CHEMICAL

SENSOR
 1. Sensor-Term, Introduction, working principle, Describe sensor performance.

2. Sensor science & Sensor technology- Illustration of Accuracy and Precision. The
center of the target represents the desired 'true' value

3. Types of sensors- Position Sensors, Pressure Sensors. Temperature Sensors,Force

Sensors, Vibration Sensors, Piezo Sensors, Fluid Property Sensor, Humidity Sensors.

Topics 4. Chemical Sensors- definition, characteristics, elements and characterization of

chemical sensor.

5. Electrochemical sensors-Definition, Working principle, advantages, disadvantages

& applications

6. Voltammetry, voltammogram, types - Cyclic voltammetry, Three Electrode system,

Instrumentation. Differential pulse voltammetry.

7. Potentiometric sensors- Principle, Classification of sensors and Applications

8. Amperometric sensors- amperometric sensors to measure dissolved O2 in blood-

Quantitative Applications

9. Polarization techniques-principle and its types uses the dropping mercury electrode
A sensor is a device that produces an output signal
for the purpose of sensing a physical, chemical
and biological parameters.
Sensor Science
Sensor science is the study of the underlying principles of sensor operation. This includes
the study of the physical and chemical properties of sensor materials, the mechanisms of
signal transduction, and the development of new sensor technologies.

Sensor Technology
Sensor technology is the development of practical sensors that can be used in real-world
applications. This includes the design and fabrication of sensor devices, the development
of signal processing and data analysis algorithms, and the integration of sensors into
larger systems.
A bubble and block diagram illustrating the contributing
fields of sensor science

Understanding sensor devices

requires some knowledge of a
variety of academic areas. This leads
to a very interdisciplinary field
populated by physicists, chemists,
engineers, biologists and
biochemists, materials scientists,
electrochemists, and others.
 The human senses are a remarkable gift that allow us to
experience and interact with the world around us.

The five basic senses are;

• sight,
• hearing,
• touch,
• taste, and
• smell.

Each of these senses has a specialized organ that detects and transmits
information to the brain.
Sensor Characteristics
Sensors are devices that convert one type of physical quantity into another.
They are used in a wide variety of applications, including measuring
temperature, pressure, light, and sound.

The characteristics of a sensor can be divided into two main categories:

• Static and
• Dynamic.
Static Dynamic
• Sensitivity: This is a measure of how much the • Rise time: This is the time it takes for the sensor's
sensor's output changes in response to a change in output to reach 90% of its final value, after a step
the input. change in the input.
• Resolution: This is the smallest change in the input • Fall time: This is the time it takes for the sensor's
that the sensor can detect. output to fall to 10% of its initial value, after a step
• Linearity: This is a measure of how closely the change in the input.
sensor's output is proportional to the input. • Time constant: This is the time it takes for the
• Zero drift: This is the tendency of the sensor's output sensor's output to reach 63.2% of its final value, after
to change over time, even when the input is constant. a step change in the input.
• Full-scale drift: This is the change in the sensor's • Bandwidth: This is the range of frequencies that the
output over its entire range. sensor can respond to.
• Range: This is the range of inputs that the sensor can • Damping factor: This is a measure of how quickly the
measure. sensor's output decays after a transient input.
• Repeatability: This is the ability of the sensor to
produce the same output for the same input, under
the same conditions.
• Reproducibility: This is the ability of the sensor to
produce the same output for the same input, under
different conditions.
Future of sensor technology

• Sensors can improve the world through diagnostics in medical

applications;
• improved performance of energy sources like fuel cells and batteries and
solar power;
• improved health and safety and security for people;
• sensors for exploring the space and
• improved environmental monitoring.
Types of Sensors

1 2 3 4 5
Position Pressure Temperature Force sensors Vibration
sensors sensors sensors sensors
Types of Sensors
11
Photo optic
sensors

6 7 8 9 10
Piezo sensors Fluid property Humidity Strain gauges Photo optic
sensors sensors sensors
 01 MEDICAL DIAGNOSTICS:
Sensors are used in a variety of medical devices, such
as blood pressure monitors, heart rate monitors, and
glucose monitors.

