Basic Electronic and Electrical Engineering/Basic Electromechanical Engineering

Laboratory Manual

SSUET/QR/112

Civil Laboratory Manual

Basic Electromechanical Engineering
1st Semester Civil Engineering

Civil Engineering Department

Sir Syed University Of Engineering and Technology
University Road Karachi - 75300
http://www.ssuet.edu.pk

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 Basic Electronic and Electrical Engineering/Basic Electromechanical Engineering
Laboratory Manual

SSUET/QR/113

Basic Electronic & Electrical Engineering

Table of Contents
LAB # TITLE PAGE #
1. Resistor color code and Measurement of Resistance. 03
2. Using multimeter, measuring resistance & voltage, 09
3. Ohm’s Law. 12
4. Designing Series Circuits. 17
5. Voltage-Divider Circuits (Unloaded). 26
6. Current in Parallel Circuit. 35
7. Resistance in a Parallel Circuit finding rt by formula. 40
8. Resistance in a Parallel Circuit finding rt by voltage-current method. 46
9. Use mesh analysis to find current and voltage across each resistor. 51
10. Kirchhoff’s voltage and current law 54
To Find out the Unknown value of the resistor in wheatstone bridge
11. 59
To become familiar with Star/Delta conversion and calculate power
12. dissipated in each configuration. 61

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Laboratory Exercise 1 SSUET/QR/114

RESISTOR COLOUR CODE AND
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE

OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the value of resistors from their EIA (Electronic Industries

Association) color code.
2. To measure resistors of different values.
3. To measure a resistor using the various resistances ranges of an ohmmeter.
4. To measure the resistance across each combination of two of the three terminals
of a potentiometer and to observe the resistance change as the shaft of the
potentiometer is rotated.

BASIC INFORMATION

Colour Code

The ohm is the unit of resistance, and it is represented by the symbol Ω (Greek letter
omega). Resistance values are indicated by a standard colour code that manufacturers have
adopted. This code uses colour bands on the body of the resistor. The colours and their
numerical values are given in the resistor color chart, Table 1 (p. 3). This code is used for
1/8-W, 1/4-W, 1/2-W, 2-W, and 3-W resistors.

Figure 1: Resistance Colour Code (Use soft pencil to identify the bands yourself)

The basic resistor is shown in Figure -1 above. The standard color-code marking
consists of four bands around the body of the resistor. The color of the first band indicates
the first significant figure of the resistance value. The second hand indicates the second
significant figure. The color of the third band indicates the number of zeros that follow the
first two significant figures. If the third hand is gold or silver, the resistance value is less
than 10 Ω. For resistors less than 10 Ω, the third band indicates a fractional value of the
first two
Significant figures:

• A gold band means the resistance is 1/10 the value of the first two significant
figures.
• A silver hand means the resistance is 1/100 the value of the first two significant
figures.

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The fourth band indicates the percent tolerance of the resistance. Percent tolerance is the
amount the resistance may vary from the value indicated by the color code. Because
resistors are mass produced, variations in materials will affect their actual resistance. Many
circuits can still operate as designed even if the resistors in the circuit do not have the
precise value specified. Tolerances are usually given as plus or minus the nominal, or
colour-code, value.

High-precision resistors have five bands. The first three bands indicate the first three
significant figures of the resistance; the fourth band indicates the number of zeros, the fifth
hand is the percent tolerance. Percent tolerances for these resistors range from 0.1 percent
to 2 percent.

Resistors manufactured to military specification (MILSTD) also contain a fifth

band. The fifth hand in this case is used to indicate reliability. The figure given is the
percentage of defective parts per 1000 hours of operation.

Examples of colour- coded resistors are given in Table 2 below.

Wirewound, high-wattage resistors usually are not colour coded but have the
resistance value and wattage rating printed on the body of the resistor.

To avoid having to write all the zeros for high-value resistors the metric
abbreviations of k (for 1000) and M (for 1,000,000) are used. For example,

• 33,000 Ω can be written as 33k Ω (pronounced (33 kiloohms, or 33 kilohms).

• 1,200,000 Ω can be written as 1.2 M Ω (pronounced 1.2 meg, or 1.2 megaohms).

Table 1: Resistor Colour Codes

Significant Figure* No. of Zeros % Tolerance

% Reliability
Colour (First and Second or ( Multiplier) (Fourth
(Fifth Band)
Bands) (Third Band) Band)
Black 0 0 or (100) - -
Brown 1 1 or (101) - 1
Red 2 2 or (102) - 0.1
Orange 3 3 or (103) - 0.01
Yellow 4 4 or (104) - 0.001
Green 5 5 or (105) - -
Blue 6 6 or (106) - -
Violet 7 7 or (107) - -
Gray 8 8 or (108) - -
White 9 9 or (109) - -
Gold - (0.1 or 10-1) 5 -
Silver - (0.01 or 10-2) 10 -
No Colour - - 20 -
*MILSTD five-band code

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Table 2: Examples of Colour-Coded Resistors

As an exercise to supplement your own understanding, complete the missing

information yourself:

Resistance Value
Second Third Fourth Resistance
First Band %
Band Band Band Ω Range, Ω
Tolerance
Orange Orange Brown No Colour 330 20 264-396
Gray Red Gold Silver 8.2 10
Yellow Violet Green Gold 5 4.465M-4.935M
White Orange Gold 39k 37.1k-41k
Green Blue Brown No Colour 560 20
Red Yellow 10 198k-242k
Brown Green Gold Gold
Blue Gray No Colour 6.8M
Green Silver 5 0.475-

SUMMARY

1. The unit of resistance is the ohm.

2. The body of a fixed carbon resistor is colour coded to specify its resistance value,
tolerance, and reliability.

3. Twelve colors are contained in the color chart. These give the values of the
significant figures of resistance, the tolerance, and reliability. Refer to Table 1 for
the resistor color chart.

4. Resistor color codes use either four or five bands.

In the four-band code,

• First band is the first significant figure of the resistance

• Second hand is the second significant figure of the resistance.
• Third band is the number of zeros (or multiplier).
• Fourth band is the percent tolerance.

In the five-band code used for high-precision resistors,

• First band is the first significant figure of the resistance.
• Second hand is the second significant figure of the resistance.
• Third band is the third significant figure of the resistance.
• Fourth band is the number of zeros (or multiplier).
• Fifth band is the percent tolerance.

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In the, five-band code used for military electronics (MILSTD),

• First band is the first significant figure of the resistance.

• Second band is the second significant figure of the resistance.
• Third band is the number of zeros (or multiplier).
• Fourth band is the percent tolerance.
• Fifth band is the percent reliability in defects per 1000 items.

5. High-wattage wire wound resistors are not colour coded but have the resistance
and wattage value printed on the body of the resistor.

SELF-TEST

Check your understanding by answering the following questions:

1. A color code is used to indicate the......................of a carbon resistor.

2. If the colour red appears in either the first or second color band on a resistor, it
stands for the number (significant figure) ..................... .

3. If the color yellow appears in the third band of a four-band color-coded resistor, it
stands for..................zeros.

4. If the color..............appears on the fourth band of a four-band colour code on a

resistor, it indicates its tolerance value of 10 percent.

5. A resistor coded brown, black, black, gold has a value of ..................Ω and a
tolerance of............................ percent.

6. (True/False) A high-wattage resistor is Colour coded in the same way as a low-

wattage resistor. ......................

7. The fifth band on a MILSTD resistor is colored red, which means the resistor has
a............................ of 0.1 percent.

8. A four-band resistor whose value is 120 Ω and whose tolerance is 20 percent is

colour coded..............................

9. If a resistor measures infinite ohms, the resistor is ........................-circuited.

MATERIALS REOUIRED

Instruments:

❑ Digital multimeter (DMM) and volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM)

Resistors:
❑ 10 assorted resistance values and tolerances; 1/2 W (colour coded)
❑ 10,000 Ω potentiometer

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Miscellaneous:
❑ Length of hookup wire about 12 inch long.
❑ Wire cutters.

PROCEDURE

1. Your will be given 10 resistors of various values and tolerances. Examine each one
and determine its resistance and tolerance according to its color code. Record the color
bands, the coded resistance value, and tolerance in Table 3. ( p. 10 ).

2. Refer to the operator's manuals on the use of a digital multimeter and a volt-ohm-
milliammeter to measure resistance. Zero the ohmmeter. Using the coded resistance value
as a guide, select an appropriate meter range and measure the resistance of each of the 10
resistors. Record your readings under "Measured Value" in Table 3 ( p. 10 ).

3. a. Measure and record the resistance of a short length of hookup wire.

R =…………………………..Ω.

b. Select one of the resistors in step 1 and connect the wire in step 3 across it
as shown in Figure 5 on next page. By connecting the wire across the leads of the
resistor, the resistor has been short-circuited. Measure the resistance across
the resistor-hookup wire combination.
R =…………………………….Ω

Figure 5: Resistor Short Circuited by a piece of hook up wire

Observations for Experiment 1:

TABLE 3: Resistor Measured Resistance Color Coded Values

Resistors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
First Color Code
2nd Color Code
3rd color Code
4th Color Code
Coded Value Ω
Tolerance, %
Measured Value, Ω
Range, Ω
Accuracy

QUESTIONS.

