,uz;lhk; jtiz khjpupg;guPl;ir 2020

tuyhW
juk; - 6 Rl;nlz;……………… Neuk; - 2 kzpj;jpahyk;
gFjp I

kpfr; rupahd tpiliaj; njupT nra;f

(1) ,yq;ifapd; tuyhw;iw mwpa cjTfpd;w kfhtk;r E}iy vOjpatu;

1) k`pe;j Njuu; (2) = Rkq;fy Njuu;

3) kfhehk Njuu; (4) mupl;l Njuu;

(2) “`p[;up” Mz;Lld; njhlu;GgLk; epfo;T

1) KfkJegp mtu;fs; gpwe;jjpdk;.

2) KfkJegp mtu;fs; kf;fhit tpl;L kjPdhTf;Fr; nrd;wik.

3) KfkJegp mtu;fSf;F ,iwjuprdk; fpilj;jik.

4) KfkJegp mtu;fshy; ,];yhk; rkak; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;lik.

(3) kpd;Ndupahf;Fsj;ijf; fl;Ltpj;j kd;dd; ahu;?

1) jhJNrd kd;dd; 2) gz;Lfhga kd;dd;

3) kfhNrd kd;dd; 4) Jl;lifKD kd;dd;

(4) “negpAyh” vd;Dk; J}rpg;glyj;jpypUe;J Njhd;wpajhff; fUjg;gLk; Nfhs;

1) rdp 2) nrt;tha; 3) ANud]; 4) G+kp

(5) Kjd; Kjypy; neUg;ig cgNahfpj;j kdpj ,dk;

1) N`hNkh ,nuf;l]; 2) N`hNkh Nrgpad;

3) N `hNkh n`gpy]; 4) x];Nuhgpj;jpf];

(6) Kjd; Kjyhfj; jiuapy;; jhtuq;fs; Njhd;wpa Afk;

1) rpY}upad; Afk; 2) ngypnahnrhap Afk;

3) ngUk;gdp Afk; 4) ,Nahrpd; Afk;

(7) fPo;tUtdtw;Ws; khah ehfupfj;jpd; fz;Lgpbg;Gf;fspy; xd;W

1) ntbkUe;J 2) ,wg;gu;g;ge;J 3) rpy;Y 4) cNyhfk;

(8) A+gpuB];- ijfpuP]; ejpg;gs;sj;jhf;fpy; Njhd;wp tsu;e;j ehfupfk;

1) Fthq;Nfh ehfupfk; 2) fpNuf;f ehfupfk;

3) nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupfk; 4) cNuhk ehfupfk;

1
(9) cyfpd; kpfg; gioa rl;l E}iy cUthf;fpatu;fs;

1) vfpg;jpa Ml;rpahsu;fs; 2) rPd Ml;rpahsu;fs;

3) fpNuf;f Ml;rpahsu;fs; 4) `Kuhgp Ml;rpahsu;fs;

(10) ,we;j cliy ePz;l fhyk; Ngzp itj;jpUf;ff; $ba ~~kk;kp” Kiwia

cyfpw;F toq;fpa ehfupfk;

1) vfpg;jpa ehfupfk; 2) Fthq;Nfh ehfupfk;

3) ,d;fh ehfupfk; 4) rpe;Jntsp ehfupfk;

(11) nkhrg;gj;njkpa efuq;fspy; flTis topgLtjw;fhf mikf;fg;gl;l Myaq;fs;

1) Njthyak; 2) rpFwhj; 3) lal; 4) nfhNyhrpak;

(12) Kjd; Kjy; mr;rpae;jpuj;ijf; fz;lwpe;j ehl;ltu;

1) mNugpau; 2) rPdu; 3) ,e;jpau; 4) [g;ghdpau;

(13) ,yq;ifapy; fw;fhy Afj;jpw;Fupa Mguzkhd rpg;gpiaj; Jisj;Jr; nra;ag;gl;l

ml;bay; fz;nlLf;fg;gl;l Fif

1) ghfpad;fy 2) fpj;Jy;fy; 3) rPfpupanghj;jhd 4) gj;jpuh[nty

(14) tp[aDk; mtdJ Njhou;fSk; ,yq;ifapy; te;jpwq;fpa ,lk;

1) Nfhfz;z 2) kfhjpj;j 3) jk;ggz;zp 4) kfhfk

(15) “ tp[ad; cs;spl;l FOtpdu; Mupa ,dj;ijr; Nru;e;jtu;fs;” vdf; Fwpg;gpLk; E}y;

1) #stk;rk; 2) jPgtk;rk; 3) J}gtk;rk; 4) kfhtk;rk;

(16) ,yq;ifapd; Mjpf;Fbfshd ,af;fu;fs; trpj;J te;j ,U efuq;fs;

1) Nfhfz;z> fsdp 2) yq;fhGu> rpwprj;JtGu

3) mEuhjGu> nghyd;dWit 4) fz;b> khfik

(17) tp[ad; FOtpduhy; mikf;fg;gl;l FbNaw;wq;fspy; xd;W

1) fy;ahzp 2) kfhfk 3) mEuhjfk 4) kfhehfFy

(18) Kjd; Kjyhf efupd; mUfpy; Fsk; xd;iw fl;Ltpj;j kd;dd;

1) trg kd;dd; 2) Jl;lifKD kd;dd;

3) gz;Lfhga kd;dd; 4) jhJNrd kd;dd;

(19) ,yq;ifapy; ngsj;j rkaj;ijg; gpd;gw;wpa KjyhtJ kd;dd;

1) fhrpag;g kd;dd; 2) Njtek;gpajPr kd;dd;

3) tyfk;gh kd;dd; 4) gz;Lfhga kd;dd;

(20) gz;Lfhga kd;ddpd; ngw;Nwhu;fs;

2
1) fhte;jPrd;> tpfhukhNjtp 2) jPffhkpdp> cd;khjrpj;jpuh

3) ep]q;fky;yd;> fy;ahzp 4) [ak`Ny> RNdj;uhNjtp

(2x20=40Gs;spfs;)

gFjp II

Kjyhk; tpdh cl;gl Ie;J tpdhf;fSf;F tpil jUf.

(01) (m) 1) tuyhW ghlj;jpy; ,uz;lhk; jtizapy; ckf;F toq;fg;gl;l

fzpg;gPl;L tifiag; ngaupLf? (01 Gs;sp )
2) mf; fzpg;gPl;bidg; G+u;j;jp nra;j ghl myfpidf; Fwpg;gpLf.
(01 Gs;sp )
3) mf; fzpg;gPl;bidg; G+u;j;jp nra;jjhy; ePu; ngw;Wf; nfhz;l gad;fs;
,uz;L jUf? (02 Gs;spfs;)
4) Nkw;gb fzpg;gPl;bidg; G+u;j;jp nra;tjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jpa ju
cs;sPl;Lg; nghUl;fs; ehd;fpidf; Fwpg;gpLf? (02 Gs;spfs;)

(M) gpd;tUk; mk;rq;fs; Fwpf;Fk; Mq;fpy vOj;Jf;fisj; jug;gl;l

cyfg;GwTUtg; glj;jpypUe;J njupe;njLj;J vOJf?
1) vfpg;J (…..) 4) ,e;jpah (…..)
2) rPdh (…..) 5) mT];jpNuypah (…..)
3) <uhf; (…..) 6) tlmnkupf;fh (…..)

