EMBS6016

Energy Performance of Buildings

Lesson 4
Energy Efficiency Technologies I
Ir Dr. Michael Ching
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Hong Kong
Email: [email protected] / [email protected]
Contents

• Building Envelope
• HVAC System
• Hot Water System
• Lighting System
• Electrical Services
• Lifts and Escalators
• Building Management System

1
Examples of Energy Saving Technologies for Building

Lighting: HVAC:
Lighting Emitting Diode (LED) Lamp/ Tube Variable Speed Drive
Light Emitting Capacitor (LEC) Exit Sign Water-cooled air Conditioning
Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI) District Cooling System
Lighting Control Brushless DC Fan Coil Unit
Lighting Retrofit – Light Level Abatement Chiller with Oil Free Magnetic Bearing
Light reflector for redirection Compressor
Task Lighting Design Heat Pump Water Heaters
Application of Light Reflector on Fluorescent Tube Physical Prevention Technologies for Chiller
Condenser
Lifts & Escalators:
Others:
Lift Regeneration
Service-on-demand Escalator Solar Control Window Firms
Energy Optimisers for Escalator Motor Drives Grey Water Heat Recovery
Solar Thermal Collectors for Water Heating
Electrical Services:
Solar Window Film
High Efficiency Motor
Reduce Standby Power Use 2
Source: EMSD
 Examples of Energy Saving Technologies for Building

Source: EMSD 3
https://www.emsd.gov.hk/en/energy_efficiency/energy_analysis_and_saving_technologies/advanced_energy_saving_technologies/in
dex.html
 Building Envelope

Building envelope as the “Shelter”

the primary thermal barrier between interior and exterior
Shelter

Outdoor Human
Environment Environment

Energy demand and energy use by the

building and its building systems 4
Source: Dr. Sam Hui
 Building Envelope

• Building Envelope Components

• Roof, Walls, Windows, Skylights, Doors, Floor, Basement
• Heat and Mass Transfer between Building and Outdoor Environment
• Air Leakage (infiltration)
• Heat Transfer

5
Source: Global CCS Institute
Building Envelope

6
Source: Advanced Test Equipment Rentals
Building Envelope

7
Building Envelope

Building envelops today

• Old techniques: local materials for local climate
• Passive design and natural ventilation
• Insulation
• Air sealing
• Windows
• Reflective surfaces
• Energy-efficient building materials
New Buildings
Advanced design & codes
Existing Buildings
How to upgrade the building envelopes?
8
 Examples of Passive Cooling Designs

• Promote Passive & Natural Cooling  Reduce Mechanical Energy

Thermal Chimney Natural Ventilation

9
Source: Faculty of Architecture, HKU
Examples of Passive Cooling Designs

10
Examples of Day Lighting

11
Source: https://dwgmodels.com
Building Envelope

Examples of current envelope technologies:*

• Double-glazed low-e (emissivity) glass
• Window films (solar control)
• Window attachments (e.g. shutters, shades)
• Highly insulating windows (e.g. triple-glazed)
• Typical insulation and exterior insulation
• Advanced insulation (e.g. aerogel)
• Air sealing
• Cool roofs, advanced roofs, green roofs
(*See also: https://www.emsd.gov.hk/energyland/en/building/energy_use/envelope.html)

12
Source: EMSD
Building Envelope

Shading devices (external and internal) for sun control

(reduce direct sun light → reduce cooling energy & glare)

Overhang
13
Building Envelope

North-facingskylights
North-facing skylights
14
Source: HKGBC
Building Envelope

North-facingskylights
North-facing skylights
15
Source: Google Map
Building Envelope

West façade glazing minimised. East façade raised up to increase daylight and views

Midfield Concourse, Hong Kong International Airport

16
Source: HKGBC
 U-value

• U-value is a measure of the rate of heat transfer through a one-square-

metre area of a material for every temperature degree difference under

•
a standardized condition
The usual standard is a temperature gradient of 24°C, at 50% humidity

•
with no wind
It is a factor for consideration in the design of buildings, and the choice

•
of building materials
The lower the U-value, the lower the rate of heat transfer per unit area
and the higher its resistance to heat flow, which is desirable in building
construction.
𝑄𝑄
U=
•
𝐴𝐴 � 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