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2. What is the colour code for each of the following carbon resistors ?
(a) 0.27 Ω, ½ W, 5 % ..............................................................
(b) 2.2 Ω, ¼ W, 10 % ..............................................................
(c) 39 Ω, 1/8 W, 10 % ..............................................................
(d) 560 Ω, ½ W, 5 % ..............................................................
(e) 33 kΩ, 1 W, 20 % ..............................................................

3. Can inserting a resistor in a circuit produce an effect similar to a short circuit ?

Explain.
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4. Can inserting a resistor in a circuit have an effect similar to an open circuit ?

Explain.
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Laboratory Exercise 2

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USING MULTIMETER, MEASURING RESISTANCE &

VOLTAGE
OBJECTIVES
Using the millimeter and using the coded resistance values as guide, select the appropriate
meter range and measure the resistance of different resistors and voltage of different
supplies. Record your measured reading under "Measured values". Columns in table 2-1.

BASIC INFORMATIONS

Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is an instrument designed to measure voltage, it can be connected across the
terminals of voltage source to measure the voltage produced by the source. Fig 2.1(b) shows
a voltmeter indicated by a circle with a V inside it. The voltmeter can be connected across
the resistance as well, as the voltage source and we can say the voltage across the resistance
as shown in fig 2.1(a).
The +ve and -ve symbols on the voltmeter symbols shows the connections of the polarity,
(red terminal to +ve and black terminal to -ve). An Ohmmeter is an instrument design to
measure the resistance. Resistance is never be measured when there is a voltage source
connected across it or when there is any other component connected to it.

Table 2-1: Resistor measured resistance versus color coding values.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
First color code
2nd color code
3rd color code
4th color code
Coded Value Ω
Tolerance %
Measured Value Ω

Table 2-2: Measured voltage versus applied voltage.

Applied DC voltage in volts Measured DC in Volts

05 V
10 V
15 V
20 V
50 V

Measurement Errors:

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In the preceding discussion it was assumed that all the measurements made
experimentally were 100 percent accurate. In practice, this is never so. Errors do occur
and for several reasons. Before turning the page can you guess these?

Figure 2: Parallax occurs when the line of sight of the viewer and the meter pointer
are not perpendicular to the meter scale.

One possible error results from reading the scale of an analog meter incorrectly. This can
be corrected by exercising greater care and by taking the average of a number of the same
measurements.Interpolating incorrectly between calibrated markers on a scale source of
error. A digital meter eliminates these particular errors.

Parallex is another source of error that can easily be corrected. It occurs when a meter
reading is taken from an off center position, that is, when the line of sight between the
viewer and the meter pointer is not perpendicular to, the meter scale. Figure 2 illustrate
the error of parallax. When the viewer is in position P1 the line between the eye and the
meter pointer A is perpendicular to the meter scale. This gives a correct reading of
5.However if the viewer is in position P2 the reading will be 7, an error due to parallex.
To eliminate errors of parallax, a mirror strip is sometimes placed just below the meter
scale. The correct reading position is the one in which the pointer is positioned directly
above its reflected image in the mirror.

Meter reading errors can be eliminated by using meters with a numerical readout that is,
digital meters.

Another source of error results from the process of inserting an instrument in a circuit to
make a measurement. If the instrument alters circuit conditions in any way, incorrect
readings may be obtained.

The facts that errors do occur is 'mentioned here because in this experiment the objective
is to develop the formula for Ohm's law from experimental data. You can expect your
data to contain some errors of measurement.

SELF-TEST
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Check out your understanding by answering the following questions:

1. The current in a fixed resistor is …………………….. that resistor.
2. If the voltage across a resistor is held constant the current in that resistor is
………… proportional to its resistance.
3. The formula that gives the mathematical relationship between I, V and R in a
closed circuit is I = …………..
4. The formula in question 3 is called …………………..
5. If the voltage across a 10,000 ohm resistor is 125 V, the current in the resistor is
…………………..
6. If the voltage across a resistor is 60 V, and the current in the resistor is 0.05 A. the
value of the resistor is ………………….

7. If the current in a 1500ohm resistor is 0. 12 A, the voltage across the resistor is

…………………..
8. In reading in analog meter scale, the line of sight between the viewer and the
meter pointer should be to the meter scale.
9. The error of parallax may he eliminated by placing a ………… just below the
meter scale. The correct reading position occurs when the pointer and
it’s………………….. coincide.

Note: Add extra sheet/s of A4 paper if you need more space to inscribe your answer/s.

Portion for use by teacher:

Completion of drawings/sketches/filling of blank spaces etc…………………..
Reading work……………………………………………………………………
Answering of Self Test Questions………………………………………………
Section needing further attention………………………………………………..
Final assessment by teacher, with remarks if any:

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Laboratory Exercise 3
OHM’s LAW

OBJECTIVES

1. To verify, experimentally, the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance

in a circuit.
2. To verify Ohm's law.
3. To investigate the causes of errors in measurement.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Power Supplies:
• Variable 0-15 V dc, regulated

Instruments:
• 0-10 mA milliammeter (analog meter preferred)
• DMM or VOM

Resistors:
• 1 1000 Ω 1/2-W,5%
• 1 5 kΩ 2-W potentiometer .

Miscellaneous:
1. SPST Switch

BASIC INFORMATION

Ohm’s law mathematically describes, how voltage ‘V’, current ’I’, and resistance ‘R’ in a
circuit are related. According to this law:

“The Current (I) In A Circuit Is Directly Proportional To The Applied Voltage (V)
And Inversely Proportional To The Circuit Resistance (R)”.

Formula For Voltage:

For a constant value of R, V is directly proportional to I.

I.e. VαI where R is constant.

Formula For current:

For a constant value of V, I is inversely proportional to R.

i.e. I = V
R

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Figure 1: Circuit for verifying Ohm’s Law

For example, the circuit of Figure 1 was used to study the relationship between I
and V for a constant value of R. A voltmeter was used to measure the voltage of the circuit,
and an ammeter was used to measure the Current. The voltage was varied from 10 to 50 V
dc in steps of 10 V with a 10 Ω resistor in tile circuit. The results are tabulated in Table 1.

Table 1: Developing a Formula for I when R = 10 Ω

R( ) V(volts) I(amperes)
10 Ω 10 1
10 Ω 20 2
10 Ω 30 3
10 Ω 40 4
10 Ω 50 5

An examination of the data in Table 1 shows an exact relationship between I and V

in that the ratio V/I for each step is equal to 10. As a formula the ratio can be written as

V/I = 10, or V/10 = I

Since the value of resistance was 10 Ω, it might be concluded that the ratio of V/I is
always equal to R; that is,

V/I = R (1)

Or V/R = I (2)

Of course, to verify this relationship for a more general case, the preceding
experiment would need to be repeated many times using different voltages and different
resistances. For each result, the formula V/R = I, would need to be confirmed exactly.
PROCEDURE

Refer to Figure.

1. Connect the possitive terminal of supply to the resistor.

2. Connect negative terminal of supply with other end of resistor.

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3. Now connect possitive terminal of voltmeter to one end of resister and connect
negative terminal of voltmeter to other end of resister.
4. To measure current, remove one leg of resister and supply and insert ammeter in
series.
Keeping the data in Table 1 in view, using the variable voltage source, and the resistor
listed in the list of required material, verify the Ohm’s Law. Tabulate your observations in
Table below, and plot these values on a Graph sheet.

Observations for Experiment 2:

TABLE 2:

S.No Applied Voltage (V) Nominal Resistance (Ω) Measured Current ( A or mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Ohm’s Law
It is now possible to state a relationship between V, I & R, specified by formula (2)
above. You may also refer to your class notes and section ‘3.1 Ohm’s Law’ on pages 28
and 29 of your text book, and write down below your own views about what Georg Simon
Ohm stated as the Ohm’s Law:

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Measurement Errors:

REF: Same as Laboratory exercise 2 pg no.14

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SUMMARY

1. The relationship between the voltage V, applied to a closed circuit by some source
such as a battery, the total resistance R, and the current I in that circuit is given by
the formula I = V/R.

2. The relationship between the voltage drop V across a resistor R and the current I in
that resistor is given by the formula I = V/R.

3. The formula I = V/R is a mathematical statement of Ohm's law.

4. To verify Ohm's law experimentally, many measurements must be made and the
results of the measurements must be substituted in formula (2) to verify the
formula.

5. One set of data is obtained by measuring I while holding the measured value of V
constant and varying the measured Value of 'R. The data obtained should fit the
formula I = V/R.

6. Another set of data is obtained by measuring I while holding the measured value
of R constant and varying the measured value of V. The data obtained should also
fit the formula I = V/R .

7. Measurement errors do occur, and these must be considered in attempting to

establish the accuracy of a formula such as Ohm's law.

8. Among the measurement errors that may occur are

(a) incorrect reading of the meter scale,
(b) incorrect meter readings due to parallax,
(c) errors resulting from the accuracy of the instrument used, and
(d) errors introduced by inserting the instrument in the circuit (insertion or loading
errors).

