International Business & Economics Research Journal – October 2006 Volume 5, Number 10

Economic And Trade Relations With Japan:

Trade Tensions, Disputes,
And Related Issues
Ki Hee Kim, (E-mail: [email protected]), William Paterson University

ABSTRACT

There have been serious trade disputes between the U.S. and Japan since the mid-1970s. The source
of trade dispute is that the U.S. has had large trade deficits which have been caused mostly by large
American imports from Japan, especially in the early 1980s when the dollar was appreciating. Since
the 1980s, many disputes have arisen due at least in part, to U.S. allegations that Japanese markets
are closed to imports because of restrictive practices such as exclusive dealings between domestic
manufacturers and distributors. It is further alleged that the practices are tolerated and even
encouraged by the Japanese government. It has long been said that the U.S. and Japan should
manage their trade friction wisely, so not to embitter the overall relationship between the two
countries. This is based upon recognition of the importance of the Japan-U.S. relationships on the
one hand, and of the possibility of serious trade friction on the other. This precept is effective
because there always remain countries that may not be able to handle it to mutual satisfaction. This
paper will analyze trade disputes, tensions, and related issues between the two economic powers to
reduce trade conflicts and to improve overall trade relations. Another purpose is to suggest common
grounds to minimize trade conflicts between two countries.

INTRODUCTION

A
trade war begins when one country to hurt another country with the help of trade policy measures.
The beginning of any trade war is the initiation of an offensive by one nation, A, by means of illicit
trade policy measures for the purposes of putting pressure on another on another country, B. This is
the first strike stage of an unfolding trade war. Further developments depend on the reaction of the target hit by this
first strike. Nation B in theory has several options, e.g. ignore, comply, retaliate, accept mediation or bargain. These
responses correspond to a number of scenarios for the further evolution of a potential trade after the first stage;
abortive trade war, blitzkrieg, rule-based dispute settlement, multilateralism of rule-making and escalation. Until the
1970s, trade disputes between Japan and the U.S. were mostly related to the surging exports of Japanese products to
the U.S. In the 1980s, however, the two countries began to have more disputes over the alleged difficulties
foreign producers face when to enter Japanese markets. Many of those disputes were based on U.S. allegations about
closed distribution systems and other collusive or restrictive market practices/structure in Japan. Trade wars obviously
concern business firms in two or more countries as international commerce is the trans-boundary exchange of goods
and services amongst individual companies. Business competition on international markets may certainly sometimes
have warlike attributes in the sense that companies may use various dirty measures to promote their interests such as
economic espionage or character assassination. Current issues on trade tensions will be investigated.

OVER VIEW OF JAPANESE ECONOMY

Japans industrialized, free market economy is the second-largest in the world. Its economy is highly efficient
and competitive in areas linked to international trade, but productivity is far lower in areas such as agriculture,
distribution, and services. After achieving one of the highest economic growth rates in the world from the 1960s
through the 1980s, the Japanese economy slowed dramatically in the early 1990s, when the “bubble economy”
collapsed. Japan’s reservoir of industrial leadership and technicians, well-educated and industrial work force, high

7
International Business & Economics Research Journal – October 2006 Volume 5, Number 10

savings and investment rates, and intensive promotion of industrial development and foreign trade has produced a
mature industrial economy. Japan has few natural resources, and trade helps it earn the foreign exchange needed to
purchase raw materials for its economy. While Japan’s long-term economic prospects are considered good, Japan is
currently in its worst period of economic growth since World War II. Plummeting stock and real estate prices in the
early 1990s marked the end of the “bubble Economy.” The impact of the Asian financial crisis of 1997-98 also was
substantial. Real GDP in Japan grew at an average of roughly 1% yearly in the 1990’s compared to growth in the
1980s of about 4% per year. Real growth in 2003 was 2.7%.

U.S. JAPAN RELATIONS

The U.S.-Japan alliance is the cornerstone of U.S. security interests in Asia and is fundamental to regional
stability and prosperity. Despite the changes in the post-Cold War strategic landscape, the U.S.-Japan alliance
continues to be based on shared vital interests and values. These include stability in the Asia-Pacific region, the
preservation and promotion of political and economic freedoms, support for human rights and democratic institutions,
and securing of prosperity for the people of both countries and international community as well. Japan provides bases
and financial and material support to U.S. forward-deployed forces, which are essential for maintaining stability in the
region. The U.S. currently maintains approximately 53,000 troops in Japan, about half of whom are stationed in
Okinawa. Over the past several years the alliance has been strengthened through revised Defense Guidelines, which
expand Japan’s non-combat role in the regional contingency. After the tragic events of September 11, 2001, Japan has
participated significantly with the global war on terrorism by providing major logistical support for U.S. and coalition
forces in the Indian Ocean. By April 2004, nearly 1,000 Self defense Force troops were operating in the southern Iraqi
city of Al Samawah.