E
B
D
C

(06 Gs;spfs;)

(02) 1) a) nghyd;dWitf; fy;tpfhiuiaf; fl;Ltpj;j kd;dd; ahu;?

b) ,yq;ifapd; tuyhw;iwf; fw;gjw;F cjTk; ,yf;fpa %yhjhuq;fs;
,uz;bidf; Fwpg;gpLf?

2) tuyhw;iwf; fw;gjd; gad;fs; %d;W jUf?

3) tuyhw;Wf; fhyj;ij mstplg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Kiwfs; %d;wpid
vOJf?

3
 4) gioa fw;fhy kdpjdpd; tho;f;if Kiw gw;wp %d;W tplaq;fisf; Fwpg;gpLf?
(12 Gs;spfs;)

(03) 1) a) thdu guk;giuiar; Nru;e;j rpk;gd;rpapypUe;J kdpjd; Kd;Ndwpa nrad;Kiw

vt;thW miof;fg;gLk;?
b) kdpjd; Kjd; Kjy; neUg;igg; gad;gLj;jpaikf;fhd rhd;W
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l ehL vJ?
c) “N`hNkhn`gpy];” vd;gjd; nghUs; ahJ?
2) ,ilf;fw;fhyj;jpy; kdpjd; mile;j Kd;Ndw;wq;fs; %d;W jUf?
3) nkhq;fnyhapl; kdpjtu;f;fj;jpdu; tho;fpd;w ehLfs; %d;W vOJf?
4) Gjpa fw;fhyj;jpy; Vw;gl;l %d;W khw;wq;fisf; Fwpg;gpLf?
(12 Gs;spfs;)
(04) 1) fPNo jug;gl;Ls;stw;Wld; njhlu;GgLfpd;w ejpf;fiu ehfupfq;fisf;
Fwpg;gpLf?
a) Mg;G tbtpyhd vOj;J
b) kpUf milahsj;Jldhd fspkz; ,yr;rpid
c) gpukpl;

2) nkhrg;gj;Njkpa kf;fl; r%fj;jpy; fhzg;gl;l gpupTfspy; %d;iw vOJf?

3) nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupf kf;fs; Nkw;nfhz;l tptrha eltbf;iffs; njhlu;ghd

%d;W tplaq;fisj; jUf?

4) nkhrg;gj;Njkpau;fs; topgl;l nja;tq;fspd; ngau;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.

,j;nja;tq;fs; vtw;wpd; mjpgjpfshf topglg;gl;ldu; vdf; Fwpg;gpLf?

a) vd;ypyp

b) mD

c) vd;fpfp (12 Gs;spfs;)

(05) 1) gpd;tUk; gpuNjrq;fspy; Kjd; Kjy; gapuplg;gl;l gapu;fisg; ngaupLf?

a) rPdh
b) kj;jpa nkf;rpf;Nfh
c) kj;jpajiuf; flw;gpuNjrk;

2) rpe;Jntspehfupfj;jpy; tsu;r;rp ngw;wpUe;j efuq;fspy; %d;iwf; Fwpg;gpLf?

3) rpe;Jntspehfupf efuq;fspd; gz;Gfs; %d;W jUf?

4) a) glj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; murpapd; ngau; vd;d?

b) ,t; murp Ml;rp nra;j ehL vJ?

c) me;j ehl;bd; jiyefiuf; Fwpg;gpLf?

(12Gs;spfs;)

(06) 1) fPNo jug;gl;Ls;s Mupau; FbNaw;wq;fis cUthf;fpa mikr;ru;fisf;

Fwpg;gpLf?

4
 a) cgjp];] fk

b) cUnty fk

c) jPfhA fk

2) Guhjd fhyj;jpy; ,yq;iff;F toq;fg;gl;l NtW ngau;fs; %d;W jUf?

3) ,yq;if Guhjd fhyk; njhl;L ru;tNjr uPjpapy; Gfo;ngw;W tpsq;Ftjw;fhd

fhuzq;fs; ,uz;bidf; Fwpg;gpLf?

4) mEuhjfkit efukhf epu;khzpg;gjd; nghUl;L gz;Lfhga kd;dd;

Kd;ndLj;j jpl;lkply; eltbf;iffs; %d;W vOJf?

(12Gs;spfs;)

5
 tpilfs;

gFjp I
1) 3 6) 2 11) 2 16) 2
2) 2 7) 2 12) 2 17) 3
3) 3 8) 3 13) 1 18) 3
4) 4 9) 4 14) 3 19) 2
5) 1 10)1 15) 4 20) 2

gFjp II
(01) (m) nghUj;jkhd tpilfs;
(M) 1- D
2- B
3- F
4- C
5- A
6- E
(02) 1) a) kfhguhf;fpukghF b) jPgtk;rk;> kfhtk;rk;
2)  vkJ ehl;bid vt;thW tpUj;jp nra;ayhk; vd;gijj; jPu;khdpj;jy;
 jw;fhyj;jpy; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; gpur;rpidfSf;Fj; jPu;Tfisf; fhz;gjw;F
 epfo;fhyj;ijg; gaDs;sjhf;Ftjw;F
 vjpu;fhyr; nraw;ghLfisj; jpl;lkpLtjw;F

3)  fpwp];JTf;F Kd;> fpwp];JTf;Fg; gpd;

 Gj;jtUlk;
 rhypthfd rfhg;jk;
 `p[;up tUlk;

4)  $l;lkhff; Fbirfs; mikj;J tho;e;jdu;.

 ,we;j cwtpdupd; kuzr;rlq;Ffis elhj;Jtjw;Fg; gofpdu;.

 gz;lkhw;W Kiw gpd;gw;wg;gl;lJ.

 Ntl;ilahb czitg; ngw;Wf; nfhz;ldu;.

 rpj;jpuk; tiuaTk;> fw;fisf; nfhz;L cUtq;fs; mikf;fTk; gofpdu;.

(03) 1) a) khdplgupzhkk;
b) ,];Nuy;
c) Mw;wYila kdpjd;

2)  Ntl;ilahLjy; gpujhd njhopy;

 Ntl;ilahLtjw;F tpy; > mk;G gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.
 xNu ,lj;jpy; ePz;lfhyk; thog;gofpaik.
6
  kuk;>jb> ,iyfshy; tPLfs; mikf;fg;gl;ld.
 gy tpj epwq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpr; rpj;jpuq;fs; tiuag;gl;ld.

3) rPdh> ag;ghd;> nfhupah> kNyrpah> rpq;fg;G+u;> jha;yhe;J.

4) tptrhak; nra;ag; gofpf;nfhz;lik.

NfhJik> ghu;yp> ney;> Fuf;fd; vd;gd gapupLjy; Muk;gkhdJ.

kpUf tsu;g;G ,lk;ngw;wJ.

Kjd; Kjyhf cNyhfk; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ.

fy;yhAjq;fSf;Fg; gjpyhf cNyhf MAjq;fs; nra;ag;gl;ld.

fpuhkq;fs; Njhw;wk; ngw;wd.

flTis topgLjy; Muk;gkhdJ.

nry;te;ju;> Vio vd;w ghFghL Njhd;wpaJ.