SELF-TEST

Check out your understanding by answering the following questions:

1. The current in a fixed resistor is …………….proportional to the voltage across

that resistor.
2. If the voltage across a resistor is held constant, the current in that resistor is
……………… proportional to its resistance.
3. The formula that gives the mathematical relationship between I, V, and R in a
closed circuit is I =…………………………….
4. The formula in question 3 is called……………………..
5. If the voltage across a 10,000 Ω resistor is 125 V, the current in the resistor is
………………….
6. If the voltage across a resistor is 60 V, and the current in the resistor is 0.05 A, the
value of the resistor is…………………………..

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7. If the current in a 1500 Ω resistor is 0. 12 A, the voltage across the resistor is

……………………….
8. In reading in analog meter scale, the line of sight between the viewer and the
meter pointer should be ………………….to the meter scale.
9. The error of parallax may he eliminated by placing a……………just below the
meter scale. The correct reading position occurs when the pointer and
its…………. coincide.

QUESTIONS

1. From your data in Tables 1 and 2, what can you conclude about the relationship
between current I, voltage V, and resistance R of a circuit ? Discuss these
relationships in your own words.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Represent the relationships discussed in Question 1 as mathematical formulas.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Referring to data in Tables 1 and 2, discuss any experimental errors in your
measurements.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Explain in your own words how parallax introduces errors in reading analog
meters.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. As page 15A, plot a graph of current I versus voltage V for the data in each of
Tables 1 and 2. Use the horizontal (x) axis for voltage and the vertical (y) axis for
current. Label each of the two graphs with the table number from which the data
came.
6. Is there any similarity among the two graphs plotted in Question 5 ? If so, discuss
the similarity. If not, discuss the differences in the graphs.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Note: Add extra sheet/s of A4 paper if you need more space to inscribe your answer/s.

Portion for use by teacher:

Completion of drawings/sketches/filling of blank spaces etc.……………………..
Reading work……………………………………………………………………….
Answering of Self Test Questions………………………………………………….
Section needing further attention…………………………………………………..

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Laboratory Exercise 4
DESIGNING SERIES CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVES

1. To design a series circuit that will meet specified resistance requirements.

2. To design a series circuit that will meet specified voltage and current
requirements.
3. To design a series circuit that will meet specified current and resistance
requirements.
4. To construct and test the circuits to see that they meet the design requirements.

BASIC INFORMATION

Ammeter:

A meter designed to measure electrical current is popularly called an "ammeter" because

the unit of measurement is "amps."

In ammeter designs, external resistors added to extend the usable range of the movement
are connected in parallel with the movement rather than in series as is the case for
voltmeters. This is because we want to divide the measured current, not the measured
voltage, going to the movement, and because current divider circuits are always formed
by parallel resistances.

Several values of shunt resistors and a rotary switch are used to select the desired range of
current to measure.

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A make-before break rotary switch insures that there is a shunt resistor connected at all
times.

Designing a Series Circuit to Meet Specified Resistance Requirements

The law for total resistance of series-connected resistors can be applied to the solution of
simple design problems. An example will indicate the techniques to be used.

Example 1. You have a stock of the following resistors: four 56 Ω, five 100 Ω, three 120
Ω, two 180 Ω, two 220 Ω, and one each of 330 , 470, 560, 680, and 820 Ω. A resistance
value of 1000 Ω is needed for a circuit being designed. Find at least four combinations of
resistors from those in stock, using the least possible number of components, that will
satisfy tile design requirement.

Solution.
Total resistance R, of series-connected resistors R1 ,R2, R3,etc., is equal to the sum
of their resistances. Stated as a formula,

R T = R1 + R 2 + R3 + ... (1)

You can use formula ( I) to solve Problem 1.

Thus,

1000 = R I + R 2 + R 3 + …

1. By inspection it is apparent that the 820 Ω resistor and the 180 Ω resistor
connected in series will add to 1000 Ω. Hence this is one solution. It is also the solution
that requires the least number of components, two.

2. Another solution is to connect the 680 , 220, and 100 Ω resistors in series. Here
three components are used.

3. Another solution is to connect a 560 and two 220 Ω resistors in series. Again,
three components are used.

4. A fourth solution is to connect a 470, a 330, and two100 Ω resistors in series. Here
four components are used.

There are other combinations that will add to 1000 Ω, so that you have a fairly
wide choice. The restriction that the least number of components be used, however, does
limit the choice.

Finally, you should connect the resistors and measure their total resistance with an
ohmmeter to confirm the solution.

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Designing a Series Circuit to Meet Specified Voltage and Current Requirements

Ohm's law and the law for total resistance of series-connected resistors can be applied to
the solution of this type of design requirement. Again, an example will illustrate the
procedures to be used.

Example 2. You have a 15-V battery and the same stock of resistors as in Example 1. A
circuit is to be designed in which current must be 0.01 A. Show the circuit arrangement
that can be used, including the values of all resistors.

Solution.
Assume a closed series circuit is used. Two of the circuit conditions are known,
voltage and current. Using Ohm's law, the total resistance in the circuit can be found.
Thus, RT = V / I (2)

Substituting the known values of V and I in formula (2), we get

RT = 15 /0.01 = 1500 Ω

This is the circuit resistance that will hold circuit current at 0.01 A. It is now
necessary to find a combination of resistances from those in stock that will add to 1500 Ω.
This is merely a process of trying different combinations to see which will give the
required result. In this case the 820 and 680 Ω resistors satisfy the conditions, since 820 +
690 = 1500 Ω. Now, using these two resistors, draw the circuit used to limit current to
0.01 A as Figure 1 below:

Figure 1: Circuit used to limit current to 0.01A

As a final step, connect the circuit of Figure 1 on the circuit board and verify by
measurement that there is indeed 0.01 A of current in the circuit.
The procedure for solving this type of problem is as follows:

1. Solve for RT by substituting the known values of V and I in the formula RT = V

2. Find the combination of resistances whose sum will add to the given value of RT
using the formula RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

3. Connect the circuit using the combination of resistors determined in step 2 and
verify by measurement that the circuit conditions have been met.

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Designing a Series Circuit to Meet Specified Current and Resistance Requirements

As in the preceding problem, Ohm's law and the formula for finding RT of series-
connected resistors are applied here. Again, a problem will illustrate the process.

Problem 3. Resistors R1 , R2 ,and R3 in Figure 2 below, are components of an electronic

device that requires 0.05 A to operate properly. What voltage should be connected to their
series combinition to provide the necessary current?

Figure 2: Adjusting the voltage V so that 0.05 A flows in the circuit.

Solution.

1. Find the total resistance RT.

RT = 33 + 47 + 56 = 136 Ω

2. Substitute the values I = 0.05A and RT = 136 Ω in formula (3), which was derived
from Ohm's law:

V= I X R (3)
V= (0.05)(136) = 6.8 V

3. Connect the circuit of Figure 2 and set the power supply voltage V to 6.8 V. The
milliammeter should read 0.05 A (50 mA).

SUMMARY

1. If it is required to make up a resistance value RT from a group of series -connected

resistors whose values are R1, R2, R3 etc., the combination of resistors should
satisfy the formula RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

2. If it is required to design a series-circuit that will meet specified voltage (V) and
current (I) requirements, find the value RT that will satisfy the given voltage and
current by substituting V and I in the formula RT = V/ I
Then select the resistors R1, R2 etc., so that RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

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3. If it is required to design a series-circuit that will meet specified current (I) and
resistance (R.) values, first select those resistors whose resistance sum is R T.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
Then solve for the unknown voltage V by substituting the given values of I and R.
in Ohm's law, V = I X RT

4. After the circuit has been designed, connect it and measure the unknown quantity
to see that it is in fact the required design value.

SELF-TEST

Check your understanding by answering the following questions:

1. The formula that gives the total resistance of series-connected resistors is

RT =………………………
2. The Ohm's law formula that gives the relationship between the applied voltage V,
the current 1, and the resistance R of a closed circuit is V =…………………
3. To design a circuit powered by a battery of V volts that draws I amperes, it is
necessary to find …………………….
This is done by substituting V and I in the formula……………………..
4. To design a circuit that draws I amperes through a resistance of R ohms, it is
necessary to find ……………………... This is done by substituting I and R in
the formula……………………
5. The final step in the design of a circuit, after the values of V, R, and I have been
determined, is to……………..the circuit and…………….the quantities involved.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Power Supply:

❑ Variable 0-15 V dc, regulated

1nstruments:

❑ DMM or VOM

❑ 0-10 mAmilliammeter

Resistors (5%, 1/2-W):

❑ 1 330 Ω
❑ 1 470 Ω
❑ 1 1200 Ω
❑ 1 2200 Ω
❑ 1 3300 Ω
❑ 1 4700 Ω
Miscellaneous:

❑ SPST switch

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PROCEDURE

The six resistors used in this experiment will be identified as follows:

R1 = 330 Ω
R2 = 470 Ω
R3 = 1200 Ω
R4 = 2200 Ω
R5 = 3300 Ω
R6 = 4700 Ω

1. Refer to Table 1 (p.23 ). In the first row, RT = 2000 Ω. Select three resistors from
R1 through R6 that, when connected in series, total 2000 Ω. Record the rated values in the
column for each resistor. For example, if you were asked to select two resistors that, when
connected in series, total 1670 Ω, you would pick R2 = 470 Ω and R3 = 1200Ω. You
would then write 470 in the R2 column and 1200 in the R3 column.