Applications of
Sensors 02 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING:
Sensors are Sensors are used to monitor air quality, water quality,
and soil quality. They are also used to monitor for
hazardous substances, such as pollutants and toxins.
used in a wide
variety of INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION:
03
applications, Sensors are used in a variety of industrial
applications, such as robotics, manufacturing, and

including process control.

CONSUMER ELECTRONICS:
Sensors are used in a variety of consumer electronics
04 devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and wearable
devices.
The Future of Sensor Technology

The future of sensor technology is bright. Sensors are becoming increasingly

sophisticated, smaller, and cheaper. This is leading to a wide range of new
applications for sensors. Some of the key trends in sensor technology include:
• Miniaturization: Sensors are becoming increasingly smaller, which is making
them more versatile and easier to integrate into new applications
• Wireless technology: Sensors are increasingly being equipped with wireless
capabilities, which is making them easier to deploy and use in a wider range of
applications.
• Artificial intelligence: Sensors are increasingly being integrated with artificial
intelligence (AI), which is making them more intelligent and capable of making
more informed decisions.
What exactly constitutes a

chemical sensor?

Chemical sensors are devices that

detect and convert chemical
information into a measurable signal.

They are used in a wide variety of

applications, including environmental
monitoring, industrial process control,
and medical diagnostics.
Essential components of
a chemical sensor:
• Recognition element: This is the part of the
sensor that interacts with the target analyte and
generates a signal.

• Transducer: This is the part of the sensor that

converts the signal from the recognition
element into a measurable output.
Types of chemical sensors:
• Electrochemical sensors: These sensors measure changes in
electrical properties, such as conductivity or potential, in response to the
presence of an analyte.
• Optical sensors: These sensors measure changes in optical
properties, such as absorption or emission of light, in response to the
presence of an analyte.
• Mass sensors: These sensors measure changes in mass in response
to the presence of an analyte.
Applications of chemical sensors:
• Environmental monitoring: Chemical sensors are used to
monitor air and water quality for pollutants such as carbon
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.
• Industrial process control: Chemical sensors are used to monitor
and control industrial processes, such as chemical production and
refining.
• Medical diagnostics: Chemical sensors are used to diagnose
diseases, such as diabetes and kidney disease.
Examples of chemical sensors:
• Carbon monoxide detectors: These sensors are used to detect
the presence of carbon monoxide, a colorless, odorless gas that
can be fatal in high concentrations.
• Breathalyzers: These sensors are used to measure blood alcohol
content (BAC) by detecting the presence of alcohol in breath.
• pH meters: These sensors are used to measure the pH of a
solution, which is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity.
Chemical sensors are a powerful and versatile tool that is
increasingly sensitive, selective, and affordable. They have
a wide range of applications, including monitoring the
environment, improving industrial processes, and
diagnosing and treating diseases.
Chemical Sensor Diagram
Breathalyzer:
Breathalyzers detect blood alcohol content through a chemical reaction
that changes the color of a solution proportional to the amount of
ethanol present in a person's breath.

They are commonly used by law enforcement and some workplaces to

test people's ability to drive and employees for alcohol consumption.

The most common type of breathalyzer uses a solution of potassium

dichromate that turns green when reacting with ethanol, and a
photocell measures the amount of green color to calculate the BAC
(Blood Alcohol Content).
Overview of the breathalyzer process:
The breathalyzer contains a potion of potassium dichromate which,
when mixed with the breath, illuminates with an emerald blue. The
intensity of the green glow is measured, revealing the BAC level, with
the threshold of intoxication being 0.08%.
When the user exhales into a breath analyzer, any ethanol present in
their breath is oxidized to acetic acid at the anode:

C2H5OH(g) + H2O(l) → CH3COOH(l) + 4H+(aq) + 4e−

At the cathode, atmospheric oxygen is reduced:

O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e− → 2H2O(l)

The overall reaction is the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid and water.