(04) 1) a) nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupfk;

b) rpe;Jejpf;fiu ehfupfk;
c) vfpg;jpa ehfupfk;

2) FUkhu;

cau;Fbkf;fs;

fPo;kl;lkf;fs;

mbikfs;

3)tptrhaKk;> kpUftsu;g;Gk; ,lk;ngw;wJ.

Mw;WePu; fhy;tha;fs; %yk; gapu;r;nra;iff;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.

epyj;ijj; jahu; nra;tjw;F kpUfq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.

cNyhfj;jpdhyhd fyg;ig> fy;yhy; nra;ag;gl;l kz;ntl;bfs;

gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.

jhdpaq;fs;> goq;fs;> fha;fwpfs; tpistpf;fg;;gl;ld.

gpujhd jhdpaq;fshf NfhJik> ghu;yp vd;gd tpsq;fpd.

4) a) fhw;Wf;Fk;> tptrhaj;jpw;Fk; mjpgjp

b) flTs;FOtpd; jiytd;

c) G+kpf;F mjpgjp.

7
(05) 1) a) – ney; b) – Nrhsk; c) – NfhJik

2) `ug;gh

nkh`Q;rjhNuh

nlhytPu

fypgd;fs;

3) kf;fs; njhif Ik;gJ ,yl;rkhff; fhzg;gl;lJ.

nrk;G> ntz;fyk;> <ak;> nts;sa

P k; Nghd;w cNyhfg;gad;ghL kf;fs; kj;jpapy;

fhzg;gl;lJ.

Rl;l nrq;fw;fisf; nfhz;L tPLfs; fl;lg;gl;bUe;jd.

tPLfspy; cau;epiyapyhd ePu;f;Foha;j;njhFjpfs; ,Ue;jd.

xOq;FKiwapy; mikf;fg;gl;l fpzW> mOf;Ffis ntspNaw;Wk;

Foha;j;njhFjpfs; mikf;fg;gl;bUe;jd.

ed;F mikf;fg;gl;bUe;j tPjpfs;.

jpl;lkpl;l efu tbtikg;G

4) a)- negnegTl;Nld; murp/ negnegTl;Nld; negl;bl;b murp

b)- vfpg;J

c)- nfa;Nuh

(06) 1) a)- cgjp];] b)-cUnty c)-jPfhA

2) rpq;fsj;jPT> nra;yhd;> rp`yjPg> nruz;bg;> jg;uNgd;

3) ngWkjp kpf;f nghUl;fis ntspehLfSf;F Vw;Wkjp nra;jy;

vopy; kpf;f jPthf ,Uj;jy;

4) efug;gpuNjrj;ijr; Rw;wp ghJfhg;G mfopfs; ntl;lg;gl;ld.

efupd; ehd;F jpirfspYk; thapy;fs; mikf;fg;gl;ld.

mt;thapy;fspD}lhf > efupd; Vida gFjpfis ,izf;Fk; tifapy; tPjpfs;

8
 mikf;fg;gl;ld.

efiu moFgLj;j G+q;fhf;fs;> jlhfq;fs; mikf;fg;gl;ld.

efuf;fopTfis mfw;wTk;> efiur; Rj;jk; nra;tjw;Fk; gzpahsu;fs;

epakpf;fg;gl;ldu;.

*********

9
 tuyhW
juk; 6 myF 2 Mjpkdpjd;
 2.0

kdpjd;

tpyq;Ffs;

jhtuq;fs;
Mfpa midj;J capupdq;fspd; thoplk; - G+kp
 mtw;wpw;fhd
 czT
 Vida Njitfs;
G+kpahy; toq;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,tw;wpw;fpilapy; NtWghLfs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

2.1 kdpjd; Njhd;wpa #oy;

 ehk; thOk; G+kp

 xU Nfhs;
 4540 kpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F Kd; Njhd;wpaJ.
 G+kp Njhd;wpaJ njhlu;ghd nfhs;iffs;
 tpz;zpypUe;j J}rpg; glyj;jpypUe;J Njhd;wpaJ – nghJthd ek;gp;f;if
 ,j; J}rpg;glyk; „epfhupfh‟ vd miof;fg;gl;lJ.
 ,jd; Mq;fpyg; gjk; „ negpAyh‟ (Nebula)
 Gtp Njhw;wk; ngw;w NghJ
 ntg;gkhf ,Ue;jJ.
 gbg;gbahff; Fspu;rr; paile;jJ.
 Gtpapd; ikag;gFjp (eL) jw;nghOJk; mjpf ntg;gj;ijf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. mjd; ntg;gk; 6000 ;C
 vupkiy ntbf;Fk; NghJ mjpypUe;J ntsptUk; ghiwf; Fok;G
– yhth
 G+kp cUthfp rpwpJ fhyj;jpd; gpd;Ng Gtpapy; capupdq;fs; Njhw;wk;
ngw;wd.
 mt; capupdk; fz;zpw;Fj; njupahjjhf ,Ue;jJ.
 mJ „GNuhfhNahl; gf;Bupah‟ vdg;gl;lJ.
 ,g;gw;wPupah ,w;iwf;F 2500 kpy;ypad; tUlq;fSf;F Kd; Njhw;wk;
ngw;wjhff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ.
 542 kpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F Kd; tho;e;j capupdnkhd;wpd; RtL
fdlhtpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 ,t; capupdk;
 4 – 7 CM f;F ,ilg;gl;l ePsKilaJ
 flybapy; tho;e;Js;sJ.
 tha;
 Ie;J fz;fs; vd;gd ,jw;F ,Ue;Js;sJ.

1
  mJ „xggPdpah‟ vd miof;fg;gl;lJ.
 cyfpy; Kjd; Kjypy; ePupNyNa capupdq;fs; Njhd;wpd.
 mjd; gpd;Ng jiuapy; capupdq;fs; Njhw;wk; ngw;wd.
 Kjd; Kjypy; jiuapy; Njhd;wpa capupdq;fs;
 ghjq;fs; gytw;iwf; nfhz;l ku ml;ilfs; Nghd;w capupdq;fs;
MFk;.
 420 kpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F Kd;du; Njhw;wk; ngw;Ws;sJ.
 ,e;j capupdq;fs; Njhd;wpa Afk; - rpY}upad; Afk;.
 540 kpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F Kd;G nghypNahNrhapf; Afj;jpNyNa;
jiuapy; jhtuq;fs; Kjd;Kjyhfj; Njhw;wk; ngw;wd.
 kdpjd; Gtpapy; Njhw;wk; ngw;wJ kpfTk; gpw;gl;l fhyj;jpNyahFk;.

2.2 Mjp kdpjdpd; guk;gy;

kdpjdpd; Njhw;wk;

 kdpjd; ,aw;ifAld; ,ize;j tpyq;F

 Vida tpyq;Ffistpl Kd;Ndwpatd;
 kdpjdhy;
 epu;khzpf;Fk; Mw;wy; (njhopy;El;gk;)
 fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wk; nra;Ak; Mw;wy; (nkhop)
 Mly;> ghly; (fiy)
Nghd;w tplaq;fs; ntspg;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
 ,j; jd;ikfis Vida tpyq;Ffsplk; fhz KbahJ.
 Gtp jtpu Vida Nfhs;fisf; $l kdpjd; ,d;W Ma;T nra;Js;shd;

rpk;gd;rp – kdpjd;

 kdpjd; Fuq;fpypUe;J Njhd;wpdhd;.