•
U-value with SI units of Wm-2K-1

•
Q = rate of heat transfer in Watt W;

•
A = area of the material calculated in square metres m2;
TDeq = the equivalent temperature difference in Kelvin scale K. 17
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 U-values of Common Construction Materials

Reinforced concrete Brick Hardwood

2.3Wm-2K-1 0.77Wm-2K-1 0.18Wm-2K-1

Softwood Double glazing

0.13Wm-2K-1 2.8Wm-2K-1 18
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 U-values of Common Construction Materials

19
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 U-values of Common Construction Materials

20
Source: Horizon Engineering Associates, LLP
 U-values of Common Construction Materials

• There is less heat transfer through a double glazed window than a single glazing,
i.e., double glazing has a significantly better insulation performance.

Single Glazing Section Double Glazing Section Double Glazing

5.7Wm-2K-1 2.8Wm-2K-1 Window Diagram
21
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Low-E Glass

22
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Low-E Glass

• Low-E glass (E = thermal emissivity) is a

construction material that is coming into wide

•
use
Low-E coatings such as metal oxide is applied
to the surface of the glass to reduce the
amount of solar radiation entering the interior

•
of the building
With the reflective coating, radiant heat is kept
out (lowering the U-value of the material)
while visible light can still pass through the

•
glass
This means that in summer, heat radiation
from the sun is reflected away while in winter,
heat originating indoors can be reflected back
inside, resulting in better heat insulation
The Veterinary Laboratory at Tai
Lung, Sheung Shui uses low-E
glass on its external façade to
reduce solar heat gain. 23
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV)

OTTV stands for ‘Overall Thermal Transfer Value’. It is a value that

indicates the average rate of heat transfer into a building through the
building envelope.

24
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV)

The rate of heat transfer through a building envelope can be expressed as:

∑ 𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
OTTV = =
∑ 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 + 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓
where
Q = total rate of heat transfer
through envelope (W)
A = gross area of building
envelope (m2)

25
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) in Hong Kong

𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 � 𝑈𝑈𝑤𝑤 � 𝛼𝛼 � 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 � 𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶 � 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 � 𝑆𝑆𝐹𝐹

where
Aw, Af = wall and window area (m2)
Uw = U-values of wall (Wm-2K-1)
𝛼𝛼 = solar absorptivity of wall
TDeq = equivalent Temperature Difference (K)
SC = Shading Coefficient of the glazing
ESM = External Shading Multiplier
SF = Solar Factor (Wm-2)

26
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) in Hong Kong

Solar absorptivity of wall (𝜶𝜶)

• Depends on the exterior surface and colour.
• Different external surfaces and wall colours of the same material have

• The
different energy absorptivity
solar absorptivity of black concrete is 0.91 while that of brown

• The heat transfer is higher for concrete of darker colour

concrete is 0.85

Equivalent Temperature Difference (TD )

• We
eq

simplify the equivalent temperature difference into measured

• The
temperature difference between indoors and outdoors.
equivalent temperature difference is a combined effect on the
building envelope, of incidental solar radiation, radiant energy and
convective heat exchange with the sky and outdoor air, which takes into
account the type of building orientation, and wall mass and density.
27
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) in Hong Kong

Shading Coefficient of the glazing (SC)

• The shading coefficient is the ratio of the solar heat gain through a
particular type of glass under a specific set of conditions to the solar
heat gain through that of double strength sheet clear glass under the

•
same conditions

•
SC has a maximum value of 1.
The higher the shading coefficient is, the lower the shading

•
performance of the glass.
The value is always provided by glass manufactures

28
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) in Hong Kong

External Shading Multiplier (ESM)

• The external shading multiplier is the shading coefficient to be

• The
multiplied with the shading coefficient of the glazing SC
projections over the windows, or at the sides of the window, or a
combination of both, provide shading effects on the fenestration and

•
can significantly reduce the heat transfer through the glazing

•
ESM has a maximum value of 1

•
Windows with no shading projection would have ESM = 1
Fenestration with both overhanging and side projections would take the
smallest value of either projection as ESM in the calculation of OTTV.

