LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and organs.

▪ Functions:

❑ Transport fluids from body tissues back to bloodstream.

❑ Play essential roles in body defense and resistance to disease.

▪ Consists of two semi-independent parts :

❑ Lymphatic vessels
❑ Lymphoid tissues and organs
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Lymph

- excess tissue fluid carried by

lymphatic vessels.

- pale/clear white fluid, similar

composition to blood plasma, but with
more leukocytes, lymphocytes, and
triglycerides.
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Lymphatic Vessels

▪The lymphatic vessels, also called

lymphatics, form a one way
system

▪Function: carry lymph towards

the heart (never away) and return
it to the bloodstream.
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Lymphatic Vessels
▪ Fluid leaks into lymphatic capillaries from body
tissue.
▪ Lymphatic collecting vessels collect it from
lymph capillaries.
▪ Carries lymph to and away from lymph nodes.
▪ Returns fluid to circulatory veins near the heart.
▪ As lymph seeps into lymph capillaries, harmful
materials are carried with it: bacteria, viruses,
cancer cells, cell debris.
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Lymphatic Vessels
▪ Lymph capillaries: The microscopic, blind-ended lymph capillaries weave between the
tissue cells and blood capillaries in the loose connective tissues of the body and absorb
the leaked fluid.

▪ Minivalves: They act as one-way swinging doors; the flaps, anchored by fine collagen
fibers to surrounding structures, gape open when the fluid pressure is higher in the
interstitial space, allowing fluid to enter the lymphatic capillary.
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Lymphatic Vessels
▪ Lymphatic collecting vessels: Lymph is transported from the lymph capillaries through
successively larger lymphatic vessels referred to as lymphatic collecting vessels, until
it is finally returned to the venous system through one of the two large ducts in the
thoracic region.

▪ Right lymphatic duct: The right lymphatic duct drains the lymph from the right arm
and the right side of the head and thorax.

▪ Thoracic duct: The large thoracic duct receives lymph from the rest of the body; both
ducts empty the lymph into the subclavian vein on their own side of the body.
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Lymph Nodes

▪ The lymph nodes filter lymph before it is returned to the blood.

▪ They help protect the body by removing foreign material such as bacteria and
tumor cells from the lymphatic stream and by producing lymphocytes that
function in the immune response.

▪ Size and shape: Lymph nodes vary in size and shape, but most are
kidney-shaped, less than 1 inch (approximately 2.5 cm) long, and “buried” in the
connective tissue that surrounds them.
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Lymph Nodes
Leukocyte defense cells within lymph nodes:

▪Macrophage - engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses, and other foreign

substances in the lymph before it is returned to the blood.

▪Collection of Lymphocytes are strategically located in the lymph nodes –

provide immune response to antigen
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Lymph Nodes
▪ Trabeculae: Each node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule from which strands called
trabeculae extend inward to divide the node into a number of compartments.

▪ Cortex: The outer part of the node, the cortex, contains collections of lymphocytes called
follicles, many of which have dark-staining centers called germinal centers.

▪ Plasma cells: These centers enlarge when specific lymphocytes (the B cells) are
generating daughter cells called plasma cells, which release antibodies.
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Lymph Nodes
▪ T cells. The rest of the cortical cells are lymphocytes “in transit”, the so-called T cells
that circulate continuously between the blood, lymph nodes and lymphatic stream,
performing their surveillance role.
▪ Medulla. Phagocytic macrophages are located in the central medulla of the lymph node.
▪ Afferent lymphatic vessels. Lymph enters the convex side of a lymph node through the
afferent lymphatic vessels.
▪ Efferent lymphatic vessels. It then flows through a number of sinuses that cut through
the lymph node and finally exits from the node at its indented region, the hilum, via the
efferent lymphatic vessels.
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Other Lymphoid Organs

Several organs contribute to lymphatic

functions. These include:
▪Spleen
▪Thymus gland
▪Tonsils
▪Peyer’s patches
▪Appendix
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Spleen

The spleen is a soft, blood-rich organ

that filters blood.

▪Location:

The spleen is located on the left side of

the abdominal cavity, just beneath the
diaphragm, and curls around the
anterior aspect of the stomach.
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Spleen
▪ Function:
✔ Synthesizes antibodies, filters antibody-coated cells from blood

✔ Provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance

✔ filters out and destroys worn-out red blood cells and return some of their breakdown
products to the liver.

▪ Fetal spleen: In the fetus, the spleen is an important hematopoietic (blood

cell-forming) site, but as a rule only lymphocytes are produced by the adult
spleen.
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Thymus Gland

▪ The thymus gland functions at peak levels

only during youth.

▪ The thymus gland is a lymphoid mass

found low in the throat overlying the heart.

▪ It produces thymosin to program (educate)

certain lymphocytes so they can carry out
their protective roles in the body.
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Tonsils
▪ The tonsils are small masses of lymphoid tissue
around the pharynx (the throat), where they are
found in the mucosa.