C2H5OH(l) + O2(g) → CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) Chemistry of breathalyzer

Manual Breathalyzers
The ionic equations for the reactions occurring are:
For oxidation of ethanol to ethanal:
2– + 3+
Cr2O7 + 3C2H5OH + 8H → 2Cr + 3CH3CHO + 7H2O

For oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid:

2– + 3+
2Cr2O7 + 3C2H5OH + 16H → 4Cr + 3CH3COOH +
11H2O
Procedure
• Deflate the plastic bag.
• Blow air through the ethanol to saturate it with ethanol vapor.
• Connect the flask, U-tube, and plastic bag.
• Gently blow into the flask to pass ethanol vapor over the acidified
potassium dichromate.
• Observe the color change of the crystals from orange to brown and
eventually to green.
• For a complete color change, connect a filter pump to draw ethanol
vapor over the crystals for several minutes.
• Disconnect the U-tube and remove the stoppers.
Smell the products of the reaction and compare them to ethanal and
ethanoic acid.
Electrochemical sensors
Electrochemical sensors are widely
used tools that measure the
concentration of various substances.
They rely on the interaction between
an analyte and an electrode to
generate an electrical signal, which can
be used to determine the concentration
of the analyte.
Electrochemical sensors are classified based on the
type of electrochemical measurement they perform.
Different types of sensors include potentiometric, conductivity,
amperometric, voltammetric, and impedimetric sensors.

Potentiometric sensors measure the potential difference between two

electrodes, conductivity sensors measure the conductivity of a solution,
amperometric sensors measure the current flowing through a solution
between two electrodes, voltammetric sensors measure the current flowing
through a solution as the potential between two electrodes is varied, and
impedimetric sensors measure the impedance of a solution. All of these can
be used to measure the concentration of dissolved ions or analytes.
Principles of Electrochemical Sensors
Electrochemical sensors are a type of sensor that detects and measures the
concentration of a target gas or substance by converting the chemical
reaction between the target gas and the sensor's electrodes into an
electrical signal. The electrical signal is typically a current or voltage that is
proportional to the concentration of the target gas.
Components of an Electrochemical Sensor
An electrochemical sensor comprises of
1. working electrode,
2. reference electrode, and
3. counter electrode.

The working electrode catalyzes the chemical reaction between the target
gas and the sensor. The reference electrode generates a stable potential to
measure the potential of the working electrode, while the counter electrode
completes the electrical circuit and enables current flow between the
working and reference electrodes.
Operation of an Electrochemical Sensor

When the target gas enters the sensor, it reacts with the working
electrode, causing a change in the potential of the working
electrode. This change in potential is measured by comparing it to
the potential of the reference electrode. The resulting electrical
signal is proportional to the concentration of the target gas.
Advantages of Disadvantages of
Electrochemical Electrochemical
Sensors Sensors
• High sensitivity • Limited selectivity
• Fast response time • Short lifespan
• Low cost • Susceptibility to
• Portability interference from other
• Versatility gases
Applications of Electrochemical Sensors

• Environmental monitoring
• Industrial safety
• Medical diagnostics
• Automotive sensors
• Food safety
Voltammetry

Voltammetry is an electroanalytical technique that measures the

current as a function of applied potential. It is a powerful tool for
studying the electrochemical properties of materials, including
their reduction and oxidation potentials, electron transfer rates,
and surface reactivity.
Current in Voltammetry

In voltammetry, the current results from electron transfer between

the working electrode and the analyte. Changing the potential of
the working electrode changes the energy of the electrons in the
electrode, causing either reduction or oxidation reactions. The
current is proportional to the rate of electron transfer, which
depends on the potential of the working electrode, the analyte
concentration, temperature, and other factors.
Sign Conventions

In voltammetry, the sign of the current is used to indicate

whether a reduction or oxidation reaction is occurring.
A positive current indicates that a reduction reaction is
occurring, while a negative current indicates that an
oxidation reaction is occurring.
Types of Voltammetry

• ·Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV)

• ·Cyclic voltammetry (CV)
• ·Pulsed voltammetry
• ·Square wave voltammetry (SWV)
• ·Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV)
Applications of Voltammetry
• Voltammetry has a wide range of applications in analytical chemistry, environmental
science, materials science, and bioelectrochemistry. Some of the specific applications
of voltammetry include:
• Determination of the concentration of analytes: Voltammetry can be used to determine
the concentration of analytes in solution by measuring the current as a function of
potential.
• Study of redox reactions: Voltammetry can be used to study the redox reactions of
analytes by measuring the potential at which the current is zero.
• Characterization of materials: Voltammetry can be used to characterize the surface
properties of materials by measuring the current as a function of potential.
• Development of sensors: Voltammetry can be used to develop sensors for the
detection of analytes in solution.
Cyclic voltammetry

Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is a powerful electrochemical technique used

to investigate the redox properties of molecules in solution. It involves
applying a linearly varying potential to a working electrode while
measuring the resulting current.
The resulting cyclic voltammogram provides information about the
oxidation and reduction potentials, reversibility of the redox process,
and the kinetics of the electron transfer reaction.
The Three Electrode System
1. Working electrode (WE): The electrode at which the redox reaction of interest
occurs. The WE is typically a small, inert electrode made of a material such as gold,
platinum, or glassy carbon.

2. Counter electrode (CE): The electrode that provides the current necessary to
balance the current flowing at the WE. The CE is typically a larger electrode made of a
conductive material such as platinum or graphite.

3. Reference electrode (RE): The electrode that provides a stable and well-defined
potential. The RE is typically a non-polarizable electrode that maintains a constant
potential against a known redox couple. Common REs include the standard hydrogen
electrode (SHE) and the silver/silver chloride electrode (Ag/AgCl).
The Three Electrode System
Instrumentation
Cyclic voltammetry is typically performed using a potentiostat, an instrument
that can control the potential of the working electrode and measure the
resulting current. The potentiostat is connected to the three electrodes in the
electrochemical cell. The potential of the WE is swept linearly from an initial
potential (Ei) to a vertex potential (E1), then reversed back to Ei, and finally
swept to a second vertex potential (E2). The current flowing at the WE is
measured as a function of the applied potential, and the resulting cyclic
voltammogram is plotted.
Applications of Cyclic Voltammetry

• Determining redox potentials of molecules

• Investigating the reversibility of redox processes
• Studying the kinetics of electron transfer reactions
• Characterizing catalysts
• Analyzing the stability of organic and inorganic compounds
• Monitoring the progress of chemical reaction
 Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV)

DPV is a highly sensitive electrochemical technique used to measure

the current responses of electroactive species in solution. It is a
derivative of linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and staircase
voltammetry (SV), with the key difference being that a series of small,
regular voltage pulses are superimposed on the linear or staircase
potential sweep.
Instrumentation
• Potentiostat: A potentiostat is an electronic device that is used to control the potential of the working
electrode.
• Working electrode: The working electrode is the electrode at which the electrochemical reaction
occurs. It is typically made of a noble metal, such as gold or platinum.
• Reference electrode: The reference electrode is a stable electrode that provides a fixed potential
against which the working electrode potential is measured. A common reference electrode is the
silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrode.
• Counter electrode: The counter electrode is an electrode that provides a path for the current to flow.
It is typically made of a large, inert material, such as graphite or stainless steel.
• Solution: The solution is the sample that contains the analyte to be measured. It is typically an
aqueous solution containing a supporting electrolyte.
• Data acquisition system: A data acquisition system is used to record the current as a function of
potential.
The following is a simplified diagram of a DPV
setup:
Procedure

In a DPV experiment, the potential of the working electrode is

scanned linearly from an initial potential to a final potential. A series
of small, regular voltage pulses are superimposed on the linear
potential sweep. The current is measured immediately before each
potential change, and the current difference is plotted as a function of
potential. The resulting plot is called a differential pulse
voltammogram (DPV).
Applications