29
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) in Hong Kong

Solar Factor (SF)

• The solar factor is the hourly radiation per square metre for horizontal

• Energy
and vertical surfaces (Wm ) -2

simulation has calculated solar factors for the Hong Kong

• Any
climate at various orientations
sloped or angled wall can be resolved into vertical and horizontal

• The
components
vertical components are treated as wall elements at respective

• The horizontal solar factor for all orientations in Hong Kong is 264.
orientations, and the horizontal ones are treated as roof components.

30
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) in Hong Kong

The OTTV equation for external walls in Hong Kong

• Asskylights
the OTTV for roofs is similar to that for walls, and the value for
is similar to that of windows, the roof can be taken as part of
the walls in calculating OTTV while skylight glazing can be treated as

•
part of the windows in the calculation.
However, when external shading is considered as a shading projection
over windows, the heat transfer of the projections over windows should
not be included in the OTTV of the roof.

∑ 𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑄𝑄𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 � 𝑈𝑈𝑤𝑤 � 𝛼𝛼 � 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 � 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 � 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 � 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

OTTV = = =
∑ 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 + 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 + 𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓

31
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Building Design and OTTV

The OTTV of a building is affected by the following factors:

• Building orientation (Temperature Difference)
• Material of walls and roof (U-value)
• External finish and colour of walls (Solar Absorptivity)
• Type of glass (Shading Coefficient)
• Shading of windows (External Shading Multiplier)

The external shading of IFC2 Various materials and different types of glass are used on the
external façade of the Stanley Municipal Services Building
32
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Building Design and OTTV

33
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Comparing Different Wall Designs

34
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Comparing Different Wall Designs

35
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 OTTV Requirements in Hong Kong

• The Building (Energy Efficiency) Regulation ‘B(EE)R’ came into effect

in 1995. The following buildings are covered under the B(EE)R:
• Commercial buildings, except for domestic, industrial, bulk storage,
and utility buildings such as sub-stations and power stations
• Hotels defined by the Hotel and Guesthouse Accommodation

•
Ordinance
The B(EE)R aims at reducing heat transfer through the building
envelope thus minimizing electricity consumption for air-conditioning by
requiring the external walls and roofs of commercial buildings to be

•
designed and constructed for a suitable OTTV
The suitable level of OTTV and the methodology of OTTV calculations
are specified in the Code of Practice for Overall Thermal Transfer Value

•
in Buildings 1995 (the OTTV Code)

•
In the case of a building tower, the OTTV should not exceed 21 Wm-2
In the case of a podium, the OTTV should not exceed 50 Wm-2
36
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 OTTV Sample Calculation

Assume that the four elevations of the building are identical. Calculate the
OTTV of the building. Determine if this building follows the OTTV code in
Hong Kong (24 Wm-2).

37
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 OTTV Sample Calculation

38
Source: The Hong Kong Institute of Architects/ Faculty of Architecture, HKU
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

• Abuildings
primary goal when designing high performance energy efficient
is to eliminate or reduce the need for cooling or heating
equipment
• This may not be possible in severe cold or hot climates, but should still
be a key design aim
• Ventilation design strategy for HVAC:
• Passive design approach, before mechanical systems are applied

39
Source: Dr. Sam Hui
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Natural Ventilation Ventilation Design Hierarchy

Mechanical Ventilation Increasing:

Energy
Hybrid/ Mixed Mode Ventilation Consumption
Capital Cost
Cooling and Heating Running Cost
Maintenance
(without humidity control)
Complexity

Full Air Conditioning

(with humidity control)

40
Source: Dr. Sam Hui
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Benefits of natural ventilation

• Can
HVAC
save substantial energy by decreasing or eliminating the need for

• May improve indoor air quality if outdoor air quality is good and air
exchange rate is high
• Buildings with well-designed natural ventilation systems often provide
very comfortable and pleasant environments for the occupants
• People may increase their work productivity when they can open and
close windows and vary the natural ventilation rate in their workspace

41
Source: Dr. Sam Hui
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Key factors affecting natural ventilation:

• Depth of space related to ventilation openings
• Ceiling height
• Thermal mass exposed to the air
• Location of building and possible air pollutants
• Heat gain
• Climate, e.g. outdoor temperature or wind velocity
Can achieve passive cooling effect
• Technologies
consumption
or design features used to cool buildings without power