2. Connect the three resistors chosen in step in series and measure the resistance of
the combination. Record this value in row 1 in the "RT Measured" column.

3. Choose as many resistors from the group of six as needed that will have a total
resistance of 5300 fl when connected in series. Record the rated values of the resistors in
Table 1.

4. Connect the resistors in step 3 in series. Measure their total resistance and record
the value in the 5300 Ω row in the "RT Measured" column.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the remaining total resistances of 7500, 10,000 , and
11,000 Ω. Record all values in Table 1. At the end of this step the "RT Measured" column
should be completely filled.

6. Design a series circuit that will produce a current of 0.005 A when supplied by 10
V. The resistors chosen for your design must come from the group of resistors R1 through
R6. Record the values chosen in Table 2 (p.23) in the 10 V row.

7. With power off and switch S1, open, connect the circuit of Figure 3 using the
resistor combination found in step 6. Use the 0-10 mA milliammeter. After checking the
circuit, turn on the power and close S1.

8. Adjust the power supply until the voltmeter reads 10 V. Read the milliammeter
and record the value (in amperes) in the "Circuit Current, Measured" column of the 10-V
row.

9. Repeat steps 6 through 8 for each of the remaining combinations of V and I in

Table 2. Record all resistor combinations and milliammeter readings in the table.

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10. Design a circuit that will draw 4 mA. The only conditions are that the resistors
used in each case must be from among the six R1 to R6 used in other parts of this
experiment. The voltage can vary from 0 to 15 V. Combination 1 must consist of two
resistors. Combination 2 must consist of three resistors. Combination 3 must consist of
four resistors. In choosing the resistors for your circuit, use the actual, or measured, value
rather than the rated values in Table 3 (p.23). Also, record the design value of voltage to
be applied to your circuit.

11. Construct each of the circuits in step 10 based on the circuit of figure 3 below.
Draw these circuits below. Record the values of voltage and current measured by the
voltmeter and milliammeter.

Figure 3: Circuit for procedure step 7.

Figures for step 10 (Table 3):

Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3

Observations for Experiment 3:

Table 1: Measured versus Rated Values of Series-Connected Resistors

RT Required Rated Value of Resistors Whose Sum Will Satisfy RT RT Measured
Ω Ω
2,000
5,300
7,500
10,000
11,000

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Table 2: Circuit Design for Specified Values of Volt and I.

V Circuit Current I, I Rated Value of the Design Resistor, Ω
Applied, Required Measured R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
V
10 0.005
12 0.004
5.5 0.001
8 0.01
11.4 0.001

Table 3: Circuit Designed to Draw 4 mA

Rated Value of the Design Resistor, Ω V Applied, I
Combination R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 Design Measured,
Value, V mA
1 (2 resistors)
2 (3 resistors)
3 (4 resistors)

QUESTIONS

1. Refer to your data in Table 1. Compare the RT required value with the
RT measured value for each of the five resistances. Are they equal ? If not, explain why.
In each case, is the difference, if any, consistent with the tolerance of the individual
resistor ?.................................................................................................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Refer to your data in Table 2. Compare the required current with the measured
current for each of the required current values. Are they equal ? If not, explain why.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Refer to your data in Table 3. Compare the required current with the designed
value of 4 mA for each of the three resistor combinations. Are they equal ? If not, explain
why he measured value is not equal to 4 mA.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………....

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4. Three ½- W, 5% resistors are connected in series. Their colour coded values are
1000, 5000, and 10,000 Ω, respectively. What would be the possible range of the
resistance readings of an ohmmeter, assuming the meter has a 0% error ? Show all
calculations.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Note: Add extra sheet/s of A4 paper if you need more space to inscribe your answer/s.

Portion for use by teacher:

Completion of drawings/sketches/filling of blank spaces etc.……………………..
Reading work……………………………………………………………………….
Answering of Self Test Questions………………………………………………….
Section needing further attention…………………………………………………...
Final assessment by teacher, with remarks if any:

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Laboratory Exercise 5
VOLTAGE-DIVIDER CIRCUIT
( UNLOADED )
OBJECTIVES

1. . To develop a general rule for calculating the voltage across each resistor in an
unloaded fixed resistive voltage divider
2. To verify the rule developed in Objective 1 above.
3. To calculate the voltage with respect to common at each point in a variable
resistive voltage divider
4. To verify the results of Objective 3 by experiment.

BASIC INFORMATION

VOLTMETER :

A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between

two points in an electric circuit.

As was stated earlier, most meter movements are sensitive devices. Some D'Arsonval
movements have full-scale deflection current ratings as little as 50 µA, with an (internal)
wire resistance of less than 1000 Ω. This makes for a voltmeter with a full-scale rating of
only 50 millivolts (50 µA X 1000 Ω)! In order to build voltmeters with practical (higher
voltage) scales from such sensitive movements, we need to find some way to reduce the
measured quantity of voltage down to a level the movement can handle.

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The five-position switch makes contact with only one resistor at a time. In the bottom
(full clockwise) position, it makes contact with no resistor at all, providing an "off"
setting. Each resistor is sized to provide a particular full-scale range for the voltmeter, all
based on the particular rating of the meter movement (1 mA, 500 Ω). The end result is a
voltmeter with four different full-scale ranges of measurement. Of course, in order to
make this work sensibly, the meter movement's scale must be equipped with labels
appropriate for each range.

Through the use of a range-selector switch, a multirange voltmeter can be made that switches the
appropriate individual multiplier resistance in series with the meter movement

Series-Connected Voltage-Divider Circuits

Ohm's law finds immediate application in working with voltage-divider circuits.

Resistive voltage dividers can be very simple circuits or complex arrangements of
resistors serving one or more loads. In this experiment we will be concerned with
unloaded dividers, that is, with circuits that are not required to deliver current to an
external load.

The simplest dc voltage divider consists of two resistors R1 and R2 connected in

series, across which a dc voltage V is applied (Figure 1). Assume that V is 12 V and that
the resistors R1 and R2 are 7500 and 2500 Ω, respectively. The voltages V1, across R1 and
V2 across R2 measured with a voltmeter, are 9 V and 3 V, respectively. The 12-V source
has thus been divided by the circuit of Figure 1 to produce two lower voltages.

Figure 1 can be modified by the addition of one or more resistors to produce any
number of lower voltages, measured across individual resistors or measured with respect
to some common point such as C. The choice of resistors to produce specific voltages can
be made by trial and error or by first analyzing the circuit. The trial-and-error method is
too time consuming and inefficient. Carefully studying the circuit and calculating the
values of the resistors that will produce a required result is both fast and effective.
The basic formulas of electricity are used in analyzing the problem and obtaining
a solution. For example, in Figure 1, the current I may be found by substituting the values
of Volt and R T in formula (1) below.

I=V/R (1)

RT= R1 + R2
Since V = 12 V and R1 + R2 = 10,000 Ω

I =12 / 10,000 = 0.0012 A

Now V1 = I x R1 and V2 = I x R2 (2)

Therefore, V1 = (0.00 12)(7500) = 9 V and

V2 = (0.00 12)(2500) = 3 V

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A formula can be found to simplify our work. Consider Figure 2. It is required to

find V1, V2, V3, and V4. Assume that I is the current in this circuit. Then

V = I x RT (3)

where RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

Since V1 = I x R1 , V2 = I x R2 , V = I x R3 and V4 = I x R4 (4)

we can find the ratio of V1, V2, V3, and V4, to V. Thus

V1/V = [I x R1] / [ I x R] = R1/RT (5)

Figure 1: A dc voltage divider

and V1= V x R1/RT (6)

Similarly, V2 = V x R2 /RT , V3 = V x R3 /RT and V4 = Vx R4 /RT

We have thus derived formula (6) for finding the voltage across any resistor in a
series circuit. Stated in words, the voltage across any given resistor in a series circuit is
equal to the ratio of the resistance of the given resistor to the total resistance of the series
circuit multiplied by the total applied voltage. This formula applies to a series circuit
containing any number of resistors.

As an example, let us apply the formula to Figure 1

V1 = V x [R1 /RT] = 12 [7500/10.000] = 9V

Similarly, V2 = 12 [2500/10.000] = 3 V

Here is another example to illustrate how the formula can be used to design a
voltage divider.

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Figure2: A dc voltage divider with four resistors

Example: Using a 25-V source, we wish to find the value, of resistors R1, through R4
connected in a simple series circuit to provide 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 V across R1, R2, R3,
and R4, respectively. Assume that the current I in this circuit must be limited to 0.001 A.