 25 ,yl;rk; tUlq;fSf;F Kd; ,g; Gtp kpfTk; Fspu;r;rpahf ,Ue;Js;sJ.
 ,f; fhyk; “ ngUk; gdpAfk;” vdg;gl;lJ.
 ,g; gdpAfk; Muk;gkhd fhyj;jpy; Mgpupf;fhtpy; tho;e;j rpk;gd;rpfspy; xU
gpuptpdu; Vidatu;fis tpl tpj;jpahrkhdtu;fshf tsuj; njhlq;fpdu;.
mf;fhyj;jpy;
 fLq;Fspu;
 czTg; gw;whf;Fiw ,Ue;jJ.
,jdhy;
 gof;fkpy;yhj cztpid cl;nfhs;s Ntz;b ,Ue;jJ.
 rpk;gd;rpfspd;
o gw;fspYk;
o Kfj;jpYk; khw;wq;fs; Vw;gl;ld.
 ,uz;L fhy;fshy; elf;fg;gofpdhd;
 ,jdbg;gilapy; rpk;gd;rpapypUe;J kdpjd; Njhw;wk; ngw;whd;.
 thduf; fuq;fpypUe;J kdpj guk;giu Njhw;wk; ngWtjw;fhd Kf;fpa
fhuzk; ngUk;gdpAfj;jpy; epytpa fhyepiyahFk;.
 ,f;fhyj;jpy; Gtpapd;

2
 o tlf;F
o njw;Fg; gFjp jbj;j gdpg;glyj;jhy; %lg;gl;bUe;jJ.
 jhtuq;fs; tsutpy;iy.
 ,jdhy; NghjpasT czT ngw;Wf; nfhs;s Kbatpy;iy.
 “ nkkj; ahidfs;” ,f;fhyj;jpy; Njhw;wk; ngw;wd.
 ngUk;gdpAfk; vdg;gLk; kpff; Fspuhd fhyj;jpy; ntg;gk; FWfpa
fhyNk epytpaJ.
 Fspuhd fhyq;fs; - ehd;F
 ntg;gk; epytpa fhyq;fs; - ehd;F
 ntg;gf; fhyepiy epytpa fhyj;jpy;
 czT jhuhskhff; fpilj;jJ.
 capupdq;fs; kfpo;thf tho;e;jd.
 thduguk;giuiar; Nru;e;j rpk;gd;rpapypUe;J kdpjd; Kd;Ndwpdhd;.
 ,J “khdpl gupzhkk;” vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

x];uNyhgpjpf];
 Muk;g fhyj;jpy;
 thduj;jpw;Fk;
 kdpjdpw;Fk; ,ilapy; cUt mikg;gpy; ghupa NtWghLfs;
fhzg;gltpy;iy. Mdhy; kdpjd;
 cgfuzq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpdhd;.
 ,aw;ifahf ePu; gha;e;J nry;Yk; XilfspYs;s tl;lkhd fw;fisr;
Nrfupj;J mtw;wpdhy; tpijfis ,bj;J czthfg; gad;gLj;jpdhd;
 mf;fw;fis kdpjd; NtW NjitfSf;Fk; gad;gLj;jpdhd;.
 kdpj epiyia mile;j thduk; “ x];uNyhgpjpf];” vdg;gl;lJ.
 ,jd; gz;G
 ,Ufhy;fshYk; ele;J nry;Yk;
 3.8 kpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F Kd;du; ,J ,U fhy;fshYk; ele;J
nrd;wik fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 ,j; jpwikapdhy; thduq;fshy; nra;a Kbahjij kdpjd;
nra;jhd;.

N`hNkhn`gpy];
 fy;nyhd;wpdhy; kw;nwhU fy;iy mbj;jJ.
 fy;nyhd;wpd; xU gFjpia mfw;wp $u;ikahd MAjq;fisr; nra;jJ.
 ,j;jifa Kaw;rpapy; <Lgl;l Kjy; kdpjd; N`hNkhn`gpy]; vdg;gl;lhd;
 N`hNkhn`gpy]; vd;gjd; nghUs; - Mw;wYila kdpjd; vd;gjhFk;.
 ,k;kdpjd; 2.3 – 1.4 kpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F ,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy;
tho;e;Js;shd;.

N`hNkh ,nuf;l];
 neUg;igf; fz;Lgpbj;jhd;

3
  czit neUg;gpy; Rl;Lg; gad;gLj;jpdhd;
 czT rkpghlilaf; $bajhf ,Ue;jJ.
 Fspu;fhyj;jpy; ntg;g%l;lf; $bajhf ,Ue;jJ.
 tho;f;ifia NkYk; trjpfs; epiwe;jjhf khw;wpaJld; cly; mikg;G
moF ngw cjtpaJ.
 kdpjd; neUg;ig Kjd;Kjyhf fz;Lgpbj;jikf;fhd Mjhuk; ,];Nuypy;
fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.
 ,J 7>90>000 Mz;Lfs; goikahdJ.
 “N`hNkh ,nuf;l];” vd;w kdpj ,dNk Kjd;Kjyhf neUg;igg;
gad;gLj;jpAs;shd;.
 1800 kpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F Kd; ,td; tho;e;Js;shd;.

N`hNkh epad;l jhyd;fp];

 kdpjdpd; clyikg;G khw;wkile;jJ.
 kdpjdpd; %isAk; gbg;gbahf tsu;rr; paile;jJ. ,J Kf;fpa epfo;T
 thduj;jpd; %isia tplg;ngupjhf tsu;r;rpaile;jJld;
 kz;ilNahLk; mjw;F ,irthf;fk; ngw;wJ.
 600>000 tUlq;fSf;F Kd; “N`hNkh epad;ljhyd;rp];” vd;w thduk; kdpj
,dj;Jld; njhlu;Ggl;lJ.
 ,t; thduk;
 ngupa kpUfq;fspd; vYk;Gfisf; nfhz;L tPLfis mikj;jJ.
 fha;> fdpfis czthfg; gad;gLj;jpaJ.
 Ntl;ilahbaJ.