42
Source: Dr. Sam Hui
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Buoyancy effect from

Pressure effect from Wind
Temperature Difference

43
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

• Asandautilize
general rule, thin tall buildings will encourage natural ventilation
prevailing wind, cross ventilation and stack effect
• Tall buildings also increase the effectiveness of natural ventilation,
because wind speeds are faster at greater heights

44
Source: Grassroots
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Paring a large outlet with a small inlet increase incoming wind speed

45
Source: Grassroots
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

46
Source: Pennycook, K., 2009. The Illustrated Guide to Ventilation
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

47
Source: Grassroots
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Stack Ventilation Analysis

Stack ventilation rate qB through
two openings is:

𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
𝑞𝑞𝐵𝐵 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴∗ 2 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜
where
1 1 1
= +
𝐴𝐴∗2 𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏 2 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 2
the Neutral Plane Level hN is:
𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 2
ℎ𝑁𝑁 = 2 𝐻𝐻
2
𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏 + 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡
and Cd = discharge coefficient for opening, Cd = 0.61 for sharp-edge orifice
48
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Hybrid ventilation (mixed mode ventilation)

• =conditioning)
Natural ventilation + Mechanical ventilation (and/or full air

• Use them at different time of the day or seasons of the year

• Usually have a control system to switch between natural and
mechanical modes
• Combine the advantages of both to satisfy the actual ventilation
needs and minimise energy consumption

49
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Natural Ventilation Mechanical Ventilation

Air infiltration through

Cracks
Constant air flow
Mechanical Ventilation
Openable windows,
supply and exhaust
grilles
Demand-controlled
Mechanical Ventilation
Self-regulating supply
and exhaust grilles

Demand-controlled Low pressure

Natural Ventilation Mechanical Ventilation

50
Hybrid Ventilation Concepts
Source: brita-in-pubs
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Example of HVAC System

51
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

52
Source: EMSD
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

53
Source: EMSD, https://ee.emsd.gov.hk/eindex.html#
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

• More efficient means of achieving flow control by reducing the speed
of the fan or pump motor
• Using power semiconductors & microprocessors

54
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drive
Affinity Laws / Fan Laws / Pump Laws

55
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_laws
Applications of VSD: HVAC air side

56
Source: EMSD
Applications of VSD: HVAC air side

57
Source: EMSD
Applications of VSD: HVAC water side

58
Source: EMSD
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Advanced Energy Saving Technologies (EMSD)

• Application Guide to Variable Speed Drives (VSD)
http://www.emsd.gov.hk/emsd/eng/pee/em_pub_2.shtml
• Application
Condenser
of Physical Scale Prevention Technologies for Chiller

https://www.emsd.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_764/Physcl-Scl-
Prvntn-Tchnlg.pdf
• Predictive System Curve Control for Secondary Chilled Water Pumps
https://www.emsd.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_764/EMS_Water_Pu
mps(low-res).pdf

59
Source: EMSD
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Advanced Energy Saving Technologies (EMSD)

• Total Hydronic Balancing in Chilled Water System
https://www.emsd.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_764/THB_CHW.pdf
• Variable Flow Control for Condensing Water Pumps
https://www.emsd.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_764/Conds-water-
pump.pdf
• VAV System Static Pressure Reset Control
https://www.emsd.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_764/VAV-SPRC.pdf

60
Source: EMSD
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

• Some new HVAC systems have the potential to be highly energy

efficient
• May apply when appropriate
• Must understand their merits and limitations
• Examples of innovative HVAC systems:
• Underfloor air distribution (UFAD)
• Chilled ceiling and chilled beam (CC+CB)
• Variable refrigerant flow (VRF)

61
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Underfloor Air Distribution System 62

Source: ASHRAE Underfloor Air Distribution Design Guide
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Upward flow underfloor air distribution system 63

 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Underfloor Air Distribution System 64

Source: http://www.price-hvac.com/
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

65
Source: ASHRAE Underfloor Air Distribution Design Guide
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

66
Source: ASHRAE Underfloor Air Distribution Design Guide
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Advantages of underfloor air distribution (UFAD):

• Integrated well with raised floor plenum
• Can be very flexible for future changes/relocations
• Conditioned air is supplied directly to occupants
• Stagnant air can be reduced (if ceiling return)
• Upward flow lifts some unneutralised heat
• Itdemands
can utilise thermal mass of access floor & slab to reduce peak

Disadvantages of UFAD:
• Higher initial costs
• Need for raised floor system & floor diffusers
67
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underfloor_air_distribution
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Chilled Beam (CB)

• Chilled beam system is to use natural convection (warm air rises, cool
air falls) and the superior energy capacity of water to make cooling
much more economical
• Warm air rises to the chilled beam, which is located in the ceiling, and
passes through a heat exchange coil where it cools and then falls to the
floor.

