Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

CEng 3111_Chapter1: Horizontal Control

Surveying & GPS Surveying

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Introduction to Triangulation:
.In surveying, triangulation is the process of determining
location of points by measuring only angles from known
points at either end of a fixed baseline.
. It also refers to the accurate method of surveying systems
of very large triangles, called triangulation networks.
.Such triangulation methods were used for accurate large-
scale land surveying until the rise of global navigation
satellite systems in the 1980s.
. was the preferred method for horizontal control surveys until
the EDM was developed 2

. Angles could be measured to a high level of accuracy

.Measured baseline distances were included every so often to
strengthen the network

.Triangulation is a Surveying used to determine the location of

a fixed point based on the laws of trigonometry/geometry.

.These laws state that if one side and two angles of a triangle
are known, the other two sides and angle of that triangle can
be computed.

Triangulation surveying is employed extensively to establish

horizontal control for topographic mapping; charting
lakes and rivers, and ocean coast lines; and for public
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surveys: required for the design and construction of public
and private works of large extent
 Triangulation System
Triangulation system comprises of a series of joined
or overlapping triangles in which an occasional line
is measured and the sides are calculated from angles
measured at the vertices of the triangles.

To use a triangulation, the surveyor must be familiar

with the principles of trigonometry, the mathematics
of geometrical angles and distances.

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 A. A triangulation has the following advantages:
1) More redundancies or checks are available
2) There is little tendency for the system to sway or bend i.e.
azimuths can be easily and accurately carried or
established throughout the system.
3) Outstanding landmarks such as steeples, water tanks, etc.
can be located by establishing directions from different
stations.
B. Triangulation disadvantages are it needs long range
intervisibility, which in turn requires the erection of special
towers and signals, making the system the most expensive.
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Moreover, a good weather is required to attain inter visibility.

 Triangulation Figures and
Arrangements
The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the
triangle, braced quadrilateral, and the polygon with a central
station

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The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a
number of ways. Some of the commonly used arrangements,
also called layouts, are as follows:
A. Single chain of triangles,
B. Double chain of triangles
C. Braced quadrilaterals,
D. Centered triangles and polygons

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1. Chain of Triangles. In the chain of single triangles
there is only one route by which distances can be
computed through the chain. Considering the following
figure, If AB is the base line whose length is ‘a’ and if all
angles are observed, the length of the sides of the
triangle AB, BC, AC, BD, CD, … may be calculated
progressively along the chain from the base line.

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2. Chain of Polygons: a polygon or central point figure is
composed of a group of triangles, the figure being bounded by
three or more sides and having within it a station which is a vertex
common to all the triangles. The next fig shows a chain of
polygons with station D as the central point for the first polygon.

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3. Chain of Quadrilaterals: the individual triangles overlap one
another as shown below. This type usually occurs in the
form of the quadrilateral of which ABCD, CDEF etc

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Trigonometric Formulas:
Sine Law: b


c
a 
Cosine Law:

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Other Important Trigonometric Identities

Sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

Sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y

Cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y

Cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

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 First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape and size
of the earth or to cover a vast area
like a whole country with control points to which a second-order
triangulation system can be connected.
Specifications for First-order Triangulation
1. Average triangle closure : Less than 1 second

2. Maximum triangle closure : Not more than 3 sec

3. Length of base line : 5 to 15 kilometers

4. Length of the sides of triangles : 30 to 150 km

5. Length of the sides of triangles : 30 to 150 km

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6. Actual error of base : 1 in 300,000
 Second-order triangulation system consists of a network
within a first-order triangulation. It is used to cover areas of
the order of a region, small country, or province.
Specifications for 2nd-order Triangulation
1. Average triangle closure : 3 sec
2. Maximum triangle closure : 8 sec

3. Length of base line : 1.5 to 5 km

4. Length of sides of triangles : 8 to 65 km

5. Actual error of base : 1 in 150,000

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6. Discrepancy between two measures of a section : 20 mm kms

 Third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within and
connected to a second-order triangulation system. It serves the
purpose of furnishing the immediate control for detailed
engineering and location surveys.