▪ Function: to trap and remove bacteria or other

foreign pathogens entering the throat.

▪ Tonsilitis. They carry out this function so

efficiently that sometimes they become
congested with bacteria and become red,
swollen, and sore, a condition called tonsilitis.
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Peyer’s Patches
▪ Peyer’s patches resemble the look of the tonsils found in the wall of the small
intestine.

▪ Function: They capture and destroy bacteria (always present in tremendous

numbers in the intestine) in the intestine.

▪ Peyer’s patches and the tonsils are part of the collection of small lymphoid
tissues referred to as mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)

▪ MALT acts as a sentinel to protect the upper respiratory and digestive tracts from
the never-ending attacks of foreign matter entering those cavities.
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Body defenses

▪ The body is constantly in contact with bacteria, viruses and fungi.

▪ The body has two defense systems for foreign materials:

I. Nonspecific defense system

II. Specific defense system

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Body defenses
▪ The body has two defense systems for foreign materials:

I. Nonspecific defense system

▪ Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders
▪ Responds immediately to protect body from foreign materials
II. Specific defense system
▪ Specific defense is required for each type of invader; attack against
particular foreign substances.
▪ Also known as the immune system
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Body defenses

I. Nonspecific defense system (Innate defense system)

▪ refers to the mechanical barriers that cover body surfaces and to the
cells and chemicals that act on the initial battlefronts to protect the
body from invading pathogens.

▪ Also called the non-specific defense system

▪ Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders

▪ Responds immediately to protect body from foreign materials

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Body defenses

II. Specific defense system (Adaptive defense system)

▪ Sometimes referred to as the body’s third line of defense

▪ A functional system that recognizes foreign molecules (antigens)

and acts to inactivate or destroy them.
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I. Nonspecific defense system (Innate defense system)
1. First Line of Defense
▪ Body surface coverings and their secretions
▪ Surface Membrane Barriers
a. Intact Skin – provides physical barrier to most microorganisms that
swarm on the skin.
b. Mucous membranes – include mucus, protein digesting enzymes, HCL
(in stomach)
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I. Nonspecific defense system (Innate defense system)
1. First Line of Defense
▪ Body surface coverings and their secretions
c. Protective secretions
• Acidic pH of skin secretions (pH of 3-5) inhibits bacterial growth, and sebum
contains chemicals that are toxic to bacteria; vaginal secretions of adult
females are also very acidic
• Hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes, both kill pathogens
• Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys bacteria
• Sticky mucus traps many microorganisms that enter digestive and respiratory
passageways.
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I. Nonspecific defense system (Innate defense system)
1. First Line of Defense
▪ Body surface coverings and their secretions
d. Structural modifications
▪ Mucus-coated hairs inside the nasal cavity trap inhaled particles
▪ Respiratory tract mucosa is ciliated; the cilia sweep dust- and
bacteria-laden mucus superiorly toward the mouth, preventing it from
entering the lungs.
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I. Nonspecific defense system (Innate defense system)

2. Second Line of Defense

▪ For its second line of defense, the body uses an enormous number of
cells and chemicals to protect itself.

▪ Internal Defenses: Cells and Chemicals

a. Phagocytes (like macrophages) - engulf and digest foreign particle

b. Natural killer (NK) cells – lyse and destroy cancerous or virus infected
cells
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I. Nonspecific defense system (Innate defense system)
2. Second Line of Defense
▪ Internal Defenses: Cells and Chemicals
c. Antimicrobial proteins
c.1 Complement is a group of plasma proteins that lyses microorganisms,
enhances phagocytosis and intensifies inflammatory response.
c.2 Interferons are proteins released by virus-infected cells that protect
uninfected tissue cells from viral takeover and mobilize immune system.
c.3 Urine has a normally acidic pH that inhibits bacterial growth, and cleanses
the lower urinary tract as it flushes from the body.
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I. Nonspecific defense system (Innate defense system)
2. Second Line of Defense
▪ Internal Defenses: Cells and Chemicals
d. Inflammatory response
The inflammatory response is a nonspecific response that is triggered whenever body tissues
are injured; the four most common indicators of an acute inflammation are redness, heat,
swelling, and pain.
e. Fever
Fever, or abnormally high body temperature, is a systemic response to invading
microorganisms; normally the body’s “thermostat” is set at approximately 37 degrees Celsius, but
it can be reset upward in response to pyrogens (chemicals secreted by white blood cells and
macrophages exposed to foreign cells or substances in the body).
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II. Specific defense system (Adaptive Body Defenses)
Third Line of Defense

▪ The specific defense system is a functional system that recognizes foreign

molecules (antigens) and acts to inactivate or destroy them.