JAPAN-U.S. TRADE RELATIONS

Trade relations between Japan and the U.S. have improved over the past three years as result of the
significant decrease in the U.S.’ trade with Japan, which was partly a result of the growth of U.S. exports to Japan, and
partly due to the settlement of individual trade disputes in the areas of automotive and auto parts, semiconductor
products and insurance services. Concern has been voiced by the U.S. about recent increase in Japan’s trade surplus
with the U.S., which has been recorded since last October, due to the steadily growing U.S. economy and
the depreciation of the Yen.. In view of the importance of the trade balance on a global basis, the Government of
Japan is committed to promoting further structural reform including deregulation, with a view of achieving economic
growth led by domestic demand.

THE NATURE OF U.S.-JAPAN TRADE TENSIONS

We are in a time of renewed between the U.S. and Japan. There have been very sharp and very public
criticisms of Japan by top U.S. officials in recent weeks and months; Robert Rubin and Larry summers from the
Treasury Department, Commerce Secretary Daley, and U.S. Trade Representative Barshefsky have all been heard
from. The refrains are familiar ones: Japan needs to open up and deregulate its economy so that it imports more and is
as dependent for growth. Although the themes are the same, it is important to recognize that the contest is now very
different. In the past, tensions were caused by U.S. fears of Japanese strength; now, however, they are due to U.S.
fears of Japanese weakness. Formerly, it was thought that Japan’s protected home market and relentless export drive
posed a predatory threat to the rest of the world. From the Japanese viewpoint, competition policy is becoming even
more important for Japan as its government proceeds with deregulation. In relation to the way of handing disputes on
restrictive practices will considerably impact the future development of the Japanese competition policy. In short, such
disputes should be handled in such way as to help strengthen that policy. The analysis here is placed on the context of
Japan-U.S. trade relations. But considering the factors described above. If Japan and the U.S. could construct a better
way to deal with disputes over restrictive practices, it would benefit other countries that may have similar disputes. It
may also suggest alternative international efforts to develop more effective rules related to trade and competition.

8
International Business & Economics Research Journal – October 2006 Volume 5, Number 10

NO GOOD REASONS FOR TRADE DISPUTES

Many economists believe that there is no good reason for this trade dispute. They make three arguments.
First, they argue that, given the normal factors that affect trade between nations, the U.S. would be expected to have a
trade deficit with Japan. Second, they argue that the large rise in the trade deficit in the 1980s was the result of
unusual macroeconomic events-event that is not likely to be repeated. And third, they argue that the Japanese markets
are as open as are American markets. American companies could sell in Japan if they made better products and made
a more intensive effort to penetrate the Japanese market. In this argument, Japan’s trade surplus with the U.S. reflects
its comparative advantage. The large increase in the American trade deficit with Japan in the 1980s is the result of the
macroeconomic factors. These factors include (1) high savings, (2) high interest rates in the U.S., (3) appreciation of
U.S. dollar, (4) that the fact that since 1983 the American economy has been growing faster than the Japanese
economy. Finally, these economists argue that the Japanese market is relatively open. They argue that tariff rates are
similar to those found in the U.S..; both are quite low. Quotas in Japan exist only for leather and coal briquettes.
Export subsidies no longer exist. Non-tariff barriers protect a similar portion of the market in Japan as in the U.S.. In
contrast, many other economists, political scientists, journalists, and politicians believed that there is good justification
for the American dispute with Japan. Japan needs to make some changes before the two countries can trade fairly.
Trade issues have become so polarized that objective facts and indicators become scarce. The Japanese see Americans
as trying to compensate for their lack of competitiveness. American negotiators portray the Japanese behavior as a
question of fairness, and justify their threats by claiming a history of broken promises. . Although most Japanese
individually still have warm feelings towards Americans, they are increasingly impatient with U.S. government
attitudes. The “Japan-bashing and political hammering of Japanese cars and electronics by American politicians have
been matched by an anti-American movement in Japan.

U.S. TRADING PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

The U.S. believes in a system of open trade subject to the rule of law. Since World War II, American
presidents have argued that engagement in world trade offers American producers access to large foreign markets and
givers consumers a wider choice of products to buy. More recently, American’s leaders have noted that competition
from foreign producers also helps keep prices down for numerous goods, thereby reducing pressures from inflation.
Americans contend that free trade benefits other nations as well. Economists have long argued that trade allows
nations to concentrate on producing the goods and services they can make most efficiently-thereby increasing the
overall productive capacity of the entire community of nations. What’s more, Americans are convinced that trade
promotes economic growth, social stability, and democracy in individual countries and that it advances world
prosperity, the rule of law, and peach in international relations. An open trading system requires that countries allow
fair and nondiscriminatory access to each other’s markets. To that end, the U.S. is willing to grant countries favorable
access to its markets if they reciprocate by reducing their own trade barriers, either as part of multilateral or bilateral
agreements. Are we implementing these principles and practices? Countries believe the U.S. is still values these
principles and practices?