• Determination of trace metals: DPV is a highly sensitive

technique for the determination of trace metals in solution.
• Study of redox reactions: DPV can be used to study the
kinetics and thermodynamics of redox reactions.
• Analysis of pharmaceuticals: DPV can be used to analyze
pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in biological fluids.
• Characterization of nanomaterials: DPV can be used to
characterize the electrochemical properties of nanomaterials.
Polarography
Polarography is an electroanalytical technique that measures the
current flowing between two electrodes in a solution as a function of
applied voltage. It is used to identify and quantify oxidizable or
reducible substances in a solution. The main component of a
polarograph is the dropping mercury electrode (DME), which is a
continuously forming mercury droplet that serves as the working
electrode. The other electrode, the reference electrode, is a non-
polarizable electrode that provides a stable potential.
Instrumentation
• The polarograph is composed of a Dropping Mercury Electrode (DME),
Reference Electrode, Polarographic Cell, Power Supply, and a Recorder.
• The DME continuously forms mercury droplets at its tip, which provides a
reproducible electrode surface.
• The Reference Electrode provides a stable potential against which the DME
potential is measured, and the Polarographic Cell holds the solution to be
analyzed.
• The Power Supply provides a voltage applied across the electrodes, and the
Recorder plots the current flowing between the electrodes as a function of
applied voltage to identify and quantify the substances in the solution.
Types of Polarography

There are two main types of polarography:

1. DC Polarography: This is the original form of polarography, in
which a direct current (DC) voltage is applied to the electrodes.
2. Pulse Polarography: This is a more modern technique, in which a
pulsed voltage is applied to the electrodes. Pulse polarography is
more sensitive than DC polarography and is less susceptible to
interference from dissolved oxygen.
Applications of Polarography

1. Qualitative Analysis: Polarograms can be used to identify

the presence of certain substances in a solution.
2. Quantitative Analysis: Polarograms can be used to quantify
the concentration of certain substances in a solution.
3. Study of Electrode Processes: Polarography can be used
to study the kinetics and thermodynamics of electrode
reactions.
Polarography
Potentiometric sensor
A potentiometric sensor is a type of electrochemical sensor
that measures the electrical potential of an electrode when
no current is flowing through it. This potential, known as the
electrode potential, is related to the concentration of the
analyte in the solution or gas being measured. Potentiometric
sensors are widely used in a variety of applications, including
environmental monitoring, industrial process control, and
clinical diagnostics.
Classification
• ·Membrane sensors: These sensors have an ion-selective
membrane that allows only specific ions to pass through it.
The potential difference between the reference electrode and
the working electrode is related to the concentration of the
target ion in the solution.
• ·Solid-state sensors: These sensors have a solid electrolyte
that allows the transport of ions. The potential difference
between the reference electrode and the working electrode is
related to the concentration of the target ion in the gas or
solid being measured.
Applications
• ·Environmental monitoring: Potentiometric sensors are used
to monitor the concentration of pollutants in air, water, and
soil.
• ·Industrial process control: Potentiometric sensors are used
to monitor the concentration of chemicals in industrial
processes.
• ·Clinical diagnostics: Potentiometric sensors are used to
measure the concentration of ions in blood and other bodily
fluids.
Examples of Potentiometric Sensors

• ·pH electrode: This sensor measures the concentration of

hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.
• ·Ion-selective electrode: This sensor measures the
concentration of a specific ion in a solution.
• ·Oxygen sensor: This sensor measures the concentration of
oxygen in a gas or liquid.
Advantages of Potentiometric Sensors
• Selectivity: Potentiometric sensors can be very selective for
specific ions or gases.
• Sensitivity: Potentiometric sensors can be very sensitive to
changes in analyte concentration.
• Stability: Potentiometric sensors are relatively stable over
long periods of time.
• Simplicity: Potentiometric sensors are relatively simple to
operate and maintain.
Disadvantages of Potentiometric Sensors

• Limited range: Potentiometric sensors have a limited range

of measurement.
• Interferences: Potentiometric sensors can be affected by
interferences from other ions or gases.
• Response time: Potentiometric sensors can have a relatively
slow response time.
Amperometry

Amperometry is an electroanalytical technique that measures the

current produced by a chemical reaction occurring at an
electrode. The current is directly proportional to the
concentration of the analyte, making amperometry a sensitive
and quantitative method for analysis.
Principles of Amperometry

Amperometry is based on the principle that when an

electrochemical reaction occurs at an electrode, a flow of
electrons is generated. This flow of electrons is measured as an
electric current. The magnitude of the current is proportional to
the rate of the electrochemical reaction, which in turn is
proportional to the concentration of the analyte.
Instrumentation for Amperometry
• The basic instrumentation for amperometry consists of a
working electrode, a reference electrode, and a
potentiometer or amperometer.
• The working electrode is the electrode at which the
electrochemical reaction occurs.
• The reference electrode is used to establish a stable
potential between the working electrode and the solution.
• The potentiometer or amperometer is used to measure the
current produced by the electrochemical reaction.
Applications of Amperometry

Amperometry is a versatile technique in analytical

chemistry used to determine inorganic and organic

compounds, titrate endpoints, and detect analyte

concentrations in flow analysis.