▪ 3 important aspects:

1. It is Antigen-specific - recognizes and acts against particular pathogens or foreign

substances

2. It is Systemic - immunity is not restricted to the initial infection site.

3. It has “memory“ - it recognizes and mounts even stronger attacks on previously

encountered pathogens.
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Antigens
✔ An antigen (Ag) is any substance capable of mobilizing our immune system and provoking an
immune response. They are foreign intruders or nonself.
a. Foreign intruders.- An almost limitless variety of substances can act as antigens, including virtually
all foreign proteins, nucleic acids, many large carbohydrates, and some lipids; proteins are
the strongest antigens.
b. Self-antigens - your own cells have variety of protein molecules or self-antigens;
self-antigens do not trigger an immune response in a person but they are strongly antigenic
to other people.
c. Hapten / incomplete antigen – as a rule, small molecules are not antigenic, but when
they link up with our own proteins, the immune system may recognize the combination as
foreign and mount an attack that is harmful rather than protective.
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Third Line of Defense: Cells of the Immune System

A. Lymphocytes
▪ Lymphocytes originate from hemocytoblasts in red bone marrow.

▪ The immature lymphocytes released from the marrow are essentially identical- B
lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells).

▪ Maturation of T cells: T cells arise from lymphocytes that migrate to the thymus, where
they undergo a maturation process of 2 to 3 days, directed by thymic hormones.

▪ Maturation of B cell - B cells develop immunocompetence in bone marrow, but less is

known about the factors that regulate B cell maturation.
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymphocyte Differentiation and Activation
The process of differentiation and activation of lymphocytes include the following:

▪ Immunocompetence. Lymphocytes destined to become T cells migrate from bone

marrow to the thymus and develop immunocompetence there; B cells develop
immunocompetence in the bone marrow.

▪ Activation. After leaving the thymus or bone marrow as naive immunocompetent cells,
lymphocytes “seed/migrate” to the lymph nodes and spleen and loose connective tissues,
where the antigen challenge occurs and the lymphocytes become fully activated.

▪ Circulation. Activated (mature) lymphocytes circulate continuously in the bloodstream and

lymph, and throughout the lymphoid organs of the body.
 B - Lymphocytes T - lymphocytes
• They mature in BONE • They mature in THYMUS
MARROW GLAND
• They produce antibody • They directly attack the
against antigen. antigen or attach B cells to
produce antibody
• They do not respond to • They respond to organ
organ transplantation. transplantation.
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
II. Specific defense system (Adaptive Body Defenses)
Third Line of Defense
B. Macrophages

▪ Macrophages arise from monocytes, formed in the bone marrow.

▪ Macrophages tend to remain fixed in the lymphoid organs, but

lymphocytes, especially T cells circulate continuously through the body.

▪ A major role of macrophages is to engulf foreign particles and rid them

from the area; they also present fragments of those antigens.
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
II. Specific defense system (Adaptive Body
Defenses)
Third Line of Defense
B. Macrophages

▪ Macrophages also secrete cytokines proteins that are

important in the immune response.

▪ Activated T cells, in turn, release chemicals that

causes macrophages to become killer macrophages.
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Antibodies (G-A-M-E-D)
▪ Antibodies, also referred to as immunoglobulins, or Igs, constitute the
gamma globulin part of blood proteins.

▪ Antibodies are soluble proteins secreted by activated B cells or by

their plasma-cell offspring in response to an antigen and they are
capable of binding specifically with that antigen.

▪ There are five major immunogloblin classes- IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, and
IgE.
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Third Line of Defense
Humoral (Antibody Mediated) Immune Response
▪ Primary humoral response. The resulting family of identical B cells descended from
the same ancestor cell is called a clone, and clone formation is the primary humoral
response to that antigen.

▪ Most of the B cell clone members, or descendants, become plasma cells.

▪ B cell clone members that do not become plasma cells become long-lived memory
cells capable of responding to the same antigen at later meetings with it.

▪ Memory cells are responsible for the immunological memory, and these later immune
responses, called secondary humoral responses,
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Humoral (Antibody Mediated) Immune Response

Active and Passive Humoral Immunity

A. Active immunity: When your B cells encounter antigen and produce
antibodies against them, you are exhibiting active immunity.

B. Passive immunity: In passive immunity, the antibodies are obtained from

the serum of an immune human or animal donor; as a result, the B cells
are not challenged by the antigen, immunological memory does not occur,
and the temporary protection provided by the “borrowed antibodies” ends
when they naturally degrade in the body.
 ACQUIRED
ACTIVE Immunity
IMMUNITY
PASSIVE
• Antibodies are •Antibodies are obtained
developed inside the from the serum of an
body immune human or animal
•Long lasting donor
• Short period
Active Antibodies made Antibodies transmitted Passive
Natural after exposure to NATUR from mother to baby Natural
Immunity an active infection AL (via placenta and Immunity
breastmilk)

Antigens Antibodies
Active ARTIFICI Passive
administered acquired from an
Aritificial Artificial
to stimulate AL immune serum
Immunity Immunity
antibody e.g. from animal to
vaccination human
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Third Line of Defense
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response

▪ Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are activated to form a

clone by binding with a “recognized” antigen; However, T cells
are not able to bind with free antigens. Instead, the antigens
must be “presented” by macrophages, and a double
recognition must occur.