Solution.
1. First, we find RT:

R = V/I = 25/0.001 = 25,000 Ω

2. Next, we can rewrite formula (6) as follows:

R1 = [V1/V] x RT (7)

Similarly R2 = ……………………
and R3 =……………………. , R4 =…………………………

3. Substituting V= 25 V, RT = 25,000 Ω, V1 = 2.5 V, V2 = 5.0 V, V3 = 7.5 V, and

V4 = 10.0 V in ( 7) gives

R1 = [ 2.5/25] X 25,000 = 2500 Ω

R2 = [ 5.0/25] X 25,000 = 5000 Ω

Similarly R3 = ……………………., and R4 =……………………………

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These are the required values of resistance. The circuit of Figure 2 can be
connected using these values of R1, R2, R3 and R 4, and V, and the required voltages can
be verified by measurement with a voltmeter.

In analyzing the voltage-divider circuits of Figures 1 and 2, we have considered

the voltages developed across individual resistors of the divider. Another view of the
divider is relative to a common point. In Figure 1, point C is the common, or ground,
return of the circuit. In Figure 2 point G is ground. Now consider Figure 2. What is the
voltage at point A relative to ground? B to ground ? C to ground ? D to ground ?

These voltages can be found by a modification of formula (6). First, the voltage
from A to G is obviously the applied voltage, V. Now, the voltage V BG, from B to ground
is

VBG = V X [R2 + R3 + R4]/RT

Similarly From C to ground: VCG =…………………

and From D to ground: VDG = ………………..

Another method of calculating VBG and VCG in Figure 2 is to solve for the
voltages V1, V2, V3, and V4 by formula (6). Then

VBG = V2 + V3 + V4 so that VCG = ……………. and VDG =………………

Variable Voltage-Divider Circuits (Unloaded)

Suppose we want to set up a divider, as in Figure 1, with an applied voltage of 10

V and a total resistance of 10,000 Ω, whose divider ratio is such that V1 = 6.9 V and V2 =
3.1 V. Solution of this circuit by the method just described yields the results

R1 = 6900 Ω and R2 = 3100 Ω

It would normally be expensive to get resistors of these exact values. To overcome

this difficulty, we use a potentiometer. A potentiometer is a three-terminal variable
resistor. The resistance between the two outer terminals is fixed at the rated value of the
potentiometer. The center terminal, or arm, is connected to a slider that makes contact
with the resistive material of the potentiometer. The arm can be rotated manually to select
different values of resistance between the center terminal and either end terminal. Thus, if
R1 and R2 of Figure 1 are replaced by a 10,000 Ohms potentiometer, the corresponding
circuit is that of Figure 3.

Figure 3: Potentiometer as a variable voltage divider.

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As arm B moves toward A, resistance R1 decreases, while the resistance R2

increases. As arm B moves toward C, R1 increases and R2 decreases. When B is at A, R1
= 0 and R2 =10,000 Ω when B is at C, R2 = 0 and R1 = 10,000 Ω.

Thus, by manually adjusting the position of the slider, we can set the ratio R1/R2
and thus have a means for setting the voltage V1 at any value between zero and the total
voltage V across the potentiometer. In this process we have not changed the total
resistance of the potentiometer (resistance from A to C).

In practice, if a potentiometer is used to obtain a voltage, a voltmeter is connected

across the arm and one of the end terminals. The potentiometer is varied until the desired
voltage is measured.

It is possible to limit the range of voltage variation by placing a potentiometer in

series with one or more fixed resistors. Thus, in Figure 4 the voltage variation (range)
from B to C is from 5 to 15 V.

Figure 4: Limiting the range of variation of a voltage divider.

It should be noted that these results are true only if the voltage divider is unloaded,
that is, if no current is drawn by any external circuit.

Variable voltage dividers are used as volume controls in radios, contrast controls
in television receivers, speed controls in electronic motor-control circuits, voltage
regulator controls, and similar applications.

SUMMARY

1. The voltage across each resistor in a series-connected resistive voltage divider

can be found by the formula

V1= V X [R1/ RT]

where V1 is the voltage across R1 , V is the total voltage applied to the circuit, R1
is a resistor in a series-connected circuit, and RT is the total resistance of the
circuit.

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2. A somewhat longer method to determine the voltage across any resistor in a

series-connected divider is as follows:

First calculate the total resistance, R T = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

Next, solve for the current I in the circuit: I =V/RT

Knowing I, find the voltage drop across R1 using Ohm's law: V 1 = I X R1

3. If it is required to find the voltage to common (or ground) or to any reference

point from any point in a series connected voltage divider, the methods in 1 or 2
can be used.

4. Variable voltage-divider circuits can be formed by using a potentiometer across a

voltage source.

5. The range of voltage variation of a voltage divider can be limited by connecting a

potentiometer in series with voltage-dropping resistors.

6. The voltage relationships found by using the given formulas are for unloaded
voltage dividers.

SELF-TEST
Check your understanding by answering the following questions:

1. In Figure 1, if the positions of resistors R1 and R2 were reversed in the circuit, the
voltage across the 7.5 Ω resistor would be…………………. V.

2. In Figure 2, assume RT = 15 kΩ and R3 = 3 kΩ. If the applied voltage V is 22.5 V,

the voltage across R3 is …………………………….V.

3. In Figure 2, RT = 15 kΩ, R1 = 3.5 kΩ, and V = 30 V. The voltage across B and G,

VBG is ……………………. V.

4. In Figure 2, RT = 10,000 Ω, VBC = 2 V, and V = 8 V. The value of R2 is ………Ω.

5. In the variable voltage divider (Figure 3), assume V = 35 V. The range of

variation of VBC is from…………. V (maximum) to…………...V (minimum).

6. In the variable voltage divider (Figure 4), the battery voltage V is 6 V. The values
of the resistors are those shown in the figure. The range of VBC is from ……..V
(maximum) to ……. V (minimum).

7. In Figure 2, R1 = 1000 Ω, R2 = 2200 Ω, R3 = 680 Ω, R 4 = 220 Ω, and V = 16 V.

V1 = ……………….V, V2 = …………………V, V3 = …………………V, and
V4=………………..V.

8. For the same conditions as in question 7, VCG =……….V, VBG =……….. V, and
VBD = …………….V.

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MATERIALS REQUIRED

Power Supply: 0 Variable 0-15 V dc, regulated

Instruments: Ohmmeter (VOM), DMM, and 0-10 mA milliammeter,

Resistors (5%, ½ W): one each as follows
820 Ω , 1000 Ω, 2200 Ω, 3300 Ω, and
10,000 Ω 2-W potentiometer
Miscellaneous: SPST switch
PROCEDURE

A. Fixed Voltage-Divider Measurements

A1. With power off and switch S, open, connect the circuit of Figure 5 below. The
values for R1, through R4, are the rated values of the resistors.

A2. Connect the voltmeter across the power supply and adjust the power supply until
the voltmeter reads 15 V. Maintain this voltage throughout steps 3 and 4.

A3. Close S. Measure the supply voltage and record the value in Table 1. ( The
voltmeter should read 15 V: adjust the power supply if it does not read 15 V.)
Connect the voltmeter across AB to read the voltage across R1; this is voltage V1.
Similarly, connect the voltmeter across BC to read V 2, the voltage across R2;
across CD to read V3, the voltage across R3; and across DE to read V4 the voltage
across R4. Record all measured values in Table 1.

A4. Connect the voltmeter across BE to measure voltage V RF' the voltage across the
series combination of R2, R3, and R4,. Similarly, connect the voltmeter across

Figure 5: Fixed voltage-divider circuit for procedure step A1

CE to measure VCE; and across DE to measure VDE. Record all measured values in
Table 1. Open S.

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A5. Using the rated values of the resistors and the supply voltage of 15 V in Figure 5,
calculate the current I delivered by the power supply and V1, V2 ,V3 ,V4 ,VBE ,VCE
and VDE. Use the formulas discussed in the Basic Information section. Record
your answers in Table 1.

A6. With the circuit still connected as in Figure 5,close S. Adjust the power supply so
that the milliammeter reads 1.5 mA (0.0015 A). Measure and record V 1 ,V2, V3,
VBE, and VDE in Table 1. Open S.

A7. Using the rated value of the resistors and the supply current of 1.5 mA in Figure
5, calculate the power supply voltage V and V1, V2, V3, V4, VBE, VCE, and VDE.
Use the formulas discussed in the Basic Information section. Record your answers
in Table 1.

Observations for Experiment 4:

TABLE 1: Fixed Voltage-Divider Measurements: Part A

Step V I V1 V2 V3 V4 VBE VCE VDE
A3,A4 Measured 15
A5 Calculated
A6 Measured 0.0015
A7 Calculated

QUESTIONS

1. Refer to Table 1. Compare the measured values of V1, V2, V3, and V4(step A3)
with their respective calculated values (step A5). If any of the related values are not
equal, explain any differences.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Refer to Table 1. Compare the measured values of V1, V2, V3, V4, VBE,VCE, and
VDE (step A6) with their respective calculated values (step A7). If any of the related
values are not equal, explain any differences.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………....

3. Explain in your own words, which formula is confirmed this experiment. Refer to
specific data in Tables-1 ?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

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Note: Add extra sheet/s of A4 paper if you need more space to inscribe your answer/s.