Specifications for 3rd-order Triangulation

1. Average triangle closure : 6 sec

2. Maximum triangle closure : 12 sec
3. Length of base line : 0.5 to 3 km
4. Length of sides of triangles : 1.5 to 10 km

5. Actual error of base : 1 in 75, 0000

6. Discrepancy between two Measures of a section:25mm in km 15

 1ST ORDER 2nd order 3rd order
Class I Class II Class I Class II
Discrepancy 1 part 100,00
b/n
measured 1 part in 50,000 1 part in 1 part in 1 part in
and 20,000 10,000 5,000
computed
length of
baseline

1”
Triangle
angular 1.2” 2” 3” 5”
error
Recommend Furnishes Area control Area control General Area control
ed uses
control for strengthens the which control strengthens

primary national national network contributes surveys the national

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net work to but referred to network

metropolitan supplement national

 Well- Conditioned Triangles:

A well conditioned triangle is a triangle in which no angle is

less than 30 degrees.

The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the

arrangement of triangles in the layout, and the magnitude of the

angles in individual triangles.

The triangles of such a shape, in which any error in angular

measurement has a minimum effect upon the computed lengths,

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is known as well-conditioned triangle.
 Strength of Figures:

Strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a

triangulation system to maintain the computations within a

desired degree of precision.

It plays an important role in deciding the layout of a triangulation

system. The term refers to the effect 0f the proportions of a

triangle on the accuracy with which the lengths of the sides can

be computed
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When a small error in an angle measurement affect the
computed distance very little, the figure is said to be Strong.
Where:
F= Factor of strength
3 P  2 
F    P = number of stations
2 L 1 
L= number of Lines

Example:
P= 4, L= 6
3 4  2 
F    , F  0.6
2 6  1 

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Triangulation Adjustments:
In a chain of Quadrilateral, the
adjustments are:
A. Geometric /Angle Condition
B. Trigonometric/ Side Condition
A. Geometric Condition
1. The sum of interior angles of a triangle should be 1800
For ABC ; 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 1800
For BCD; 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 1800
For ABD; 1 + 2 + 7+ 8 = 1800
For ACD ; 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 = 1800
2. The sum of interior angles of quadrilateral should be 3600
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 = 3600
3. The sum of opposite angles ( at the intersection of the
diagonal) should be equal.
1+2=5+6 & 3+ 4 = 7 + 8 20
B. Trigonometric condition:

Log { (sin 1) ( sin 3) ( sin 5) ( sin 7 ) } –

log{ ( sin 2)( sin 4)( sin 6)( sin 8)} = 0
Log sin 1+ Log sin 3+ Log sin 5+ Log sin 7 =
Log sin 2 + Log sin 4 + Log sin 6 + Log sin 8

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Signals and Phases of Signals:
A signal is a device erected to define the exact position of a
triangulation station so that it can be observed from other
stations.
(i) It should clearly visible, kept at least 75 cm above the
station mark.
(ii) Capable of being accurately centered over the station mark.
(iii) It should be suitable for accurate bisection from other
stations.
Classification of signals
_ (i) Non-luminous, opaque or daylight signals
_ (ii) Luminous signals. 22

_ (iii) Night Signals

 Resection:
• This method of surveying is employed to locate and
plot the unknown position of the point.
• In this method, the position of the unknown point is
determined by drawing resectors from already known
points.

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In this case the instrument is located at unknown
position point “P” or “U” and an observation is done
from the three known points.

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Intersection
• In intersection method, the instrument is setup on known
points A and B and the two angles are measured
• The points to be located is obtained at the point of
intersection of radial lines drawn from two different
P
stations.

The coordinates of an unknown

point P should be computed.