KEY PROBLEMS WITH CURRENT U.S. TRADING POLICY

Because of the U.S. government’s urgency to improve the trade deficit, its policy toward Japan has not
addressed the relationship in its wider context. Through the strategy of aggressive unilateralism, the U. S. has
generated are friction than justified by this unilateral posture. Overall trade policy has been disjointed, alternating its
focus from trade to security issues. The U.S. has demanded change in trade relations while upholding the current
security relationship. Critics of U.S. policy argue that U.S. aggressive unilateralism and managed trade violate the
principles of the multilateral free trade system. The U.S. has been weak in its public-relations effort to gain support for
its trade policy. Pressure is growing to reduce U.S. troops stationed in Japan. Persistent U.S. trade deficits with Japan
frustrate U.S. politicians and business leaders. Since Japan had already eliminated most tariffs and quotas by the mid-
1980s, U.S. policy under the Bush administration shifted to demand structural reforms of the Japanese economy. The
U.S.-Japan Mutual Security Treaty traditionally offset trade controversies and stabilized the relationship.

9
International Business & Economics Research Journal – October 2006 Volume 5, Number 10

PERIODIC STRAINS IN RELATIONS WITH JAPAN

Relations periodically have been strained by differences over trade and economy issues, and less often, over
divergent foreign policy stances. Strains arising from trade issues peaked about 1995, as Japan’s unprecedented slow
growth contrasted with the U.S. economy’s steady expansion and rising international competitiveness, and, for a time,
the widely watched U.S. trade deficit with Japan began to decline substantially. The end of the Cold War and collapse
of the Soviet Union called into question some of the strategic underpinnings of the alliance within both the American
and Japanese publics. After a period of strategic uncertainty in both countries over how to respond to the post Cold
War situation in East Asia, leaders on both sides saw their interests as best served by strengthening the U.S.-Japan
alliance to support respective strategic interests in the region. The U.S. and Japan share the same broad objectives
regarding the unstable Korean Peninsula, but Japanese officials frequently have expressed a feeling of being left out of
U.S. decision making.

ECONOMIC ISSUES AND TRADE

Japan’s economy has been anemic at best, and at times in decline, for most of the 10 years. Economists and
policymakers in Japan and in the U.S. have attributed Japan’s difficulties to a number of factors. One has been the
effects since the beginning of the 1990s of the burst of the economic “bubble,” which saw the value of land and other
assets collapse. Furthermore, some analysts point to Japanese fiscal policies that have emphasized budgetary restraint
and increased taxes that have also kept a lid on demand. In the long term, Japanese and U.S. economists point to rigid
government regulations that stifle productivity in a number of sectors. The U.S. and others have been pressuring Japan
to undertake deregulation. The U.S. and Japan are closely tied economically. Japan ranks third to Canada and Mexico
as the largest U.S. export market. The U.S. ranks as Japan’s number one export market and import supplier. Besides
the growing imbalance in bilateral trade, the U.S. and Japan confront a range of issues, any or all of which could lead
to sharpened tensions. In May 2005 the U.S. had a total merchandise trade deficit of $710 billion, while Japan and
Germany scored a cumulative trade surplus of $324 billion ($125+$199 billion). The average American citizen owes
$6,551 in federal debt to foreign interests, because of our nation’s excessive federal spending and our consuming more
from the rest of the world than we produce. A family of 4 owes more than $26,206 in this regard, of which 38% is
owed to Japanese investors. The U.S. has experienced trade deficits with Japan; these became especially large in the
1980s. They also did not fall as much as expected after the dollar started depreciating. Also, Japanese practices are
threatening certain strategic American industries; this could have serious long-term effects on American life. The
trade deficits have had an effect on jobs in America. They may also have cost American some of its manufacturing
capacity, which threatens its leadership in technological innovation. The Japanese see their market as open. They
believe that they are doing everything possible to remedy the American grievances. They believe that Americans are
blaming them for problems caused by Americans.

AREAS OF DISPUTES AND TENSIONS

We are in a time of renewed tensions between the U.S. and Japan. There have been very sharp and very
public criticisms of Japan in the following areas:

 Debates on U.S. beef products.