Portion for use by teacher:

Completion of drawings/sketches/filling of blank spaces etc.……………………..
Reading work……………………………………………………………………….
Answering of Self Test Questions………………………………………………….
Section needing further attention…………………………………………………...
Final assessment
by teacher, with remarks if any

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Laboratory Exercise 6
CURRENT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

OBJECTIVES

1. To verify experimentally that the total current in a parallel circuit is greater than the current
in any branch.
2. To verify experimentally that the total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of
the currents each of the parallel branches.

BASIC INFORMATION
Branch Currents
In considering the series circuit it was found that a closed circuit is required for current that
current stops when the circuit is open, and that current in a series circuit is the same
everywhere .How does a parallel circuit differ from a series circuit?
Figure 1 shows three resistors connected in parallel and a voltage V applied across the
combination. If the line connecting the battery to the parallel network is broken at X or at Y
and an ammeter is inserted in the circuit at X or Y (Figure 2), the ammeter will measure the
total current delivered by the voltage source. This line current is draw by the three resistors
from the source.

Figure 1: The voltage V applied across three resistors connected in parallel.

A simple experiment suggests an important characteristic of a parallel circuit. If in Figure 2,

resistors R1 is removed from the circuit, the line current measured by the ammeter decreases.
If R2 is then removed from the circuit, the line current decreases further. What remains is a
simple series circuit consisting of V, R3 and the ammeter. The line current is now the current
by R3 from V; it may be computed directly by Ohm’s law.

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Figure 2: Measuring total current in a parallel circuit.

The results of this experiment indicate that in Figure 1 and 2 there are actually three
conductive paths for currents-namely, R1, R2 and R3. When all three paths are close, three
is maximum line current. When path R1 is broken, there is less line current because only two
paths remain, R2 and R3, and as was shows before, when bothR1 and R2 are open, only paths
remains. The paths are called branches, or legs, of the parallel circuits.
One characteristic of a parallel circuit containing only resistors is that the total current total
(current).

An example will illustrate this characteristic. Assume in Figure 3 that the voltage source V
is 6.6 V appears across each branch resistor in the circuit that is, the voltage across R, is 6.6
V, that across R, is 6.6V, and that across R3 is 6.6V also.

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Figure 3: Circuit used to find the relationship between branch currents and total current in
parallel circuit.

The individual currents in each branch, i1 in R1 i2 in R3 can be calculated by Ohm’s law.

Thus,
I1 = V/R1 = 6.6/2000 = 0.0033A = 3.3 mA

I2 = V/R2 = 6.6/R2 = 0.0022A = 2.2 mA

I3 = V/R3 = 6.6/R3 = 0.00066A = 0.66 mA

In parallel circuit, the total current is greater than the current in any branch therefore the total
current it (current) in this circuit must be greater than 3.3 mA.

Total Current In a Parallel Circuit

The only source of current for R1, R2, R3 and R4 in the parallel circuit of Figure 3 is the
voltage source V. Therefore, each of title currents I1, I2 and I3 combine in the line to form
the line, or total current. The total current is = 3.3 + 2.2 +0.66 = 6.16 mA

PROCEDURE

1. Place the resistors in breadboard in parallel combination.

Figure 4:

2. Measure the resistance of each of the five resistors supplied and record values in table 1.
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3. Open S, in each case before changing the meter and circuit connection. The following steps
assume all necessary meter and circuit connections have been made to enable the currents
and voltages to be measured.

4. Close S measure Vps, IT, I1, and I2 and I3. Record these values in Table 2. Calculate IT
(the sum of all the branches currents) and record your answer in Table 2.

5. Remove the 820 Ω and 4700 Ω resistor from branch 1. Adjust Vps = 10V, Measure I 1, I2
and I3 .Record the values in Table 2. Calculate IT and record in Table 2.

6. Remove 1000 Ω and 820 Ω resistor from branch 1. Adjust Vps = 10V. Measure IT, and I3.
Record the values in Table 2. Calculate IT and record in Table 2. Open S and turn the power
off.

7. Remove the 2200 Ω and 3300 Ω resistor from branch 1. Adjust Vps = 10V. Measure IT,
I2 and I3 record the values in Table 2.

8. With power on S closed, measure Vps, IT, I1, I2 and I3. Record the values in Table 2.
Calculate IT (the sum of the branch currents) and record in Table 2.

9. Remove the resistor from branch 1. Adjust Vps = 10V. Measure IT, I2 and I3 and record
the values in Table 2. Calculate IT and record Table 2.

10. Remove the 3300 Ω and 4700 Ω resistor from branch 2 so that only branch 3 remains in
the circuit. Adjust Vps = 10V. Measure IT and I3 and record the values in Table 2. Calculate
IT and record in Table 2. Open S and turn the power off.

OBSERVATION

Table 1: Measured Values, Experimental Resistors

Step Resistors R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
1 Rated Value, Ω 820 1000 2200 3300 4700
Measured Value, Ω

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Table 2; Measured and computed Values in Parallel Circuit

Measured Values IT
Calculated
Rated Value of Branch Resistors
A
Ω V A
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 V I1 I2 I3
Step
1000 2200 3300
2200 3300 4700
820 1000 4700
820 1000 2200

SELF-TEST

Check your understanding by answering the following question:

1. The voltage across each branch of a parallel network must be....................

2. In Figure 3, the voltage V1, across R1, the voltage V2 across R2 and voltage V3 across R3
must be………………..

3. In Figure 3, if V = 10V, find the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 I1 =....................A and
I2………. And I3 = ………………..A.

4. The total current in the circuit of question 3 must be greater than the ………………branch
current.

5. In Figure 3, for the branch currents listed in question 3, total current = ………………A.

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Laboratory Exercise 7
RESISTANCE OF A PARALLEL CIRCUIT FINDING RT
BY FORMULA
OBJECTIVES
To verify experimentally the relationship between
(1) branch resistances and
(2) the total resistance of a parallel circuit.

BASIC INFORMATION

Total Resistance In a Parallel Circuit

The resistance RT to which voltage V is connected in Figure 1 limits the current in the
circuit to IT. If a single resistor could be found that would draw the same current I T
whenconnected across V, then the value of this resistor would be equivalent to the three
parallel resistors. This equivalent resistor would also represent the total resistance R T of the
three parallel resistors.

Figure 1: Voltage Volt applied across three resistors connected in parallel.

Measuring Total Resistance

With V removed, an ohmmeter placed across the end points X and Y of a parallel
circuit such as in Figure 2 would measure the total resistance of the three resistors.

Figure 2: Finding the total resistance of three parallel resistors.

CAUTION: Always disconnect resistors from their power source before making resistance
measurements with an ohmmeter.

The Ohm's law formula for finding resistance is R= V/ I

If R is the total resistance across V, then I is the total current delivered by V to the
resistance. This provides another method for measuring RT.
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If the circuit in series with V were broken and an ammeter inserted in the break, as
in Figure 3, the ammeter would read the total current delivered by V. The value of V can
be measured by connecting a voltmeter directly across the voltage source. Two of the three
factors of Ohm's law, V and 1, would then be known and the third factor, R, could be
calculated using the formula RT = V/ IT (1)

In Experiment 5 it was found that the total current drawn by a parallel circuit is
greater than the current in any branch. From Ohm's law and the fact that resistance is
inversely proportional to current (that is, if voltage is held constant, current will decrease
as resistance increases) a similar characteristic is true for parallel resistors.

In a parallel circuit the total resistance of the circuit is less than the lowest resistance
in the parallel combination. For example, if three resistors with values of 47 Ω, 68Ω, and
100 Ω were connected in parallel as in Figure 2, the total resistance would be less than 47
Ω. (The exact value and a method for finding it are discussed next.)

Figure 3: Measuring total current in a parallel circuit.

The Relationship Between Branch Resistance and Total Resistance

The resistance of the conductors in the circuit is zero, The voltage across each branch
resistor is exactly the same.
Using Ohm's law we can find the current in each branch of the circuit in Figure 1:
i.e., I1=V/R1, I2 = V/R2 I3 = V/R3
The total cut-rent delivered to this circuit by V is
IT = I1 + I2 + I3
We get
V/RT = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3

Thus we get
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

The above formula states the relationship between the branch resistance and total resistance
of parallel circuit.

To find RT we get

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1
R T
=
1 1 1
+ +
R 1 R 2 R 3
SUMMARY

1. The voltage V across each branch (i.e., each resistor in Figures 1 and 3) of a
parallel circuit is the same.

2. The total or equivalent resistance RT of two or more resistors connected in

parallel, as in Figure 3, can be found experimentally by measuring the total curr
ent IT measuring the voltage V across the parallel network, and substituting the
measured values in the formula RT = V/ IT

3. Another method of finding the total resistance RT of two or more parallel-

connected resistors, as in Figure 2, is to place an ohmmeter across the parallel
circuit. The meter will measure RT.

4. Resistance should never be measured when there is power applied to the circuit. If
the parallel resistance of R1, R2 , and R3 in Figure 3 is required, power must first
be disconnected.

5. We can also write the formula for RT as I /RT = [1/R1] + [1/R2 ] + [1/R3] + …

6. To measure one of two or more resistors connected in parallel, say R 1 in Figure 2,

disconnect one lead of R1 from the circuit. Then measure the resistance of R1.