N`hNkh Nru;gpad;
 kdpjdpd; clyikg;gpy; khw;wk; Vw;gl;lJ.
 gbg;gbahf %is tsu;r;rpaile;jJ.
 thduj;jpd; %isiatplg; ngupjhfpaJ.
 kdpjdpd; kz;ilNahL ,jw;F ,irthf;fk; mile;jJ.
 200>000 Mz;Lfshf kdpjd; jdJ jpwikia tsu;j;Jf; nfhz;lhd;.
 Gjpatw;iwr; nra;tjw;F Kaw;rp nra;jgbahy; mtdJ %is ed;F tpUj;jpaile;jJ.
 ,w;iwf;F 100>000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;du; tho;e;jhd;.
 gpwUld; fUj;Jf;fisg; gupkhwpf; nfhs;sf; $ba nkhopiaAk;
 czu;tpid ntspg;gLj;j
o Mly;
o ghly;
o Xtpak; vd;gtw;iwAk; gad;gLj;jf; $ba jd;id Vw;gl;lJ.
 ,d;iwa kdpj ,dj;jtu; N`hNkhNru;g;gpad; FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;jtu;fs;

2.3 fyhrhu tsu;r;rp

 rpk;gd;rpapypUe;J kdpjdpd; cly; %is tsu;r;rpaile;j ePz;l fhyg;gFjpapy; jhd;

thOk; KiwiaAk; khw;wpf; nfhz;lhd;. ,J fyhrhu khw;wk; vdg;gl;lJ.
 ePz;lfhykhf kdpjd; mile;j ntw;wpf;Fr; rhd;whf miktJ kdpjdhy; nra;ag;gl;l
fy;yhAjq;fshFk;.
 gOjila Kbahjgbahy; fy;yhAjq;fs; ePz;lfhykhf epiyj;jpUe;jd.

4
  ehsiltpy;
 kdpjdhy; nra;ag;gl;l fy;yhAjq;fspd;
o mikg;G
o msT
o tpidj;jpwd; vd;gd Kd;Ndw;wkile;jJ.
 kdpjd; gad;gLj;jpa MAjq;fspd; mbg;gilapy; mtdJ fyhrhu tsu;r;rp
o gioa fw;fhyk;
o ,ilf; fw;fhyk;
o Gjpa fw;fhyk; vdg; ghFgLj;jg;gl;lJ.

gioa fw;fhyk;.
kdpjd;

 FOthf tho;e;jhd;
 ,lj;jpw;F ,lk; Fbirfis mikj;J $l;lkhf tho;e;jhd;
 xU FOtpy; 20> 30 mq;fj;jtu;fisf; nfhz;l FLk;gq;fs; ,Ue;jd.
 ,we;j jkJ cwtpdu;fspd; kuzr; rlq;Ffis elj;jpdhd;

rlq;F Kiw

 ,we;jtu;fspd; vYk;Gfs; kPJ tu;zk; G+RtjhFk;.

 tu;zk; jahupg;gjw;F epwf;fw;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.
 mf;fw;fs; fpilf;fhj ,lq;fspy; tho;e;Njhu; mit fpilf;Fk; gpuNjrq;fspy;
tho;e;NjhuplkpUe;J ,tw;iwg; ngw;Wf; nfhz;ldu;
 ,f;fhyj;jpy; gz;lkhw;W Kiw Muk;gkhdJ.
 kf;fs; njhif mjpfkhf ,Uf;ftpy;iy.

gioa fw;fhyk;

 kdpjd; ,lj;jpw;F ,lk; nrd;W cztpidr; Nrfupj;Jk; Ntl;ilahbAk; tho;e;jhd;.

 ,f;fhyj;jpd; gpw;gFjpapy; kdpjd;
 rpj;jpuk; tiutjw;Fk;
 fw;fisf; nfhz;L cUtq;fis mikg;gjw;Fk; gofpf; nfhz;lhd;.

,ilf;fw;fhyk;

 20>000 – 18>000 ,w;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy; ,f;fhyk; Muk;gkhfpaJ.

 kdpjd;
 Ntl;ilahbAk;
 miye;J jpupe;J czitr; Nrfupj;Jk; tho;f;if elj;jpdhd;.
 tpy;> mk;G vd;gtw;iwg; gad;gLj;jp Ntl;ilahlj; njhlq;fpdhd;.
 fha;> fdpfs;> ,iyfs;> fpoq;F tiffs; Nghd;wtw;iw czthff; nfhz;lhd;.
 xNu ,lj;jpy; ePzl ; fhyk; tho;tjw;F kdpjd; gofpf; nfhz;lhd;.
 kuq;fs;> jbfs;> ,iyFiofs; Nghd;wtw;why; tPL mikg;gjpy; ntw;wp ngw;whd;.
 gytpj epwq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpf; fw;ghiwfspy; rpj;jpuq;fs; tiue;jhd;.

Gjpafw;fhyk;

5
  9000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;du; Muk;gkhdJ.
 tptrhak; nra;ag;gofpf; nfhz;lhd;.
 NfhJik> ghu;yp> ney;> Fuf;fd; gapuplg;gl;lJ.
 kpUf tsu;g;G tsu;r;rpaile;jJ.
 cNyhfk; fz;lwpag;gl;lJ.
 fy;yhAjq;fSf;Fg; gjpyhf cNyhf MAjq;fs; nra;ag;gl;lJ.
 xNu ,lj;jpy; epue;jukhf tho Kw;gl;ldu;.
 fpuhkq;fs; Njhw;wk; ngw;wJ
 tptrhak;
 kpUfq;fspd; ghJfhg;gpw;fhf flTis topgLjy; Muk;gkhdJ.
 kdpjd; rka topghLfspy; Kjd; Kjy; <Lgl;lJ.
 Gjpa fw;fhyj;jpy; ePzl; fhyk; tptrhaj;jpy; <Lgl;likahy; Vuhskhd czT
fpilj;jJ.
 ,J rpyiu nry;te;ju; vd;w epiyf;F cau;j;jpaJ.
 ,jdhy; ,f;fhyj;jpy;
 nry;te;ju;
 vio vd;w gFghL Njhd;wpaJ.
 nry;te;ju;fspd; gyk; mjpfupj;jJ. efu tho;f;iff;Fg; gof;fg;gl;ldu;

3. tptrhaj;jpd; Muk;gk;.

n`hNyhrpd; Afk;.

 ngUk;gdpAfk; ,w;iwf;F 12>000 Mz;LfSf;F Kw;gl;l fhyj;jpy; Kbtile;jJ.

 Fspu;e;j fhyepiy ntg;gkilaj; njhlq;fpaJ.
 jhtuq;fs; nropg;ghf tsu;e;jd.
 kpUfq;fSf;Fj; Njitahd czT jhuhskhff; fpilj;jJ.
 ,J n`hNyhrpad; Afk; vdg;gl;lJ.
 tptrhak; nra;aj; njhlq;fpaJ.
 cNyhfq;fisf; fz;lwpe;J NjitfSf;Fg; gad;gLj;jpdu;.
 kpUfq;fis tsu;j;jdu;.
 jhdpaq;fisg; gapupl;ldu;.
cjhuzkhf new; nra;if

rPdhtpy; (fp.K. 7000 – 9000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;)

NfhJik – kj;jpa jiuf;fly; gpuNjrk; ( fp.K 9000 – 11000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;)
Nrhsk; - kj;jpa nkr;rpf;Nfh (fp.K. 3000 – 5000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;

 tptrhaj;jpy; <Lgl;ljhy; FLk;g mq;fj;jtu;fSld; xNu ,lj;jpy;; trpj;jhd;

 ,Ug;gplq;fSf;fhf tPLfis mikj;jhd;
 6000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd; Kjd;Kjy; Njhw;wk; ngw;w fpuhkq;fspd; rpijTfs;
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
 tptrhaj;jpdhy; nghUj;jkhd jhdpa tiffis mwpe;J nfhs;sTk; mtw;iwg; gapuplTk;
kdpjd; Kaw;rp nra;jhd;.
 tptrha cgfuzq;fs; nra;tjw;F Kaw;rp Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 fspkz;zhy; nra;ag;gl;l mupths;> ,];Nuypy; cs;s fw;Fif xd;wpy;
fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.