68
Source: https://www.archtoolbox.com/materials-systems/hvac/chilled-beam-ceiling.html; Dieckmann and Brodrick, 2004
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Chilled Beam (CB)

Passive Chilled Beams

Active Chilled Beams

69
Source: https://www.archtoolbox.com/materials-systems/hvac/chilled-beam-ceiling.html
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Chilled Beam (CB)

Potential Benefits
• Quieter than air based HVAC systems due to the lack of moving parts
and slower air velocities.
• Maintenance is also reduced due to the lack of moving parts.
• Above ceiling and mechanical room space is reduced, which can
reduce floor-to-floor heights. This can decrease first costs to the point
where chilled beams see an immediate payback on the initial
investment.
• Energy use is reduced since water is more efficient at moving energy
than air and there is a reduction in building fan use.
• Drafts are reduced, which increases occupant comfort.
70
Source: https://www.archtoolbox.com/materials-systems/hvac/chilled-beam-ceiling.html
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Chilled Beam (CB)

Disadvantages
• Most concerning is the opportunity for condensation forming on the
cooling coils and then dripping into the space. Therefore, humidity must
be controlled and monitored or other systems should be put in place to
turn the chilled beams off when humidity rises.
• The chilled beam system may be more costly when compared directly
to an air system.
• Maintenance crews and building management teams may not be as
familiar with the system as an all air system.
• Chilled beams are less effective at heating spaces so the building skin
must be properly detailed to prevent heat transfer.

71
Source: https://www.archtoolbox.com/materials-systems/hvac/chilled-beam-ceiling.html
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Chilled Ceiling (CC)

• Chilled ceilings differ from chilled beams in that they rely more on
radiant as opposed to convective heating and cooling
• A chilled ceiling is a metal sheet with water pipes running above it
• The pipes heat or cool the metal panel, which then radiates that energy
toward the building occupants
• Since they rely on radiant properties, chilled ceilings must be aimed at
a building occupant to be most effective.

72
Source: https://www.archtoolbox.com/materials-systems/hvac/chilled-beam-ceiling.html
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Types of Chiller

73
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Types of Chiller

74
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Electric Chiller

75
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

76
Source: The Engineer Mindset.com
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Absorption Chiller

77
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

• Mixture of lithium bromide and water is pumped from the absorber to the
reservoir in the generator section.
• Heat is supplied to the reservoir which causes the lithium bromide and water to
separate.
• The water will evaporate as vapour and rise into the condenser section leaving
the lithium bromide behind. Then, the lithium bromide will be sprayed over the
absorber where it can mix with water molecules.
• The water vapour is condensing back to liquid in the condenser section. The
heat is rejected to condensed water from the cooling tower.
• This liquid water is then flow to evaporator section. It is sprayed over the return
chilled water pipe to extract the unwanted thermal energy through evaporation.
• Finally, the water vapour from the evaporator section is absorbed by lithium
bromide solution in the absorber. The mixture of lithium bromide and water
collect at the bottom ready to be pumped back to the generator again to repeat
the cycle.
78
Source: The Engineer Mindset.com
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Selection of Chiller
Electric Chiller is the most reliable, environmental friendly and economical
cooling system. Due to the significantly lower efficiency and larger physical
size of absorption chiller, it can only be considered under these
exceptional situations:
• Sufficient space for the installation of absorption chillers, biogas
treatment plant and the accessories, AND
• Free and stable source of biogas or waste heat to fuel the absorption
chillers OR
• The cost of gas is less than ¼ of the electricity tariff offered by the local
power utility.

79
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Absorption Chiller – Case Study 1

80
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Absorption Chiller – Case Study 1

• For the production of beer, biogas will be generated as a byproduct and

• According
it is considered as a greenhouse gas.
to environmental regulations, the biogas must be properly

• The beer brewery can use this FREE biogas to drive absorption chillers
treated before emission.