SELF-TEST

Check your understanding by answering the following questions:

1. In the circuit of Figure 1, IT = 0.02 A. V = 5 V. The total resistance RT =……....Ω.

2. (True/False) For the conditions in question 1, it is possible for R1 to equal 100 Ω.

3. For the conditions in question 1, the voltage V across R2 = …………………V.

4. (frue/False)To measure the resistance of R3., in Figure 2, simply place the

ohmmeter leads across GF and' read the resistance………………..

5. In Figure 2 the resistance of R1 = 25 Ω, R2 = 33 Ω, R 3 = 75 Ω. RT = ………….Ω

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Power Supplies:
❑ Variable, 0- 15 V dc, regulated

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Instruments:
❑ DMM or VOM

Resistors (5%, ½ -W):

❑ 1 820 Ω
❑ I 1000 Ω
❑ 1 2200 Ω
❑ 1 3300 Ω
❑ 1 4700 Ω

Miscellaneous:
❑ SPST switch

PROCEDURE

A. Finding RT by Formula

A1. Measure the resistance of each of the resistors supplied and records the value in
Table 1.

A2. Connect the two resistors shown in parallel in Figure 4(a) below. Using an
ohmmeter, measure the resistance of the parallel combination. Record the value in Table 2.

Figure 4(a): Circuit for procedure step A2.

A3. Connect a third resistor to the parallel combination as shown in Figure 4(b). Using
an ohmmeter, measure the resistance of the parallel combination. Record the value
in Table 2.

Figure 4(b): Circuit for procedure step A3.

A4. Connect a fourth resistor to the parallel combination as shown in Figure 4(c).
Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance of the parallel combination. Record
the value in Table 2.

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Figure 4(c): Circuit for procedure step A4.

A5. Connect a fifth resistor to the parallel combination as shown in Figure 4(d).
Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance of the parallel combination. Record
the value in Table 2. Do not disconnect this combination.

Figure 4(d): Circuit for procedure step A5.

A6. For each of the parallel combinations in steps 2 through 5, calculate the value of
RT using measured values of resistance from Table 1 and the formulas discussed in
the Basic Information section. Record your answers in Table 2.

B. Finding RT Using the Voltage-Current Method

B1. With power off and switch S open, using the parallel combination of resistors in
step 5 of part A, connect the circuit of Figure 5(a). Power on. S closed. A constant
voltage, Vps = 10 V, will be applied to all circuits in part B. Measure V ps (it should
be 10 V) and IT. Record values in Table

Figure 5(a): Circuit for procedure step B1.

B2. Remove the 4700 Ω resistor to obtain the circuit of Figure 5(b). Adjust Vps to
10 V. Measure IT and record values in Table 3.

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Figure 5(b): Circuit for procedure step B2

B3. Remove the 3300 Ω resistor from the circuit of step B2 as in Figure 5(c). Adjust
Vps to 10 V. Measure IT and record values in Table 3.

Figure 5(c): Circuit for procedure step B3.

B4. Remove the 2200 Ω resistor from the circuit of step B3, leaving two resistors in
parallel as in Figure 5(d). Adjust Vps to 10 V. Measure IT and record values in
Table 3. Power off, S open.

Figure 5(d): Circuit for procedure step B4.

B5. For each circuit in steps B I through B4, calculate RT by using the Ohm's law
formula discussed in the Basic Information section. Record your answers in
Table 3.

Observations for Experiment 6:

Table 1. Measured Value, Experimental Resistors

Resistor R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Rated Value, Ω 820 1000 2200 3300 4700
Measured Value, Ω

Table 2. Part A: Finding RT of Parallel-Connected Resistors by Formula.

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Rated Value, Ω Measured Value of RT Calculated Value of RT

Step R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Ω Ω
A2 820 1000
A3 820 1000 2200
A4 820 1000 2200 3300
A5 820 1000 2200 3300 4700

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 8
RESISTANCE OF A PARALLEL CIRCUIT FINDING RT BY
VOLTAGE CURRENT METHOD

OBJECTIVES
To verify experimentally the relationship between
(1) Branch resistance and
(2) The total resistance of a parallel circuit

THEORY:
Refer the basic theory of resistance of a parallel circuit from lab 07.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Power Supplies:
❑ Variable, 0- 15 V dc, regulated

Instruments:
❑ DMM or VOM

Resistors (5%, ½ -W):

❑ 1 820 Ω
❑ I 1000 Ω
❑ 1 2200 Ω
❑ 1 3300 Ω
❑ 1 4700 Ω

Miscellaneous:
❑ SPST switch

PROCEDURE

A. Finding RT by Formula

A1. Measure the resistance of each of the resistors supplied and records the value in
Table 1.

A2. Connect the two resistors shown in parallel in Figure 4(a) below. Using an
ohmmeter, measure the resistance of the parallel combination. Record the value in Table 2.

Figure 4(a): Circuit for procedure step A2.

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A3. Connect a third resistor to the parallel combination as shown in Figure 4(b). Using
an ohmmeter, measure the resistance of the parallel combination. Record the value
in Table 2.

Figure 4(b): Circuit for procedure step A3.

A4. Connect a fourth resistor to the parallel combination as shown in Figure 4(c).
Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance of the parallel combination. Record
the value in Table 2.

Figure 4(c): Circuit for procedure step A4.

A5. Connect a fifth resistor to the parallel combination as shown in Figure 4(d).
Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance of the parallel combination. Record
the value in Table 2. Do not disconnect this combination.

Figure 4(d): Circuit for procedure step A5.

A6. For each of the parallel combinations in steps 2 through 5, calculate the value of
RT using measured values of resistance from Table 1 and the formulas discussed in
the Basic Information section. Record your answers in Table 2.

B. Finding RT Using the Voltage-Current Method

B1. With power off and switch S open, using the parallel combination of resistors in
step 5 of part A, connect the circuit of Figure 5(a). Power on. S closed. A constant
voltage, Vps = 10 V, will be applied to all circuits in part B. Measure V ps (it should

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be 10 V) and IT. Record values in Table

Figure 5(a): Circuit for procedure step B1.

B2. Remove the 4700 Ω resistor to obtain the circuit of Figure 5(b). Adjust Vps to
10 V. Measure IT and record values in Table 3.

Figure 5(b): Circuit for procedure step B2

B3. Remove the 3300 Ω resistor from the circuit of step B2 as in Figure 5(c). Adjust
Vps to 10 V. Measure IT and record values in Table 3.

Figure 5(c): Circuit for procedure step B3.

B4. Remove the 2200 Ω resistor from the circuit of step B3, leaving two resistors in
parallel as in Figure 5(d). Adjust Vps to 10 V. Measure IT and record values in
Table 3. Power off, S open.

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Figure 5(d): Circuit for procedure step B4.

B5. For each circuit in steps B I through B4, calculate RT by using the Ohm's law
formula discussed in the Basic Information section. Record your answers in
Table 3.

Table: Part B: Finding RT by the Voltage – Current Method.

Measured Values Calculated Values
Step Vps,, volts IT, Amps RT, Ω
B1
B2
B3
B4

QUESTIONS

1. Explain, in your own words, the relationship between branch resistances and the
total resistance of a parallel circuit.
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2. Write the relationship discussed in Question I as a mathematical formula.

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3. Discuss the effect on total resistance of a parallel circuit, by referring to your

experiment data, if:
(a) The number of parallel resistors is increased.
(b) The resistance of each resistance is increased.
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4. Discuss three methods used in finding the total resistance of parallel-connected

resistors.

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5. Parts A and B use similar circuits. For each comparable combination of

resistors in parts A and B, compare the calculated values. Discuss the possible
reasons for differences, if any.
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Note: Add extra sheet/s of A4 paper if you need more space to inscribe your
answer/s.

Portion for use by teacher:

Completion of drawings/sketches/filling of blank spaces etc………….…………
Reading work……………………………………………………………………
Answering of Self-Test Questions………………………………………………..
Section needing further attention…………………………………..……………..
Final assessment by teacher, with remarks if any:

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Laboratory Exercise 9
MESH ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVE:
To verify experimentally mesh analysis and find current and voltage across each resistor

BASIC INFORMATION:

Mesh or loop analysis is developed by applying KVL around loops in the circuit. It
results in a system of linear equations which must be solved for unknown currents.

Mesh analysis works by arbitrarily assigning mesh currents in the essential meshes. An
essential mesh is a loop in the circuit that does not contain any other loop. Once the essential
meshes are found, the mesh currents need to be labeled. A mesh current is a current that
loops around the essential mesh. The mesh current might not have a physical meaning but
it is used to set up the mesh analysis equations. When assigning the mesh currents it is
important to have all the mesh currents loop in the same direction. This will help prevent
errors when writing out the equations. The convention is to have all the mesh currents
looping in a clockwise direction.