A d AB B 25
Trilateration:
• Trilateration or Dilatation is a surveying method in
which the lengths of all sides are measured.
• Is a method of horizontal control survey based
completely on measured horizontal distances.
• It is mainly used in the location of some points rather
than as a complete survey for engineering works.
• Angles of the triangles and the coordinates of their
vertices are computed by the trigonometric
computations.
• In contrast to triangulation, it doesn’t involve the
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measurement of angles
Global Positioning System(GPS)

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GPS Satellite Revolving on its Orbit

 Forms of GPS Surveying:

Hand GPS Receivers

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Rover GPS Receiver(Detailing) GPS Receiver On a Tripod

General Introduction to GPS Surveying:

• Any object purposely placed into orbit around Earth,

other planets, or the Sun is called Satellite.
• Today, artificial satellites play key roles in the
communications industry, in military intelligence, and
in the scientific study of both Earth and outer space
• Communications satellite
• Navigation Satellites
• Meteorological satellites
• Solar Maximum Mission Satellite
• Environmental Satellites 29
GNSS = Global Navigation Satellite System is an umbrella
term that includes any satellite navigation system:
• GPS (U.S. | operational since 1994)
• GLONASS (Russian Navigational Satellite System)
• GALILEO (European Navigational Satellite System)
• BEIDOU (Chinese Navigational Satellite System)
• QUASI ZENITH- QZSS (Japan Navigational Satellite System)
• IRNSS ( Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System).

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Name Country No. of Altitude / Orbit Global/
Satellit Regional
es

NAVSTAR US 24 20,200 Km in 6 Orbital Plane Global

GLONASS Russia 24 19,100 Km in 3 Orbital Planes Global

Galileo Europe 27 23,200 Km in 3 Orbital Planes Global

Beidou China 35 5 Satellites in geostationary orbit at Global

36,000 Km;
3 Satellites in inclined geostationary orbit
at about 36,000 Km;
27 Satellites at 21,500 Km; in 3 Orbital
Planes
QZSS Japan 3 3 Satellites in elliptical orbit at about Regional

40,000 to 32,000 Km; in different Orbital

Planes
IRNSS India 7 31
Regional
3 Satellites in geostationary orbit at
36,000;
4 Satellites in inclined geosynchronous
WHERE WILL THIS TAKE US?

 What is GPS?
 How do GPS work?

 How will they help us?

Find
This! 32
WHAT IS GPS?
 GPS stands for Global Positioning System
 A very precise positioning system
 GPS is a satellite based navigation system designed to
provide accurate position, velocity, and time information
almost anywhere in the world
 the present system is known as NAVSTAR - NAVigation
Satellite Timing And Ranging
 the GPS program operated and controlled by the US
Department of Defense (DOD)
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THE HISTORY OF GPS
 Feasibility studies begun in 1960’s.

 Pentagon appropriates funding in 1973.

 First satellite launched in 1978.

 System declared fully operational in April, 1995.

 Open to the public, 2000.

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How does GPS work?
 Each satellite broadcasts its orbital position as a
modulated signal

 Receiver determines the difference between the time

signal from the satellite and its own internal clock

 The distance from the satellite can be calculated using

the speed of light (300,000 km/second)

 Position and distance from 4+ satellites allows

triangulation of receiver’s position

 Distance = travel time x speed of light 35

 Stations on earth, and a GPS
receiver, the distances
between each of these points
can be calculated.
The distance is calculated
based on the amount of time
it takes for a radio signal to
travel between these points.
Using satellites in the sky,
ground allows the GPS
receiver to know where you
are, in terms of latitude and
GPS Segments longitude, on the earth.
 The more satellites the GPSr can “see”, the
more accurate your reading.
 The GPSr must “see” the satellites, so it does 36

not work well in dense forests, inside caves,

underwater, or inside buildings.
 37

Animation in 3D for User and Space Segments’ communication

GPS DETAILS
 GPS (Global Positioning System)

 also called NAVSTAR (NAVigation System,

Timing And Ranging)

 The GPS consists of 3 main segments:

 Space Segment: the constellation of satellites

 Control Segment: operation and monitoring of

the GPS System

 User Segment: all GPS receivers and

processing software's 38
MAJOR GPS COMPONENTS 39
Space Segment
Constitutes satellite constellation which downlinks data
including coded ranging signals, position information,
atmospheric data, and almanac (data about approximate orbit
information of all satellites).
 Basic functions of satellites include:
.Receive and store information transmitted by the control station
. Perform limited data processing by its own computer
. Maintain accurate time by means of on board 2 Cs & 2 Rb oscillators
. Transmit information to the user by the signal message

. Manoeuvre to position in space controlled by the control segment

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 Speed of satellites relative to the
Earth center approximately 4 km/s,
relative to the user up to 2.8 km/s.