• The following conditions are required

• Free and stable source of biogas
• Sufficient space for the installation of absorption chiller and the
accessories
• Electric chillers are used as backup to ensure continuous
operations in case
• Biogas is unavailable and it will incur additional electricity demand
charge
81
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Absorption Chiller – Case 2

• For hotel application, a central chiller plant is required to operate and
serve the building cooling loads such as ballrooms, guest rooms,
restaurants and other recreational areas
• For a hotel with an estimated maximum cooling load of 1,500RT
(summer daytime) and minimum cooling load of 250RT (winter
nighttime), the installed chiller capacity will be approximately 2,000RT
• ofThe250RT
system will be supplied by 3 sets of 500RT chiller units and 2 sets
chiller units.

82
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Absorption Chiller – Case 2

83
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Absorption Chiller – Case 2

84
Source: CLP
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Absorption Chiller – Case 2

85
Source: CLP
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) systems

• Direct expansion (DX), similar to multi-split systems; widely used in
Japan and Europe
• Able to control the amount of refrigerant flowing to the multiple
evaporators (indoor units), enabling the use of many evaporators of
differing capacities and configurations connected to a single
condensing unit
• Provides an individualized comfort control, and simultaneous heating &
cooling in different zones

86
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_refrigerant_flow
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) systems

87
Source: fujitsu
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Energy performance of VRF systems

• Linear step control in conjunction with inverter and constant speed compressor
combination
• Adjust compressor speed to its optimal energy usage
• Allows more precise control of the necessary refrigerant circulation amount
required according to the system load (smooth capacity control)
• High part-load and seasonal efficiency
• Minimizes or eliminates ductwork completely
• Reduce duct losses and fan energy

88
Source: Variable Refrigerant Flow (US GSA) http://www.gsa.gov/portal/content/163491
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) systems

• Other benefits of VRF systems
• Can bring rooms to desired temperature quickly and keep temperature
fluctuations to minimum
• Capable of simultaneous cooling and heating
• Modular design and zoning flexibility
• Energy sub-metering is relatively simple
• Commissioning/ maintenance are not complicated
• Limitations of VRF:
• Piping distance, oil management, fresh air intake

89
Source: fujitsu
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Free cooling methods*

• An economical method of using low external air temperatures to assist in cooling
or chilling water
• Also called economizer cycles
• 1) Air-side economizer
• Intake more outdoor air when its enthalpy (energy content) is lower than
indoor air
• 2) Water-side economizer (free refrigeration)
• Chiller bypass when the system water can be cooled by ambient
• Free cooling for data centres and computer server
Waste heat recovery
• Such as using heat recovery chiller

90
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_cooling
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Free cooling methods – Air-side Economizer

91
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Free cooling methods – Water-side Economizer

92
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Free cooling methods – Water-side Economizer

93
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Waste Heat Recovery – Double Bundle Heat Recovery Chiller

•
•
Waste heat = “dumped” heat that can still be reused
Make use of waste heat from condenser to produce warm/ hot water or for

•
heating the space
Waste heat recovery saves fuel 94
Source: Dr. Sam Hui
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Cogeneration or Combined Heat and Power (CHP) 熱電聯供

• is the use of a heat engine or power station to simultaneously generate electricity
and useful heat
Trigeneration or Combined Cooling, Heat and Power (CCHP) 三聯供
• refers to the simultaneous generation of electricity and useful heating and
cooling from the combustion of a fuel or a solar heat collector

95
Source: Dr. Sam Hui
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

CHP

96
Source: www.revival-eu.net
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

CHP

97
Source: DSD
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

CCHP

98
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogeneration
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

CCHP

99
Source: www.env.go.jp
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

District Cooling System (DCS)

• A centralized cooling system which provides chilled water to the air-conditioning
system of user buildings for cooling purpose
• The central chiller plant supplies chilled water and conveys it to the user
buildings via underground chilled water pipe network
• District heating/cooling with combined heat and power → District energy system

100
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

District Cooling System (DCS)

101
Source: https://www.emsd.gov.hk/energyland/en/building/district_cooling_sys/dcs.html
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

District Cooling System (DCS)

