CHAPTER 7

HYDROGEOLOGY
 RIVER MORPHOLOGY
• Definition
Any channelized flow of water from brook to river
• Geological work of river
• Erosion
• Transportation
• Deposition
• Landform formed due to erosion and deposition
• Types of river
• Straight
• Meandering
• Briaded
 Straight River

Braided River Meandering River

 HYDROGEOLOGY

Groundwater/ Sub-surface water

Hydrogeology is the branch of Geology that is

related with the water that exists inside earth’s
surface.
GLOBAL WATER SUPPLY
DISTRIBUTION

• 3% OF EARTH’S WATER IS
FRESH - 97% OCEANS
• 1% OF FRESH WATER IN
LAKES, STREAMS, RIVERS
• 29% OF THE WORLD’S
FRESH WATER EXISTS IN
AQUIFERS AND 70% IN
GLACIERS
 GROUNDWATER/ SUBSURFACE
WATER

• Water that exist below the earth’s surface

• Major sources
• Precipitation
• Surface water like rivers, streams, ponds etc
• Irrigation
Groundwater: also known as white gold
 Groundwater is found in the form of spring
 Groundwater is extracted from :
 Deep Tubewells
 Shallow Tubewells
 Dug wells
 Stone Spouts
 Hand pump/Rower pump
 DIVISION OF SUBSURFACE WATER

• Zone of aeration/vadose zone-

Water unsaturated zone consists of air
and water. The water can’t be extracted.

• Saturation zone/ground water

zone: Groundwater extraction zone is
fully saturated.
GROUNDWATER ZONATION
Factors Controlling Occurrence And
Movement Of Groundwater
• CLIMATE
• TOPOGRAPHY
• POROSITY
• PERMEABILITY
• HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
• HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
1. POROSITY
Ratio of voids to the total volume of an aquifer.
Ρ = {v(Voids)/ Total Volume(V)}*100

• Types Of Porosity
• Primary
• Secondary
• Factors Affecting Porosity
• Sorting
• Grain Shape
2. Permeability
• Capacity of the rock or sediment to transmit groundwater
3. HYDRAULIC GRADIENT (I)
• The Head Different Two Points And Its Distance
(H1-H2)/L

4. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY (K)

• Property Of Both Porous Medium And Fluid Flow Through Porous
Medium
• Measured In Meters/Day Or Meters/Sec
• AQUIFER
Water bearing layer of the rock or sediment that store water and can
transmit sufficient quantity. Also known as groundwater reservoir. Eg: sand
and gravel layer, limestone etc
• UNCONFINED AQUIFER-Lies between zone of aeration and
impermeable strata
• CONFINED AQUIFER-Sandwich between impermeable strata
• CONFINING BED
An impermeable or less permeable layer lies between aquifer
• Aquitard :Sandy Clay
• Aquiclude: Clay
• Aquifuge: Massive rock like Granite
 AQUIFERS
• Aquifer: An aquifer is strata of rock or soil that holds groundwater
from which groundwater can be extracted in significant quantity
for economic purposes.
• Aquicludes: The geological formation that permits the storage of
water but by virtue of its properties, is not capable of transmitting
water in sufficient quantity is called an aquiclude. It is to be
treated as practically impermeable layer. Example: clay
• Aquifuge: The geological formation that neither permits the storage
of water nor is capable of transmitting water is called aquifuge. It
is made up of relatively impermeable materials. Example: solid
granite.
• Aquitard: A partly permeable layer that holds water but transmits in slow
rate.Aquitard mainly have moderate porosity but low permeability. Eg:
sandy layer in clay bed
 CONFINED AQUIFER

• In confined aquifer water is stored below

impermeable layer at pressure higher than the
atmospheric pressure
• It is also called artesian aquifer.

DIFFERENCE • It is hard to recharge.

• Water saturated zone.
BETWEEN
CONFINED AND
UNCONFINED UNCONFINED AQUIFER
AQUIFER • In unconfined aquifer water is stored in the top
pervious soil layers.
• It is known as water table aquifer or phreatic
aquifer or non artesian aquifer.
• It can be easily rechareable.
• Water unsaturated zone.
• Water table
The surface between vadose zone and the zone of
saturation
• Piezometric level
Level at which water is driven in confined aquifer
• Artesian well
If the water level in the well driven in a confined
aquifer will freely flow without the aid of pump, such
type of well is called artesian well.
 DARCY’S LAW
Darcy’s law states that the rate of fluid flow velocity (V) through a
porous medium is
I. Directly proportional to the head different in hydraulic head
(h1-h2).
II. Inversely proportional to the length of the column (l)
The rate at which groundwater moves through the saturated zone depends on the permeability of the
rock and the hydraulic gradient. The hydraulic gradient is defined as the difference in elevation divided
by the distance between two points on the water table. Velocity, V, is then:

V = k(h2 - h1)/L where K is the coefficient of permeability.