 GPS satellites repeat their ground

tracks after: 1 sidereal day = 23 h
56 min = 2 orbital periods.

GPS Satellites in their Orbit

The same geometry is reached 4 minutes earlier every day.

Satellites equally distributed in each of the six orbit planes. 41
 42

orbit ~ 12 hours
Location of Control Segments in the Glob
US Air Force and NIMA Control and Tracking Stations

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Control Segment I

Monitor stations It consists of 5 tracking stations to

collect raw data based on observing satellite in their
orbits.

 Tracking is executed with two frequency receivers

equipped with highly precise caesium oscillators.

 Meteorological data is also collected for accurate

evaluation of tropospheric delay.

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Control Segment II

Master Control stations

•Takes data from other 5 tracking stations and

consequently predicts satellites orbits by extrapolation.
•Computes clock correction for satellite time referred to
GPS time frame.
•Satellite time synchronization is carried out by connecting
MCS to US Naval Observatory (USNO) in Washington DC.
•The clock correction data is then sent to transmitting
station for uploading. 45
Control Segment III

Ground Antenna
Three transmitting stations are involved for
transmitting recent data (including broadcast
message) to satellites.
These stations also send telemetry commands for
repositioning, switching spare components etc.
• Clock-correction factors
• Atmospheric data
• Almanac
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• Ephemeris data
Each monitor station is equipped with high-quality
GPS receivers and a cesium oscillator for the purpose of
continuous tracking of all the GPS satellites in view.
Three of the monitor stations (Kwajalein, Diego Garcia,
and Ascension Island) are also equipped with ground
antennas for uploading the information to the GPS
satellites.
All of the monitor stations and the ground control stations
are unmanned and operated remotely from the MCS.

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User Segment
•Consists of GPS receiver units with capability to obtain
real time positioning.
•GPS receivers are hand-held radio-receivers/computers
which measure the time that the radio signal takes to
travel
•Using the travel time multiplied by the speed of light
provides a calculation of range to each satellite in view.
•From this and additional information on the satellites
orbit and velocity, the internal GPS receiver software
calculates its position through a process of resection. 48
 Accuracy is dependent on the kind of receiver
 Navigation (Recreation) grade – least accurate

 Mapping grade – accurate

 Survey grade – most accurate

 Costs range from $100 to $50,000

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 Some GPS Applications:
 Military.
 Search and rescue.
 Disaster relief.
 Surveying.
 Marine, aeronautical and terrestrial navigation.
 Remote controlled vehicle and robot guidance.
 Satellite positioning and tracking.
 Shipping.
 Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
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 Recreation.
SUMMERY OF THREE SEGMENTS OF THE GPS

Space
Segment

User
Segment
Control
Segment
Ground
Antennas
Master Station Monitor Stations
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GPS Signals
 Signals driven by an atomic clock
 Fundamental Frequency at 10.23 MHz
 Two carrier signals (sine waves):

.L1 : f=1575.43 MHz, ( =19 cm ), generated by 10.23 MHz x 154

. L2 : f=1227.60 MHz, (  =24 cm), generated by 10.23 MHz x 120
 Bits encoded on carrier by phase modulation:

. C/A-code (Clear Access / Coarse Acquisition):

1.023 MHz ( =300 m ), 10.23/10
. P-code (Protected / Precise): 10.23 MHz ( = 30 m )
at fundamental frequency
. Navigation Message: (system time, “Broadcast” orbits,
satellite clock corrections, almanacs, ionospheric information,
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etc.), 50 bps on both L1 and L2
GPS Positioning Modes
Positioning with GPS can be performed by either of
two ways: point positioning or relative positioning.
GPS relative positioning, however, employs two GPS
receivers simultaneously tracking the same satellites.
GPS point positioning, also known as standalone or
autonomous positioning, involves only one GPS receiver.
That is, one GPS receiver simultaneously tracks four or
more GPS satellites to determine its own coordinates with
respect to the center of the Earth. 53
GPS Relative Positioning Modes
• Static GPS surveying is a relative positioning
technique that depends on the carrier-phase
measurements.
• It employs three (or more) stationary receivers
simultaneously tracking the same satellites
• The receiver collects data for a period not less than 30min