Muk;g fhy tPLfs;

 kpfTk; vspikahdit

6
  fspkz;zhy; fl;lg;gl;l Rtu;fisAk;
 ,iyFiofshy; Ntag;gl;l$iufisAk; mit nfhz;bUe;jd.
 kz;Fbirfs;
 rpy ehLfspy; ,t; tPLfspd; Rtu;fs; jbfshy; fl;lg;gl;bUe;jd.
 tptrhak; nra;ag; gofpaikahy; fpilj;j Xa;T Neuj;jpy;
 rpj;jpuk; tiujy;
 rpiyfs; mikj;jy;
 ghLjy;
 MLjy; Nghd;wtw;wpy; <Lgl;lhd;. ,jdhy; ehfupfk; fl;bnaOg;gg;gl;lJ.
o gwitfs;
o kpUfq;fs;
o Cu;td jiuapy; tsu;r;rpaile;jd.
o rpW capupdq;fs;
o GOf;fs;

thduj;jpypUe;J N`hNkhNrgpad; vdg;gLk; mwpTs;s kdpjdhf tsu;r;rpaile;jhd;.

nfhf;Nfh nrhapl;

N`hNkNru;gpad; ePf;nuhapl;

x];unyhapl;

nkhq;nfhnyhapl;

vd ehd;F ,dq;fshfg; gpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

7
 tuyhW
juk; 6 myF 3
cyfpd; Guhjd ehfupfq;fs;.
3.1 fpuhkpa rKjhak; efu kakhjYk; ehfupfq;fspd; Njhw;wKk;
 fpuhkj;jpy; tho;e;j kdpjd; gbg;gbahf tsu;r;rpaile;J efu r%fj;ij cUthf;fpdhd;.
 tptrhak;> ke;ij tsu;g;G Nghd;w nghUshjhu eltbf;iffshy; fpuhk thrpfs; rpyu;
nry;te;ju;fshfpdu;.
 nropg;gw;w> vspjpy; ePiug; ngw;Wf; nfhs;s Kbahj gFjpfspy; ,Ue;j tptrhapfSf;F
o ey;y tpisr;ry; fpilf;fhjjpdhy; mtu;fsJ tho;f;if rpukkhdjhf mike;jJ.
o mjdhy; fpuhkj;jpy; mtu;fs; Viofshff; fUjg;gl;ldu;.
o ,jdhy; r%fj;jpy; Vio> gzf;fhud; vd;w ,U gpupTfs; Njhw;wk; ngw;wd.
 nry;te;ju;fSk; mtu;fsJ cwtpdu;fSk; fpuhkj;jpid tpl;Lg; gpupe;J tho;e;jdu;.
 mtu;fsJ thoplq;fs; kz;tPLfSf;Fg; gjpyhf
 fy;tPLfs;
 ed;F mikf;fg;gl;l ghijfs;
 mfopfs;
 kjpy;fs;
 rka topghl;Lj; jyq;fs;
Nghd;wtw;iwf; nfhz;bUe;jd.
 ,it cs;slf;fg;gl;l gpuNjrq;fs; efuq;fs; vd miof;fg;gl;ld.
 ,e;efuq;fspy; tho;e;j nry;te;ju;fs; efuthrpfs; vd miof;fg;gl;ldu;.
 efuj;jpy; tho;e;jtu;fs; tptrhak;> ke;ij tsu;g;G Nghd;wtw;wpy; <Lgltpy;iy.
mjw;Fg; gjpyhf
 jkf;Fr; nrhe;jkhd ,lq;fspy; fpuhkthrpfisf; nfhz;L tptrhak; nra;jdu;
 tpisr;rypy; ngUk;gFjp efuq;fspy; tho;e;jtu;fshy; nrhe;jkhf;fpf;
nfhs;sg;gl;ld.
 ehfupfk; vd;gJ ,t;thW cUthfpa
 efuj;ijAk;
 mq;F tho;e;Njhu;
 mtu;fs; tho;e;j Kiw Nghd;wtw;iwf; $WtjhFk;.
 fpuhkq;fis tpl efuq;fs; ngupait.
 efuq;fspy; tho;e;Njhu;
 vOj fw;Wf; nfhz;ldu;
 efiu epu;thfk; nra;jdu;
 rka topghl;Lj; jyq;fis mikj;Jf; nfhz;ldu;
 J}u ehLfSld; tu;j;jfk; nra;jdu;
 ehfupfk; vd;gJ gy;NtW jpwd;fisf; nfhz;bUe;j kf;fs; $l;lk; tho;e;j gpuNjrq;fs;
vdf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.

cyfpd; gy;NtW gpuNjrq;fspy; cUthfpa Gujhd ehfupfq;fs;

 nkhrg;gj;Njkpah – A+g;gpul;B]; ijf;fuP];
 vfpg;J – iey;ejp
 ,e;jpah – rpe;J ejp
 rPdh – Fthq;Nfh ejp
ehfupfq;fisf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.

 nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupf fzpjtpayhsu;fs;

 tl;lj;jpy; 360 ; ,Uf;fpd;wJ vdTk;

8
  epkplk; xd;wpy; 60 tpdhbfs; vdTk;
 kzpj;jpahyj;jpy; 60 epkplq;fs; vdTk; fzpj;jdu;.

 rPdu;fs;
 ntbkUe;J
 jpirawpfUtp
 fljhrp
 mr;rpae;jpuk; Nghd;wtw;iw cyfpw;F Kjd;Kjy; mwpKfk; nra;jdu;.
khah ehfupfjjtu;fs;

 ,wg;gu; ge;jpidg; gad; gLj;jpAs;shu;.

,wg;gu;
 fhyzpfs;
 tpkhdq;fspd; rpy;Yfs;
Nghd;wtw;wpw;F ,d;W gad;gLfpd;wJ.

3.2 ehfupfg; guk;gYk; cyfpw;F cupj;jhd nfhilAk;.

ehfupfk; vd;gJ efuKk;> mjpy; thOk; rdj;njhifAk; nfhz;l r%fk; MFk;. kdpjdpd;
Kd;Ndw;wj;ij ntspg;gLj;Jgitahf efuq;fs; mike;Js;sd.

nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupfk;
 ,w;iwf;F 5000 Mz;LfSf;F Kw;gl;ljhFk;.
 fp.K. 3100 – 2900 ,w;F ,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy; epytpaJ.
 A+g;gpul;B];> ijf;fuP]; ejpg; gs;sj;jhf;fpy; tsu;r;rpaile;jJ.
 jw;NghJ ,J <uhf; ehl;by; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
 nkhrg;gj;Njkpah vd;gjd; nghUs; ,U ejpfSf;fpilNa mike;Js;s ehL vd;gjhFk;.
 nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupfj;jpy; Kf;fpa efuq;fisr; #o;e;J tho;e;jtu;fs;
 tptrhak;
 ke;ij tsu;g;G Nghd;wtw;wpy; <Lgl;ldu;.
 kioFiwthff; fhzg;gl;l gFjpfspy;
 Mw;W ePiuf; fhy;tha; %yk; ngw;W gapu;r;nra;iff;Fg; gad;gLj;jpdu;.
 gapu;r;nra;iff;F Vw;w tifapy; epyj;ijj; jahu; nra;jdu;.
 epyj;ijg; gz;gLj;j kpUfq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpdu;.
 cNyhfj;jpdhy; nra;ag;gl;l
 fyg;ig
 fy;yhy; nra;ag;gl;l kz;ntl;b Nghd;wtw;iwg; gad;gLj;jpdu;.
 nkhrg;gj;Njkpahtpy;
 jhdpaq;fs;
 goq;fs;
 fha;fwpfs; gapuplg;gl;ld.
 NfhJik>
 ghu;yp Kf;fpa jhdpaq;fs;.

nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupf fhy topghl;L Kiw

 nkhrg;gj;Njkpa kf;fs; ,aw;ifiaj; nja;tkhff; fUjp topgl;ldu;.
 kio
 fhw;W
 nts;sk; Nghd;wit nja;tkhf topglg;gl;ld.
 ,aw;iff;Fupa nja;tq;fisj; jpUg;jpg; gLj;jNt jhk; tho;tjhff; fUjpdu;.
 flTs; FOtpd; jiytu; “mD” vd miof;fg;gl;lhu;.
 g+kpf;F mjpgjpahd flTs; - vd;fpfp
 fhw;Wf;Fk;> tptrhaj;jpw;Fk; mjpgjpahd flTs; - vd;ypyp

9
  nkhrg;gj;Njkpa midj;J efuq;fspYk; me;efuj;jpw;Fupa flTs; ,Ue;jjhff;
$wg;gLfpd;wJ.
 flTis topgl mikf;fg;gl;l Myaq;fs; “rpFwhj;” vdg;gl;ld.
 Myaf; FUkhUf;F r%fj;jpy; gpujhd ,lk; mspf;fg;gl;lJ.

nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupf fhy tu;j;jfk;

 MWfspy; gazk; nra;tjw;F rpW fg;gy;fisg; gad;gLj;jpdu;
 fg;gy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp tu;j;jf eltbf;iffspy; <Lgl;ldu;.
 czT
 ghdtiffs;
 Mil
 Mguzq;fs;
tu;j;jfj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.
 nkhrg;gj;Njkpahtpd; tl gFjpapy; tho;e;jtu;fs; - mrPupau;fs;
 MrPupau;fs;
 rpwe;j tu;j;jfu;fs;
 jiu khu;f;fkhf tu;j;jfj;jpy; <Lgl;ldu;
 tu;j;jfg; nghUl;fisf; fOij kPJ Vw;wpf;nfhz;L nrd;wdu;
 mit “jtyk;” vd miof;fg;gl;ld.

nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupf fhy r%fk;.

 r%fk; ehd;F gpupTfisf; nfhz;bUe;jJ.
1. FUkhu;
2. cau;Fb kf;fs;
3. fPo;kl;l kf;fs;
4. mbikfs;
 r%fj;jpy; mjpfhuk; gilj;jtu;fs; - FUkhu;
 FUkhu;
 rka eltbf;iffspy; <Lgl;ldu;
 itj;jpau;fshfr; nraw;gl;ldu;
 jiyKbia kopj;jpUe;jdu;
 nrk;kwp Ml;bd; Njhyhy; nra;ag;gl;l cilfis mzpe;jpUe;jdu;.
 cau;Fbkf;fs;
 Mz;fs;> ngz;fs; jq;fj;jhyhd gy;NtW Mguzq;fis mzpe;jpUe;jdu;
 Mz;fs; jiyKbia ePskhf tsu;j;jdu;
 jhbAk; ePskhf ,Ue;jJ.
 ngz;fs; xU Njhis %bajhf Mil mzpe;jdu;
 jiyKbia ePskhf tsu;j;jdu;.
 fPo;kl;l kf;fs;
 nry;te;ju;fshf thotpy;iy
 jkJ tPLfspy; rhjhuz tho;f;if tho;e;jdu;
 mtu;fs; f\;lg;gl;L Ntiy nra;jdu;
 Ntiyf;F rk;gsk; toq;fg;gl;lJ.
 ,tu;fsJ cilAk;> MguzKk; ngWkjp tha;e;jdthf ,Uf;ftpy;iy.

nkhrg;gj;Njkpa ehfupf fhy vOj;Jf;fiy

 nkhrg;gj;Njkpahtpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l vOj;J Mg;G vdg;gl;lJ.
 ,jid vOJtjw;F fspkz;zhy; nra;ag;gl;l jl;Lf;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.
 <ukhd fspkz; jl;Lf;fspd; kPJ $uhf;fg;gl;l Fr;rp xd;wpidf; nfhz;L me;j
vOj;ij vOjpdu;.
 Muk;gj;jpy; cUtk; tiujy; Nghd;W Muk;gkhd vOj;J Kiw gpd; vOj;Jj;
njhFjpahf tsu;r;rpaile;jJ.
 fspkz; jl;Lf;fspy; vOjg;gl;ltw;Ws;
 tu;j;jfk; njhlu;ghd tplaq;fs; Kf;fpak; ngWfpd;wd.