The reason to use mesh currents instead of just using KCL and KVL to solve a problem is
that the mesh currents can account for any unnecessary currents that may be drawn in when
using KCL and KVL. Mesh analysis ensures that the least possible number of equations
regarding currents is used, greatly simplifying the problem.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Power Supply:
• 2 variable 0-20 V dc, regulated
Instruments:
• DMM or VOM
• 0-100 mA milliammeter
Resistors (1/2-W, 5%)
• 1 820 Ω
• 1 1200 Ω
• 1 2200 Ω
• 1 3300 Ω
Miscellaneous:
• 2 SPDT switches

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PROCEDURE

CAUTION: This experiment requires current readings in three different parts of a circuit.
If only one ammeter is available, turn off power in both supplies before connecting and
disconnecting the meter.

1) Construct the network as shown in Figure 1.

2) Identify mesh (loops)

3) Assign a current to each mesh.
4) Apply KVL around each loop to get an equation in terms of the loop currents.
5) Solve the resulting system of linear equations.
6) After finding each mesh current, calculate voltage drop and current through every
resistor and record the values in Table 1.

Table 1:
Measured Values Calculated Values
Current, mA Voltage, V Current, mA Voltage, V
I1 V1 I1 V1
I2 V2 I2 V2
I3 V3 I3 V3
I4 V4 I4 V4
I5 V5 I5 V5

QUESTIONS
1. Explain in your own words, how the mesh analysis is used to find currents n a circuit
supplied by more than one voltage source.
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2. Refer your data in Tables 1. Do the results of your experiment confirm the mesh
analysis?
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3. If the polarity of both power supplies in figure 7 were reversed, how would the
current
R2 is affected?
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Note: Add extra sheet/s of A4 paper if you need more space to inscribe your answer/s.

Portion for use by teacher:

Completion of drawings/sketches/filling of blank spaces etc…………………..
Reading work……………………………………………………………………
Answering of Self Test Questions………………………………………………
Section needing further attention………………………………………………..
Final assessment by teacher, with remarks if any

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Laboratory Exercise 10
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE AND CURRENT LAW

OBJECTIVE:

To verify experimentally Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current law .

REQUIRED :
⚫ Resistors,
⚫ DMM,
⚫ DC power supply

THEORY:

1. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLATAGE LAW :

EXPLANATION:

Consider the simple series circuit Fig1 , here we have numbered the points in the
circuit for voltage reference.

As we are dealing with dc circuits, therefore we should carefully connect the voltmeter
while measuring voltage across supply or any of the resistances as shown in fig 1 ,
keeping in mind the similarity of polarities of voltage across the element and that of the
connected probes of meter, in such case, we will observe that,

E1,2 = +5.23V voltage from point1 to point 2

E2,3 = +2.6V voltage from point 2 to point 3
E3,4 = +7.1V voltage from point 3 to point 4
E4,1 = - 20V voltage from point 4 to point 1
0V

This principle is known as Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, and it can be stated as such:

The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal to zero

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Fig :1

Fig :2

2.KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

Let’s take a closer look at the circuit given in fig 2

Then , according to Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

The algebraic sum off all currents entering and exiting a node must equal to zero

Mathematically , we can express this general relationship as such :

Ientering +(-Iexiting) = 0

That if we assign a mathematical sign(polarity) to each current, denoting whether they

enter(+) or exit (-)a node , we can add them together to arrive at a total of zero

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Note:

Whether negative or positive current entering or exiting is entirely arbitrary , so long as

they are opposite signs for opposite directions and we stay consistent in our notation,
KCL will work.

PROCEDURE:

a) FOR KVL :

1. Construct circuit of fig 1 using the values R1, R2 , R3 as shown in the figure 1.
2. Adjust the output of the power supply so that Vs=20V. Measure and record this
voltage in table 1 , also measure and record the voltages V1 , V2, V3 and enter the
sum in the table.

b) FOR KCL:

1. Connect the circuit of fig 2 with Vs=20V.

2. Measure and record in table 2 currents Ir1 , Ir2 , Ir3 and Itotal.

OBSERVATIONS:

Table 1

Vt v1 v2 v3 Sum(v1+v2+v3)

Table 2

I total Ir1 Ir2 Ir3 Sum(Ir1+Ir2+Ir3)

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CALCULATIONS:

Answer the following:

For KVL:

Q1) In fig 1 V1= 10 V, V2= 12V, V3 =20 V, V4= 15V. The applied voltage Vs must then
equal ___________V.

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Q2) In fig 1, V1= 15 V , V2= 20V and Vs=100V. The voltage V3= _____________V.

Q3) Is KVL verified practically as well as mathematically in the above performed lab? If
no, why?

For KCL:

Q1) In fig 2, if IR1=5A, IR2=2A and IR3 = 1A, then Itotal should be equal
to___________A.
Q2) Is KCL verified practically as well as mathematically in the above performed lab? If
no, why?

Note: Add extra sheet/s of A4 paper if you need more space to inscribe your answer/s.

Portion for use by teacher:

Completion of drawings/sketches/filling of blank spaces etc…………………..
Reading work……………………………………………………………………
Answering of Self Test Questions………………………………………………
Section needing further attention………………………………………………..
Final assessment by teacher, with remarks if any

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 Basic Electronic and Electrical Engineering/Basic Electromechanical Engineering
Laboratory Manual

Laboratory Exercise 11
To Calculate the unknown value of the resistor by using
wheatstone bridge

OBJECTIVES
To Findout the Unknown value of the resistor also find voltage VD and
VB of the given fig in Wheatstone bridge and to prove VD = VB OR
VDB=0

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Power Supply
❑ Variable 0-20 V dc, regulated
1nstruments:
❑ DMM or VOM
❑ 0-10 mAmilliammeter
Resistors (5%, 1/2-W):
❑ 1 330 Ω
❑ 1 470 Ω
❑ 1 1200 Ω
❑ 1 2200 Ω
❑ 1 3300 Ω
❑ 1 4700 Ω
Miscellaneous:

❑ SPST switch

BASIC INFORMATIONS

Wheatstone bridge is used to calculate the resistance of unknown resistor in the circuit. A
Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the
unknown component.

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 Basic Electronic and Electrical Engineering/Basic Electromechanical Engineering
Laboratory Manual

PROCEDURE:

Refer to fig:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Connect the positive terminal of the battery to point A and negative
terminal to point C as shown in fig.
3. Set the power supply on 10 V.
4. Calculate the value of unknown resistor by using the formula given below.

Calculation

R1/R2 = R3/Rx

RX = (R2 x R3)/R1

VDC = ----------volts

VB C = -----------volts

VDC-VBC = VDC

VDC= --------------Volt

Portion for use by teacher:

Completion of drawings/sketches/filling of blank spaces etc.……………………..
Reading work……………………………………………………………………….
Answering of Self Test Questions………………………………………………….
Section needing further attention…………………………………………………...

________________________________________________________________________
Department of Civil Engineering Page 62
Sir Syed University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi
 Basic Electronic and Electrical Engineering/Basic Electromechanical Engineering
Laboratory Manual

LABORATORY EXERCISE 12
OBJECTIVE:
To become familiar with Star/Delta conversion and calculate power dissipated in each
configuration.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
▪ 6x100 ohm resistors
▪ 3x130 ohm resistors
▪ 6x390 ohm resistors
▪ DMM
▪ DC power supply
THEORY:
In series or parallel combination of resistors, we define connection by focusing at two
resistors at a time, and then declaring the nature of connection that either it is series or
parallel.
However, when we have to analyze three resistances at a time then instead of series and
parallel, we define the connectivity of resistors as “star” connection or “delta”
Connection. Such type of connections becomes more important when we study three phase
power systems. Also, these connections are applicable not only for resistor, they are defined
either for individual R (resistance), XL (inductive reactance), Xc (capacitive reactance) or Z
(impedance) as whole according to the nature of system under Consideration.

Delta to Star:
R1 = RB x Rc/ ( RA+RB+Rc )
RA+RB+RC
R3 = RA x RB
RA+RB+RC
Star to Delta:
RA= R2 + R3 + R2 x R3 R1
RB=R1+R3+ R1 x R3 R2
RC=R1+R2+ R1 x R2 R3
If RA=RB=RC, then
RY=R / 3
If R1=R2=R3, then
R=3xRY

PROCEDURE:
1-Construct the network of fig: 6.1.
2-Measure the current „I‟ and voltage „Vab‟ and record in the observation table.
3- Calculate the equivalent Y for the formed by three 390 ohm resistors
(Using RY=R / 3)
4- Insert the values of resistors in the Y as shown in fig: 6.2.
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 Basic Electronic and Electrical Engineering/Basic Electromechanical Engineering
Laboratory Manual

5- Measure the current „I‟ and voltage „Vab‟ and record in the observation table. 6-
Construct the network of fig: 6.3.
7-Measure the current „I‟ and voltage „Vab‟ and record in the observation table.
8- Calculate the power absorbed by using the formula P=I x Vs and record it in the
observation table.

RESULT:
Answer the following:
Q-1) Referring to the observation table, column 2, how much current will be flowing through
resistor RL across (a-b)? Justify your answer mathematically.
Q-2) The power absorbed for the networks of figs 1 and 2 is the same but for the network of
fig 3 it is not, what can you infer from it? [Hint: Talk in terms of resistance].
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Department of Civil Engineering Page 64
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 Basic Electronic and Electrical Engineering/Basic Electromechanical Engineering
Laboratory Manual

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