 Japan needs to open up and deregulate its economy so that it imports more and is less dependent on exports
for growth.
 Japan’s protected home market and relentless export drive posed a predatory threat to the rest of the world.
 Japan systematically discriminates against foreign market entrants.
 Import restrictions, export control, and currency manipulations by Japanese government.
 Its failure to stimulate domestic economic growth.
 Disputes on U.S. agricultural products.
 Japanese market needs to be more open to manufactured exports from developing countries in order to
sustain their growth.
 Japan has a responsibility to help promote global growth.
 Japanese government intervention and control in the services sector.

10
International Business & Economics Research Journal – October 2006 Volume 5, Number 10

 Binding of all the major elements of the bilateral measures previously agreed with the U.S. on insurance,
banking and other financial services.
 Protective policies remain in some professional services.
 There have been no major changes in Japan’s tariff structure.
 Port and customs procedures for imports remain lengthy by developed-country standards.
 Too many technical barriers in Japan with little information on the total number of such regulations are
available.
 Japan’s import and investment promotion programs include substantial government incentives, yet it is not
evident that these programs fully address the obstacles encountered.
 Japan’s implementation of tariff requirements under the WTO resulted in a significant increase in the number
of specific rates. Japan has triggered Special Safe Guard under the WTO Agreement for a number of
products subject to tariff.
 Structural problems with Japanese markets.
 Rule-based policies by Japanese government.
 Implementation of “liberalization countermeasures” by Japanese government.
 The main protection of the Japanese market now comes from non-tariff barriers. Japanese government should
reduce non-tariff barriers to improve trade relations.
 Japanese market is still closed against U.S. companies.
 Critics of U.S. policy argue that U.S. aggressive unilateralism and managed trade violate the principles of
multilateral free trade system. The U.S. has been weak in its public-relations effort to gain support for its
trade policy. The U.S. government should encourage more bilateral and multilateral trade relations.

SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS

 Emphasize alliance cooperation.

 Emphasize U.S. Trade and Economic Objectives.
 “Bypass” all negotiations with Japan.
 Emphasis on multilateral dispute settlement mechanism, including establishing a bilateral process of dispute
resolution.
 More comprehensive and cooperative arrangement for trade and investment between the two countries.
 Less Japanese government control and intervention I markets and more transparency in the administrative
process.
 The U.S. trade policy should combine low-key bilateral negotiations and WTO dispute settlement for more
controversial issues.
 The U.S. should be flexible regarding possible reduction of troops stationed in Japan.
 Opportunities should be taken for deepening U.S. engagement in East Asia through cooperation with Japan
inn regional security forums and efforts to increase trust and support for arms control.
 Structural reforms of the U.S. and Japanese economies should be discussed in the context of bilateral
negotiations.
 Concessions by the U.S. on issues of concern to Japan will help to build a pattern of reciprocity.
 The U.S. should cooperate with Japan on global concerns with Japan.

CONCLUSION

American trade negotiators have been chipping away at Japanese trade and investment barriers for the past
thirty-five years. At times, as in 1993-95, the bargaining process has been very public and tense. Gradually, official
barriers to both trade and investment have fallen, and negotiators have worked out many agreements on other policies,
including procedures on government procurement, standards, testing, customs, and others. But success is incomplete.
Japan in the late 1990s still seems to be a less hospitable environment for foreign corporations than other industrial or
even some developing countries. Of course there will continue to be trade conflicts between the U.S. and Japan. That
is inevitable given the commercial stakes, and given continuing U.S. perceptions of Japan as an unfairly closed
market. And of course, Japan does have its share of real trade barriers. The difference now, though, is that these

11
International Business & Economics Research Journal – October 2006 Volume 5, Number 10

conflicts no longer undermine U.S. confidence in the liberal trading order. In that sense at least, the U.S. –Japan
trading relationship has become normalized. A the end, the United Sates and Japan will be good trading partners in
many years ahead even though we are expecting some level of trade tensions and disputes.

REFERENCES

1. CRS Report: IB97004 – Japan-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress for Congress – NLE.
2. http//www.wilsoncenter.org/subsites/ccpdc/nubs/zart/ch8htm.
3. http//www.Brookings.org/dybodocroft/fp/cnaps/papers/1999.
4. Bregeon & Luchare, 1988.
5. U.S. Dept. of State, Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Background Note: Japan, August 2005.
6. World Trade Organization, Trade Policy Reviews: First Press Release, Secretariat and Government
Summaries, January 1998.
7. Brink Lindsey, The Changing Nature of U.S.-Japan Trade Tensions, April 6. 1998).
8. http//www.freetrade.org./pubs/tna-002 html.
9. Tom Barry and Martha Honney, Japan: Trade and Security Interdependence, Volume 2, Number 18, January
1997.
10. MW Hodges, Grandfather foreign Trade & Debt Report-Summary Page.
11. Crisina Davis, Japan: Trade and Security Interdependence, Vol. 2, Number 18, 1997.
12. Rethinking the Context of U.S. –Japan Relations: the Cold War.

12