10
  cyfpd; kpfg; goiktha;e;j ,yf;fpa E}y; fpy;Nk\; vd;gtuhy; Mg;G tbtpyhd
vOj;Jf;fshy; vOjg;gl;l tPuf;fij
 fspkz;jl;by; vOJtJ fbdkhdjhf ,Ue;j NghJk; nkhrg;gj;Njkpau; jpwikahf
vOjpAs;sdu;.
 fspkz; jl;bd; kPJ vOjg;gl;l rpy fbjq;fis ciwapypl;L Fwpg;gpl;l egu;fSf;F
mDg;gpAs;sdu;.
 nkhrg;gj;Njkpahit Ml;rp nra;j Ml;rpahsu;fs; - `Kuhgp
 `Kuhgp vd;w Ml;rpahsuhy; jahupf;fg;gl;l rl;lf;Nfhit cyfpd; kpfg;gioa
rl;lE}yhFk;.
rpe;Jntsp ehfupfk;.
 rpe;Jntsp (rpe;Jejp) ehfupfk; ,e;jpahtpd; tlNkw;Fg; gFjpapD}lhfg; gha;e;J
nry;Yk; rpe;J ejpia mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L cUthfpaJ.
 jw;NghJ ,g;gpuNjrq;fs;
 Mg;fhdp];jhd;
 ghfp];jhd;
 ,e;jpahtpd; tlNkw;Fg; gpuNjrj;jpw;Fupajhf cs;sd.
 ,e;ehfupfk; fp.K 2600 – 1990 f;F ,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy; epytpajhff;
fUjg;gLfpd;wJ.
 nkh`Q;rjhNuh
 `ug;gh ,q;Fs;s gpujhd efuq;fs; MFk;.
 rpe;Jntsp ehfupf gpuNjrj;jpw;F cl;gl;l efuq;fspd; rdj;njhif 50>00>000
Mf ,Ue;Js;sJ.
 rpe;J ntsp ehfupf kf;fs;
 nrk;G
 ntz;fyk;
 <ak;
 nts;sa P k; (Tin)
Nghd;w cNyhfq;fis cgNahfpj;jdu;.
 Rl;l nrq;fw;fisf; nfhz;L fl;lg;gl;l tPLfspy; tho;e;Js;sdu;.
 me;j tPLfspy; kpfTk; cau;epiyapyhd ePu;f;Foha;j; njhFjpfs; nghUj;jg;gl;L
,Ue;jd.
 efuq;fs; ed;F jpl;lkplg;gl;L mikf;fg;gl;bUe;jd.
 ,k;kf;fs; vOj;Jf;fshfg; gad;gLj;jf; $ba FwpaPl;Lj; njhFjpia
cUthf;fpdu;.
 rpe;Jntsp ehfupfj;jpw;F cl;gl;l Kf;fpa efuq;fs;
 nkhfQ;rjhNuh
 `ug;gh
 nlhytPu
 fypgd;fs;
 rpe;J ejp ehfupf fhyj;jpy; efuq;fspy; tho;e;j kf;fs; rpwe;j xOq;F
Kiwapy; mikf;fg;gl;l
 fpzW
 tbfhy;fs;
 mOf;Ffis ntspNaw;Wk; Foha;j; njhFjp vd;gtw;iw
cgNahfpj;jdu;.
 rpe;J ejp (ntsp) ehfupfj;ijr; Nru;e;j efuq;fspy; ed;F
mikf;fg;gl;l tPjpfs; fhzg;gl;ld.
 ,J Nghf;Ftuj;Jj; Jiwapd; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;Fr; rhd;whFk;.
 rpe;Jntsp ehfupfj;jpy; fz;lwpag;gl;l nghUl;fs;
 rpe;Jntsp efuj;njhFjp
 kjF
11
  fpzW
 tpisahl;L kz;tz;b
 fhz;lhkpUfk; ( iuNdhrpu];
vfpg;jpa ehfupfk;.
 fp.K 3150 Mk; Mz;Lfspy; epytpaJ.
 Mgpupf;fh fz;lj;jpw;Fupa ehfupfk;
 iey; ejpapd; rkntspg; gpuNjrj;ij ikakhff; nfhz;lJ.
 ,g; gpuNjrk; jw;nghOJ vfpg;J ehl;bDs; mlq;Ftjdhy; ,J vfpg;jpa ehfupfk; vd
miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 ePz;l fhykhf ghuhNth vdg;gLk; guk;giuiar; Nru;e;j muru;fshy; ,e;jg; gFjp
Ml;rp nra;ag;gl;lJ.
 vfpg;jpa kf;fspd; gpujhd [PtNdhghak; - tptrhak;.
 tptrhaj;jpw;fhd ePu;g;ghrdj; njhFjp xd;iwr; rpwg;ghf mikg;gjpy; mtu;fs; rpwe;J
tpsq;fpdu;.
 vfpg;jpa ehfupfk; cyfpw;F toq;fpa nfhil – gpukpl;Lf;fs;
 ghuhNth kd;du;fspdJk; mtu;fspd; kidtpkhu;fspd; rlyq;fs; gpukpl;Lf;fspy;
mlf;fk; nra;ag;gl;ld.
 vfpg;jpd; jiyefu; - nfa;Nuh
 nfa;Nuh efuj;jpypUe;J rpwpJ J}uj;jpy; mike;Js;s fPrh vd;w ,lj;jpy; gpukpl;Lf;fs;
mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
 vfpg;jpd; kpfg;gioa gpukpl;L fp.K 2630 – 2611 fhyj;jpy; mikf;fg;gl;litfshFk;.
 fPrh gpukpl; cyfpd; 7 mjpraq;fspy; xd;whff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ.
 vOj;Jj; njhFjp xd;W ngwg;gl;Ls;sJ.
 gy;NtWgl;l kpUfq;fs;> nghUl;fspd; cUtq;fisf; nfhz;L epu;khzpf;fg;gl;l ,e;j
vOj;Jf;fs; vfpg;jpa rpj;jpu vOj;Jf;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
 negnegTl;Nld; negl;bl;b vd;w murp ghuhNth (ghu;Nthd;) kd;ddhd mfndl;lhd;
(mf;n`djd;) vd;gtupd; kidtp.
 fp.K 1370 – 1330 ,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy; tho;e;jhs;.
 mfndl;lhd; (mf;n`djd;) ,we;j gpd; vfpg;ij rpy fhyk; Ml;rp nra;Js;shs;.
 Nguofp Mff; fUjg;gl;lhs;.
 ,we;j cliy ePz;l fhyk; Ngzp itj;jpUg;gJ – kk;kp
 kk;kp Kiwia vfpg;jpa ehfupfj;jtu;fNs cyfpw;F toq;fpAs;sdu;.
 fp.K 1332 – 1323 ,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy; Jl;ld; fhkd; (^ld; fhkd;) vd;w kd;ddpd;
kk;kpapd; Kfj;jpd; kPJ jq;fj;jpyhd Kf%b itf;fg;gl;bUe;jJ.

12
13
 myF 6.2 Mjpkdpjd;

INuhg;gh
tl
Mrpah
mnkupf;fh

Mgpupf;fh

njd;
mnkupf;fh
mT];Nuypah
 myF 6.2 Mjpkdpjd;

fdlh

kj;jpajiuf;fly; rPdh
,];Nuy;
nkr;rpf;Nfh ,e;jpah
 ,yq;ifapd; gpujhd Fsq;fs;

,uizkLf;Fsk;

gjtpahf;Fsk;
Nahjthtp

kfhfzjw thtp

kfhtpyhr;rp Fsk;
mgathtp
jp];]thtp Etuthtp fe;jsha;f; Fsk;
ehr;rJt thtp FUS thtp
3 fTLYthtp
khdhfl;ba Fsk;
,uh[hq;fz kpd;Ndupah
ePh;j;Njf;fk;
fyhthtp guhf;fpuk rKj;jpuk;
jg;Ngh thtp 2 4
2 5 khJWXah
ePh;j;Njf;fk;

fhy;tha;f
; s;
upjpnge;jp miz
1
1. kpdpg;Ng fhy;tha;
2. vyfuf; fhy;tha; nrhwgwf; Fsk;
3. Nahj fhy;tha; Nrdehaf;f
kpdpg;Ng miz rKj;jpuk;
4.mq;fkby;y fhy;tha;
5. gg;gjd;d fhy;tha;

cltsit
ePh;j;Njf;fk;

njhGuthtp

[Type text]
 myF 6.3 cyfpd; Guhjd ehfupfq;fs;

nkhrg;
gj;Njkpah
rpe;Jejp
iey;ejp
khahehfupfk;

,d;fh ehfupfk;
 myF 6.3 cyfpd; Guhjd ehfupfq;fs;

INuhg;gh
tl
Mrpah
mnkupf;fh
Mgpupf;fh

njd;
mnkupf;fh
mT];Nuypah
 myF 6.3 cyfpd; Guhjd ehfupfq;fs;

ijf;fpup];

A+g;gpul;B];
ggpNyhd;

Cu; nkhrg;gj;Njkpah
nfa;Nuh
fPrh

vfpg;J

iey;ejp