14.

Memory API
Operating System: Three Easy Pieces

1
Memory API: malloc()

#include <stdlib.h>

void* malloc(size_t size)

 Allocate a memory region on the heap.

 Argument
 size_t size : size of the memory block(in bytes)

 size_t is an unsigned integer type.

 Return
 Success : a void type pointer to the memory block allocated by malloc

 Fail : a null pointer

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

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sizeof()

 Routines and macros are utilized for size in malloc instead typing
in a number directly.

 Two types of results of sizeof with variables

 The actual size of ‘x’ is known at run-time.
int *x = malloc(10 * sizeof(int));
printf(“%d\n”, sizeof(x));

 The actual size of ‘x’ is known at compile-time.

int x[10];
printf(“%d\n”, sizeof(x));

40

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

3
Memory API: free()

#include <stdlib.h>

void free(void* ptr)

 Free a memory region allocated by a call to malloc.

 Argument
 void *ptr : a pointer to a memory block allocated with malloc

 Return
 none

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

4
Memory Allocating

2KB
pointer

heap

(free)
stack int *pi; // local variable

*pi
16KB
Address Space

2KB
allocated
2KB + 4
allocated
2KB + 8
allocated
2KB + 12
allocated pi = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int)* 4);

(free)

2KB *pi

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

5
Memory Freeing

2KB
freed
2KB + 4
freed
2KB + 8
freed
2KB + 12 free(pi);
freed

(free)

2KB(invalid) *pi
16KB
Address Space

2KB

heap

(free)
stack

2KB(invalid) *pi

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

6
Forgetting To Allocate Memory

 Incorrect code
char *src = “hello”; //character string constant
char *dst; //unallocated
strcpy(dst, src); //segfault and die

hello\0

heap
strcpy(dst, src);
(free) unallocated

stack

*dst
*src
Address Space

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

7
Forgetting To Allocate Memory(Cont.)

 Correct code
char *src = “hello”; //character string constant
char *dst (char *)malloc(strlen(src) + 1 ); // allocated
strcpy(dst, src); //work properly

hello\0 hello\0

allocated hello\0

strcpy(dst, src); heap heap

(free) (free)
stack stack

*dst *dst
*src *src
Address Space Address Space

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

8
Not Allocating Enough Memory

 Incorrect code, but work properly

char *src = “hello”; //character string constant
char *dst (char *)malloc(strlen(src)); // too small
strcpy(dst, src); //work properly

h
e
strlen l
6 bytes
l
o
\0

‘\0’ is omitted 5 bytes hello\0

strcpy(dst, src); heap

(free)
stack

*dst
*src

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

Forgetting to Initialize

 Encounter an uninitialized read

int *x = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int)); // allocated

printf(“*x = %d\n”, *x); // uninitialized memory access

value used allocated

before with value used
(free) before

heap heap

(free) (free)

stack stack

*x *x
Address Space Address Space

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

10
Memory Leak

 A program runs out of memory and eventually dies.

unused : unused, but not freed

allocated unused unused

allocated unused

heap heap
unused
heap
(free) allocated
(free)
stack (free)
stack *d
*c
*b *b
*a *a *a
Address Space Address Space Address Space

run out of memory

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

11
Dangling Pointer

 Freeing memory before it is finished using

 A program accesses to memory with an invalid pointer

*b free()
*b unreachable
*a *a

dangling pointer

2KB 2KB
3KB 3KB
3KB 4KB 3KB
freed
free(b)
4KB 4KB
NULL NULL
Heap Heap

(free) (free)

Stack Stack
*b 3KB *b 3KB
*a 2KB *a 2KB

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

12
Other Memory APIs: calloc()

#include <stdlib.h>

void *calloc(size_t num, size_t size)

 Allocate memory on the heap and zeroes it before returning.

 Argument
 size_t num : number of blocks to allocate

 size_t size : size of each block(in bytes)

 Return
 Success : a void type pointer to the memory block allocated by calloc

 Fail : a null pointer

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

13
Double Free

 Free memory that was freed already.

int *x = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int)); // allocated
free(x); // free memory
free(x); // free repeatedly

2KB 2KB
allocated freed
Heap Heap
free(x) free(x)
Undefined
(free) (free)
Error
Stack Stack
2KB *x 2KB(invalid)
16KB 16KB *x
Address Space Address Space

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

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Other Memory APIs: realloc()

#include <stdlib.h>

void *realloc(void *ptr, size_t size)

 Change the size of memory block.

 A pointer returned by realloc may be either the same as ptr or a new.

 Argument
 void *ptr: Pointer to memory block allocated with malloc, calloc or
realloc

 size_t size: New size for the memory block(in bytes)

 Return
 Success: Void type pointer to the memory block

 Fail : Null pointer

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

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System Calls

#include <unistd.h>

int brk(void *addr)

void *sbrk(intptr_t increment);

 malloc library call use brk system call.

 brk is called to expand the program’s break.
 break: The location of the end of the heap in address space

 sbrk is an additional call similar with brk.

 Programmers should never directly call either brk or sbrk.

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

16
System Calls(Cont.)

#include <sys/mman.h>

void *mmap(void *ptr, size_t length, int port, int flags,

int fd, off_t offset)

 mmap system call can create an anonymous memory region.

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur

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 Disclaimer: This slide set has been adapted from the initial lecture slides for Operating
System course in Computer Science Dept. at Hanyang University. This lecture slide set is
for OSTEP book written by Remzi and Andrea at University of Wisconsin.

Operating Systems by Dr. Praveen Kumar @ CSED, VNIT Nagpur 18