If we multiply this expression by the area, A, through which the water is moving, then we get the
discharge, Q. Q = ak(h2 - h1)/L, which is darcy's law.
 SPRINGS
Spring- A natural flow of ground water from underground through
pores, cracks, joints or faults where water table intersects ground
surface.
Depression spring are formed at ground surface when water table
reaches the surface due to topographic undulations. Discharge low, may
be seasonal.
Contact springs are formed where permeable rocks overlie rocks of
low permeability. A lithological contact is usually marked by a line of
springs.
Artesian springs are formed due to releases of water under pressure
from confining bed
Fracture springs occur due to existence of jointed or permeable
fracture zones in low permeability rocks. Movement of groundwater is
mainly through fractures and cracks. Springs are formed where these
fractures intersect the land surface.
Depression Spring Contact Spring

Artesian Spring Fracture Spring

 WELL

A well is a hole as shaft usually vertically excavated in the

earth for bringing groundwater to the surface.
Shallow well- upto 50m
Deep well- above 50m
 GEOLOGY OF NEPAL
Geologically, nepal can be divided into the following five regions that
correspond to the five main physiographic zones from north to south, they
are:
(1) Tibetan himalaya;
(2) Higher himalaya;
(3) Lesser himalaya;
(4) Sub-himalaya (Siwalik or Churia range);
(5) Terai plain.
The physiographic zones correspond more or less to the five geologic
divisions in the himalaya, namely (i) tibetan tethys sediments; (ii)
central crystallines ; (iii)lesser himalayan meta-sediments ; (iv)
siwalik sediments, and (v) indo-gangetic alluvial deposits
 GENERAL HYDROLOGY OF NEPAL
•No groundwater potential zone:
The unfractured granite, gneiss and metasediments of higher
metamorphic grade in midland and higher himalaya, the rest of the
geology has potential for groundwater
•Highly productive aquifer:
Loose sediments of terai and inner terai , karstified and fractured
carbonate rocks of midland and tethys group are considered to be
highly productive aquifers
•Moderately productive aquifer:
The unconsolidated deposits of kathmandu and surkhet valleys ,
siwalik rocks , non –karstic but fractured carbonate rocks in lesser
himalaya, crystalline complex and tethys group are interpreted as
moderately productive aquifers.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF AQUIFER SYSTEM OF
NEPAL

•Mountain aquifer zone

•Bhabar zone\ hilly aquifer zone
•Terai aquifer zone
Mountain aquifer zone
•Aquifer formed due to its primary porosity (inter granular
porosity) and secondary porosity ( fault, fold, fractures).
•Caves, caverns and solution channels in limestone and
dolomites.
Bhabar zone
•Mostly consists of alluvial sediments deposits as outwash
fan and reworked sediments from the siwalik.
•Coarse sand, gravel, pebbles, cobbles etc
•Considered as reharge zone of terai region
Terai aquifer zone
•Unconsolidated materials deposited by fluvial processes
•Major aquifer
• Unconsolidated: shallow aquifer , 20-50 % aquifer materials
• Confined aquifer: deep aquifer, high pressure so existence of
artesian well
 GEOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR THE
FORMATION OF AQUIFER

•Fold
•Fault
•Unconformity
•Joints
 GW RESOURCES IN KATHMANDU VALLEY
Urbanized centers of kathmandu, lalitpur and bhaktapur cities.
An intermontane circular basin
Average altitude of the valley floor is about 1350 m AMSL.
Surrounded by lesser himalayan range composed of intensely folded,
faulted and meta- sedimetary rocks of precambrian to devonian age.
• Consists of quartzite phyllited, schists, slates, limestones and marbles
w/intrusions of acid & basic rocks
Sediments cover is about 550-600 m.
 Engineering Significance of Groundwater

In engineering geological investigation, the following important information

on subsurface water conditions should be evaluated:
The distribution of sub-surface water
Water content
Direction and velocity of subsurface water flow
Springs and seepages from individual water bearing horizons
Depth to water table and its range of fluctuation
Regions of confined water and piezometric levels
Hydrochemical properties such as ph, salinity, corrosiveness
Presence of bacterial or other pollutants
 Engineering Significance of Groundwater

Subsurface water conditions are significant for three

major aspects of civil engineering works:
1. Subsurface water may pose a problem to construction,
2. It may be an erosive agent that degrades the
foundation of the structure,
3. Subsurface water may be critical to the functioning of
the structure
 Engineering Significance of Groundwater
Effects of groundwater in engineering works, such as:
 Site selection
 Cost of project
 Durability and safety of structures
It plays prominent role in:
• Slope movement
• Volume changes by shrinkage and swelling
• Cause collapse of loose soils
• Erode the foundation of structures
• Changes in rock and soil properties
• Influence on subsurface excavation, tunnels
 Assignments

1. What is an aquifer? Describe various types of aquifers.

2. Discuss on the engineering significance of subsurface water.
3. Write short notes on:
1. Hydrological cycle
2. Confined aquifer and artesian wells
3. Type of springs
4. Darcy’s law
5. Ground water potential in Nepal
6. Groundwater zonation