Benefits to Society
• Highly energy-efficient feature of DCS enables energy saving up to 35%
compared with conventional air-cooled air-conditioning systems.
• Environmentally friendly system as it consumes less electrical energy and hence
produces less greenhouse gases and contaminants to the environment
• Other environmental problems caused by the chillers, such as noise, vibration,
and thermal plume are also resolved as no chiller plant is required in the end-
user building.
• Architectural benefits such as more freedom in architectural and facilities design,
can be achieved from elimination of roof top chiller plant, resulting in roof space
available for installation of sky garden or PV panels

102
Source: https://www.emsd.gov.hk/energyland/en/building/district_cooling_sys/dcs.html
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

District Cooling System (DCS)

Benefits to End-users
• Reliability and quality are superior to conventional air-conditioning. With a team
of professional engineers and supporting staff, DCS's computerized Central
Chiller Plant ensures stable cooling supply to the end-user building at all time.
• Save plant room space with an average of 70% for end-user building.
• Flexible design to meet growth of cooling demand and extended service hours
easily.
• Save initial cost as no need to build its own chiller plant.
• Save maintenance and operation cost due to less serviceable equipment and
higher efficiency.

103
Source: https://www.emsd.gov.hk/energyland/en/building/district_cooling_sys/dcs.html
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

District Cooling System (DCS)

Annual energy saving of up to 85 million kWh

North Plant cooling capacity: 162 MW

South Plant cooling capacity: 122 MW 104

Source: EMSD
 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

District Cooling System (DCS)

South Plant North Plant

105
Source: https://www.emsd.gov.hk/energyland/en/building/district_cooling_sys/dcs.html
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Heat Pumps
• is an energy efficient machine to provide heating and cooling

• Generally, heat pump can achieve a COPHeating of 3 and the corresponding

COPCooling would be around 2
• Hence, the overall COP of a heat pump for both heating and cooling can be up to
around 5
• Typical applications:
• Swimming Pool • Gymnasium • Boilers
• Catering • Sauna • Foot Massage
• Hospital • Laundry • Hair Salon
• Hotel • Club House
106
Source: EMSD
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Heat Pumps

107
Source: EMSD
 Solar Hot Thermal Collectors for Water Heating

Types of solar collectors: Processes at a flat-plate collector

• Flat-plate solar collectors
• Evacuated-tube collector
• Glass-glass type
• Glass-metal type

108
Source: EMSD and http://www.volker-quaschning.de/articles/fundamentals4/index.php
Solar Hot Thermal Collectors for Water Heating

Evacuated tube collector with heat pipe

(view from top)

109
 Solar Hot Thermal Collectors for Water Heating

Thermosyphon systems

110
Source: http://www.volker-quaschning.de/articles/fundamentals4/index.php
 Solar Hot Thermal Collectors for Water Heating

Forced-circulation systems

111
Source: EMSD and http://www.build.com.au/solar-hot-water-systems
 Solar Hot Thermal Collectors for Water Heating

Flat-plate solar collectors

• A flat-plate solar collector contains a metal absorber plate (made of copper or
aluminium) enclosed in an insulated rectangular box with a glass or plastic cover.
• The absorber is usually painted black to maximize heat absorption
• The tubes for the heat transfer medium (i.e. water), which are usually made of
copper, are connected conductively to the absorber
• When the solar radiation hits the absorber, the major part of it is absorbed and a
small part reflected
• The absorbed heat is conducted to the tubes or channels for the heat transfer
medium.

112
Source: EMSD and http://www.build.com.au/solar-hot-water-systems
 Solar Hot Thermal Collectors for Water Heating

Evacuated-tube solar collectors - Glass-glass type

• The collector contains parallel rows of transparent tubes
• Each tube is made up of an outer glass tube and an inner glass tube
• The inner tube is coated with an absorber coating that absorbs solar energy well
but minimizes radiant heat loss
• A thermal conducting plate with a U-tube is inserted into the inner glass tube
• The water to be heated flows in the U-tube is removed from the space between
the outer glass tube and the inner glass tube to form a vacuum so as to reduce
conductive heat loss.