Current and potential have different meanings in physics and
other contexts. Here's a comparison and contrast between the
two terms.

Feature Current Potential

Definition Flow of electric charge Electrical energy per unit charge

Units Amperes (A) Volts (V)

Analogy Flow of water in a pipe Elevation of water in a reservoir

Relationship Current is directly proportional to potential difference and inversely proportional

to resistance (Ohm's law)
Comparative explanation of each technique:
Feature Voltammetry Potentiometric sensors Amperometric sensors Polarization
techniques
Measurement Measures the current Measures the potential Measures the current Applies a potential to
principle flowing between two difference between two flowing through a an electrode and
electrodes as the electrodes working electrode as the measures the resulting
potential is varied potential is varied current or potential
Applications Analyzes the Measures the Measures the Studies the kinetics of
concentration of a concentration of a concentration of a electrochemical
dissolved species in a dissolved species in a dissolved species in a reactions
solution solution solution
Advantages High sensitivity Simple to use High sensitivity Can be used to study a
wide range of
electrochemical
reactions
Disadvantages Requires a relatively Can be susceptible to Requires a relatively Can be time-
large sample size interference from other large sample size consuming
dissolved species
Summarization
1. Sensor Basics
Sensor: A device that detects and responds to changes in the physical environment.
Working Principle: Converts physical or chemical changes into measurable signals.
Performance: Accuracy, precision, sensitivity, selectivity, range, response time, and stability.
2. Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy: Closeness of a measurement to the true value.
Precision: Reproducibility of a measurement.
3. Types of Sensors
Position Sensors: Measure displacement, distance, or angle.
Pressure Sensors: Measure pressure of liquids, gases, or solids.
Temperature Sensors: Measure temperature of various substances.
Force Sensors: Measure force, weight, or torque.
Vibration Sensors: Measure vibration or acceleration.
Piezo Sensors: Convert mechanical energy into electrical signals.
Fluid Property Sensors: Measure properties of fluids like viscosity or density.
Humidity Sensors: Measure moisture content in the air.
4. Chemical Sensors
Definition: Detect and measure specific chemical substances.
Characteristics: Selectivity, sensitivity, and reversibility.
Elements: Sensing element, transducer, and signal conditioning
circuit.
Characterization: Response time, stability, and lifetime.

5. Electrochemical Sensors
Definition: Convert chemical reactions into electrical signals.
Working Principle: Oxidation-reduction reactions at an electrode-
electrolyte interface.
Advantages: High sensitivity, selectivity, and portability.
Disadvantages: Limited stability and susceptibility to interfering
substances.
Applications: Environmental monitoring, industrial process control,
and medical diagnostics.
6. Voltammetry and Voltammograms
Voltammetry: Electrochemical technique for studying chemical reactions.
Voltammogram: Plot of current vs. applied potential.
Types: Cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry.
Cyclic Voltammetry: Scanning potential in a cyclic manner.
Three Electrode System: Working, reference, and auxiliary electrodes.
Instrumentation: Potentiostat or galvanostat.
Differential Pulse Voltammetry: Applying small pulses to improve sensitivity.
7. Potentiometric Sensors
Principle: Measure potential difference between two electrodes.
Classification: Ion-selective electrodes, reference electrodes, and indicator electrodes.
Applications: pH measurement, ion concentration measurement, and redox titrations.
8. Amperometric Sensors
Definition: Measure current flowing through an electrochemical cell.
Applications: Measuring dissolved oxygen in blood, glucose concentration in blood, and enzyme activity.
9. Polarization Techniques
Principle: Applying a potential to study electrochemical reactions.
Types: Linear sweep voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry, and differential pulse voltammetry.
Dropping Mercury Electrode (DME): Liquid mercury electrode with high surface renewal.
Thank you