate uncertainity in the
measurement of position
6. An electron is kinetic energy 500 keV is in vacuum. Calculate the group velocity and de Broglie wavelength
assuming the mass of the moving electron is equal to the rest mass of electron.
7. The speed of electron is measured to with in an uncertainty of 2 × 104 ms−1 in one dimension. What is the
minimum width required by the electron to be confined in an atom?
8. Calculate the energy of the first three states for an electron in one dimensional potential well of width 0.1 nm
9. An electron is associated with a de Broglie wavelength of 1nm. Calculate the energy and the corresponding
momentum of the electron.

MODULE 3
1.Define a bit and qubit and explain any Four properties of qubit.

Bits
It’s a single unit of information that has a value of either 0 or 1 (off or on, false or true, low or high).
Quantum Bits
In quantum computing, a qubit or quantum bit is the basic unit of quantum information— the quantum version of the
classical binary bit physically realized with a two-state device. A qubit is a two-state quantum-mechanical system,
one of the simplest quantum systems displaying the peculiarity of quantum mechanics.
Superposition – It is the ability of the quantum system to be in multiple states at the same
time. One of these properties is superposition, which states that instead of holding one binary
value (“0” or “1”) like a classical bit, a qubit can hold a combination of “0” and “1”
simultaneously. In the quantum world, qubits don’t have to be in one of those states. It can be in
any proportion of those states. This is called superposition

Quantum decoherence

Quantum decoherence is the aspect of quantum physics that hinders the progress of quantum
computing. When we try to observe or measure quantum particles, it can collapse the
superposition state. This is called decoherence.

Entanglement
Entanglement is an extremely strong correlation that exists between quantum particles even if separated by great
distances. Two qubits are entangled through the action of the laser. Once they have entangled, they are in an
indeterminate state. When one of the qubits is manipulated, the manipulation happens instantly to its entangled twin as
well.
Interference
Quantum Interreference is a by-product of superposition, is that it allows to bias the measurement of a qubit towards a
desired state or set of states.
Tunnelling
It is a phenomenon of Quantum particle that can travel to the opposite side of the barrier which is impossible.
Example: (Semiconductors, Super conducting Quantum Interference device (SQUID))
2. Mention the differences between classical and quantum computing
 The device computes by The device computes by manipulating those bits
manipulating those bits with the with the help of quantum logic gates.
help of logical gates (AND, OR,
NOT).
A classical computer has a memory A qubit (quantum bits) can hold a one, a zero or
3.Dis made up of bits where each bit hold crucially a superposition of these.
either a one or zero.
cuss
Bits are used in classical computers.
Qubits (Quantum bits) are use in quantum
the computer
Information is stored in bits, which Information is stored in quantum bits, or qubits. A
take the discrete values 0 and 1. qubit can be in states labelled |0} and |1}, but it
can also be in a superposition of these states, a|0}
+ b|1}, where a and b are complex numbers. If we
think of the state of a qubit as a vector, then
superposition of states is just vector addition.
For example, if storing one number For example, for every extra qubit you get, you
takes 64 bits, then storing N can store twice as many numbers. For example,
numbers takes N times 64 bits. with 3 qubits, you get coefficients for |000},
|001}, |010}, |011}, |100}, |101}, |110} and |111}.
working of phase gate mentioning its matrix representation and truth table (or) explain the
operation of phase gate (S gate) with |0> and |1> states with truth table. mention its matrix
representation.
The phase gate turns a |0⟩ into |0⟩ and a |1⟩ into 𝑖 |1⟩ The Matrix representation of the phase gate( S gate)
is given by

The effect of S gate on input |0⟩ is given by

Similarly, the effect of S gate on input |1⟩ is given by The effect of S gate on input |0⟩ is given by

The transformation of state |𝜓⟩ is given by

S|ψ ⟩ −S ( α|0 ⟩ + β∨1 ⟩ ¿=αS∨0 ⟩+ βS∨1 ⟩=α∨0 ⟩+ iβ∨1 ⟩
The S Gate and the Truth table are given by For S gate

𝑆†𝑆 = 𝐼 and hence it is Unitary.

4.The working of controlled-Z gate mentioning its matrix representation and truth-table.
Controlled Z Gate
In Controlled Z Gate, The operation of Z Gate is controlled by a Control Qubit. If the
control Qubit is |𝐴⟩ = |1⟩ then only the Z gate transforms the Target Qubit |𝐵⟩ as per
the Pauli-Z operation. The action of Controlled Z-Gate could is specified by a matrix as
follows.

The controlled Z gate and the truth table are as follows.

5.Discuss the CNOT gate and its operation on four different input states.
Controlled Not Gate or CNOT Gate

The CNOT gate is a typical multi-qubit logic gate and the circuit is as follows.

|𝐴, 𝐵⟩ → |𝐴, 𝐵 ⊕ 𝐴⟩
The Matrix representation of CNOT is given by
The Transformation could be expressed as

Consider the operations of CNOT gate on the four inputs |00⟩,|01⟩,|10⟩ and |11⟩.

Operation of CNOT Gate for input |00⟩

Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |0⟩. Hence no change in the state of Target qubit |0⟩
|00⟩ → |00⟩
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |01⟩

Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |0⟩. Hence no change in the state of Target qubit |1⟩

|01⟩ → |01
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |10⟩

Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |1⟩. Hence the state of Target qubit flips from |0⟩ to |1⟩.
|10⟩ → |11⟩
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |11⟩

Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |1⟩. Hence the state of Target qubit flips from |1⟩ to |0⟩.
|11⟩ → |10⟩

The Truth Table of operation of CNOT gate is as follows

5.Explain the representation of qubit states using Bloch Sphere
Or
Define single and two qubits. Explain the block sphere representation qubits

A Single Qubit has two computational basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩. the pictorial representation of the single
qubit is as follows. α |0⟩ + β |1⟩

A Two-qubit system has 4 computational basis states denoted as |00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩, |11⟩. The pictorial
representation of two qubit is as follows.