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• Fast, or rapid, static surveying is a carrier-phase-
based relative positioning technique similar to static
GPS surveying. That is, it employs two or more
receivers simultaneously tracking the same satellites.
However, with rapid static surveying, only the base
receiver remains stationary over the known point
during the entire observation session
• The rover receiver collects data for a period of about 2
to 10 minutes
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• Stop-and-go surveying is another carrier-phase-
based relative positioning technique. It also employs
two or more GPS receivers simultaneously tracking
the same satellites
• The rover receiver travels between the unknown
points, and makes a brief stop at each point to collect
the GPS data. The data is usually collected at a 1- to 2-
second recording rate for a period of about 30 seconds
per each stop.

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• RTK surveying is a carrier phase-based relative
positioning technique that, like the previous methods,
employs two (or more) receivers simultaneously tracking
the same satellites
• This method is suitable when:
• (1) the survey involves a large number of unknown points
located in the vicinity (i.e., within up to about 10-15 km) of
a known point;
• (2) the coordinates of the unknown points are required in
real time;
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and (3) the line of sight, the propagation path, is relatively

unobstructed. Because of its ease of use as well as its

capability to determine the coordinates in real time, this

method is the preferred method by many users.

In this method, the base receiver remains stationary over

the known point and is attached to a radio transmitter

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How accurate is GPS?
Depends on some variables

• Time spent on measurement

• Design of receiver
• Postprocessing
• Relative positions of satellites,
technically known as PDOP (Position
dilution of precision)
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GPS Source of Errors

Earth’s Atmosphere

Solid Structures

Metal Electro-magnetic Fields

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Source of Signal Interference

 GPS ERROR SOURCES
Satellite errors
satellite position error
atomic clock, though very accurate, not perfect.
Atmosphere
Electro-magnetic waves travels at light speed only in vacuum.
The ionosphere and atmospheric molecules change the signal
speed.
Multi-path distortion
signal may "bounce" off structures nearby before reaching
receiver – the reflected signal arrives a little later.
Receiver error: Due to receiver clock or internal noise.

Selective Availability 61
Sources of error
Multipath

PDOP

SNR

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Source:Trimble
Multipath
• When GPS signals arrive at the receiver
having traveled different paths

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What is a PDOP?
• Position Dilution of Precision

Good PDOP Poor PDOP

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GPS Advantages
• Unlike conventional surveying procedures,
there is no need for intervisibility between
stations.
• Independent of weather conditions as a result
of using radio frequencies to transmit the
signals.
• Use of same field and data reduction
procedures results in position accuracy which
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independent of network
• Shape or geometry and are primarily a function of inter-
station distance.
• GPS surveying provides generally homogeneous accuracy.
Hence, geodetic network planning in the classical sense is
longer relevant
• The points can be established wherever they are required
need not be located at evenly distributed sites.
• A top mountains to satisfy intervisibility, or network geometry
criteria.

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• GPS surveying is more efficient, more flexible and less
time consuming positioning technique than using
conventional terrestrial survey technologies.
• GPS can be used to obtain high accuracy three
dimensional (3D) information, anywhere and time with
relatively little effort on a global datum.
• The GPS instrumentation and the data processing
software do not radically even if very high or moderately
high accuracies are required (from 1 part in 104 to 1 part
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in 106 ).
 GPS Applications
•Civil Engineering applications
•Land and marine seismic surveying
•Structural deformations
•Stakeout (waypoint navigation)
•Location based services (LBS)
•Natural resources .Seafloor mapping
•Precision farming .Vehicle navigation
•Open pit mining .Cadastral surveying
•Transit system . Retail industry
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•Airborne mapping
Hydrographic Mapping 69
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