113
Source: EMSD and http://www.build.com.au/solar-hot-water-systems
 Solar Hot Thermal Collectors for Water Heating

Evacuated-tube solar collectors - Glass-metal type

• Glass-metal tubes are further divided into direct flow-through type and heat-pipe
type.
• For direct flow-through evacuated-tube collectors, the absorber in the form of
metallic fins or metallic cylinder is installed inside the glass tube. Air is removed
from the glass tube to create a vacuum. Water flows in U-pipe which is attached to
the absorber inside the glass tube
• For heat-pipe evacuated-tube collectors, a heat pipe is attached to the absorber
inside the vacuum glass tube. The heat pipe is filled with a working fluid with low
boiling point (such as alcohol). At the upper end of the heat pipe is a condenser
bulb where heat exchange takes place. The tubes are mounted, with the
condenser bulbs up, into a manifold (or storage tank in the case of packaged solar
water heater). Heat energy collected by the absorber fins vaporizes the working
fluid, which rises into the condenser bulb in the form of vapour. Water from the
recirculation loop flows through manifold and picks up the heat from the
condenser bulbs. The condensate of the working fluid then returns to the collector
heating zone by gravity.
114
Source: EMSD and http://www.build.com.au/solar-hot-water-systems
Solar Hot Thermal Collectors for Water Heating

Comparison of flat-plate and evacuated-type collectors

Pros Cons
Flat-plate • capable to deliver moderate • heavier weight
collectors temperature hot water • larger wind load
• lower cost compared with • more susceptible to pipe
evacuated tube blockage & leakage
• more complications in
maintenance
Evacuated type • lower heat loss to • higher capital cost
collectors surrounding compared with flat plate
• capable to deliver moderate
to high temperature water
(60-80ºC)
• lighter support structure
• simplicity in maintenance

115
Source: EMSD
Example – (Hot Water)

What is the cost for heating 1 metric tone of water from 20oC to 60oC?
1 tone = 1,000 kg
Heating energy required = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝑇𝑇
m = mass of water being heated
C = specific heat capacity of water = 4.2kJKg-1oC-1
∆T = temperature difference between supply and return chilled water
Heating energy required = 1,000 × 4.2 × 60 − 20 = 168,000kJ

116
Example – (Hot Water)

By Electric Boiler
Assumed efficiency of electric boiler = 95%
Unit cost of electricity = $1.7 per kWh
168,000
Required energy input in kJ = = 176,842kJ
95%
1hr
Required energy input in kWh = 176,842kJ × = 49kWh
3,600s
Electricity cost = 49kWh × $1.7 per kWh = $84

117
Example – (Hot Water)

By Towngas Boiler
Assumed efficiency of gas boiler = 95%
Unit cost of Towngas = $0.27 per MJ

168,000
Required energy input in kJ = = 176,842kJ
95%
1MJ
Required energy input in MJ = 176,842kJ × = 177MJ
1,000kJ
Towngas cost = 177MJ × $0.27 per MJ = $48

118
Example – (Hot Water)

By Diesel Boiler
Assumed efficiency of diesel boiler = 95%
Unit cost of diesel = $22.8 per L
Calorific value of diesel = 63.4MJ per kg
Density of diesel = 0.85kg per L

168,000
Required energy input in kJ = = 176,842kJ
95%
1MJ 1kg 1L $22.8
Diesel cost = 176,842kJ × × × × = $75
1,000kJ 63.4MJ 0.85kg 1L

119
Example – (Hot Water)

By Electric Heat Pump

Unit cost of electricity = $1.7 per kWh
Assumed COPHeating = 3
Assumed COPCooling = 2
Assumed COP of existing chiller = 2.5

168,000kJ
Required energy input in kJ = = 56,000kJ
3
1hr
Required energy input in kWh = 56,000kJ × = 16kWh
3,600s

120
Example – (Hot Water)

By Electric Heat Pump

Electricity cost = 16kWh × $1.7 per kWh = $26
Cooling energy generated = 56,000kJ × 2 = 112,000kJ

112,000kJ
Energy saved for chiller in kJ = = 44,800kJ
2.5
1hr
Energy saved for the chiller in kWh = 44,800kJ × = 12kWh
3,600s
Electricity cost saved for chiller = 12kWh × $1.7 per kWh = $21
Electricity cost for heating = $26 − $21 = $4

Comparison:
Electric boiler: $84 Towngas: $48
Diesel boiler: $75 Heat pump: $26 / $4 121