+𝒛 −𝒛 +𝒙 −𝒙 +𝒚 −𝒚
𝝅⁄ 𝝅⁄ 𝝅⁄ 𝝅⁄
θ 0 π 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝝅 𝝅⁄
𝟐 𝟑𝝅⁄
𝟐
ϕ 0 0 0

|𝟎⟩ + |𝟎⟩ − |𝟎⟩ + |𝟎⟩ −

|𝟏⟩ |𝟎⟩ |𝟏⟩
|𝟏⟩ |𝟏⟩ 𝒊|𝟏⟩ 𝒊|𝟏⟩
√𝟐 √𝟐 √𝟐 √𝟐

7.Explain the pauli matrices and apply pauli matrices on the state ¿ 0 〉 and ¿ 1 〉

There are four extremely useful matrices used to explain the quantum mechanical phenomenon such as electron spin
and polarization a photon in quantum mechanics called Pauli Matrices.
The Pauli matrices of the following form
Pauli Matrices operating on |0⟩ and |1⟩ States

7.Explain Hadamard gate. Show that the Hadamard gate is unitary

The Hadamard Gate is a truly quantum gate and is one of the most important in Quantum Computing. It is has similar
characteristics of √𝑁𝑂𝑇 Gate. It is a self inverse gate. It is used to create the superpositions of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states. The
Matrix representation of Hadamard Gate is as follows

❑
H =
[
1 1 1
√ 2 1 −1 ]
❑
H H=
[
1 1 1 1 1 1
=
] [
1 0
√2 1 −1 √ 2 1 −1 0 −1 ][ ]
8. Explain Orthogonality and Orthonormality with an example for each.

Orthogonality: Two states |𝜓⟩ and |𝜙⟩ are said to be orthogonal if their inner product inner
product of two vectors is Zero.

⟨𝜙|𝜓⟩ = 0

Example : inner product of states |1> and |0>

Solution: ¿ 0>¿ [ 10] ¿ 1>¿
[01 ]
¿ 1∨¿ [ 0 1 ]

[ 0]
⟨ 1|0 ⟩ =[ 0 1 ] 1 =0
the states |1> and |0> are Orthogonal

The two states are orthogonal means they are mutually exclusive. Like Spin Up and Spin Down of an electron.

Orthonormality: The states |𝜓⟩ and |𝜙⟩ are said to be orthonormal if their inner product of
two vectors is One

⟨𝜙|𝜓⟩ = 1
1.Explain the Matrix representation of 0 and 1 States and apply identity operator I to ¿ 0 〉 and ¿ 1 〉
states
Matrix representation of 0 and 1 States

2.Given A= [ 0i −i0 ] prove that A=A

[−i0 0i ] [ 0i −i0 ]
T
¿ ¿
Solution : A= A = therefore A=A
3. Find the inner product of states |1> and |0> and draw conclusion on the result
Solution: ¿ 0>¿
[ 0]
1
¿ 1>¿
[1 ]
0

¿ 1∨¿ [ 0 1 ]
 [ 0]
⟨ 1|0 ⟩ =[ 0 1 ] 1 =0
the states |1> and |0> are Orthogonal

4. A Linear Operator ’X’ operates such that X |0> = |1> and X |1> = |0> Find the matrix representation of ’X’

Solution : X =
[ X 11 X 12
X 21 X 22 ]
X ∨0>¿∨1>¿
[ ][ ] [ ]
X 11 X 12 1
X 21 X 22 0
0
= =¿ X 11 =0 , X 21=1
1

X ∨1>¿∨0>¿
[ ][ ] [ ]
X 11 X 12 0
X 21 X 22 1
1
= =¿ X 21=1 , X 22=0
0

X=
[ ][ ]
X 11 X 12 0 1
=
X 21 X 22 1 0

5. Given ¿ Ψ >¿
α1
α2 ()
and ¿ Φ> ¿
β1
β2 ()
prove that ⟨ Ψ |Φ ⟩= ⟨ Φ|Ψ ⟩
¿

Solution: ⟨ Ψ |Φ ⟩=¿

⟨ Φ|Ψ ⟩=¿
¿
⟨ Φ|Ψ ⟩ =( β ¿1 α 1+ β¿2 α 2 )¿=( α ¿1 β 1+ α ¿2 β 2) … … … …(2)
¿
By equation (1) and (2) conclude that ⟨ Ψ |Φ ⟩= ⟨ Φ|Ψ ⟩

[ ]
1 1
6. Show that the matrix U =
√2 √ 2 is unitary
i −i
√2 √2
Solution: U U=I

[ ] [ ][ ] [
1 −i 1 −i 1 1
U = √2
1
√ 2 =>U U= √2
i 1
√2
i
√2
i
√ 2 = 1 0 =I
−i 0 1 ]
√2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2
7.Show that S gate can be formed by connecting two T gate in series

[ ]
1 0
T=
0
1+ i
√2
S=
[ 10 0i ]

[ ][ ] [
1 0 1 0
2
T =S =>
0
1+i
√2
0
1+i =
√2
1 0
0 i ]