materials

Article
Gypsum-Based Humidity-Control Material: Preparation,
Performance and Its Impact on Building Energy Consumption
Xi Li 1,2 and Maoyu Ran 1,2, *

1 School of Architecture, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China

2 Xiamen Key Laboratory of Ecological Building Construction, Xiamen 361021, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: This paper introduces a new type of gypsum-based humidity-control material. The material
combines gypsum–silica gel humidity-control material with 20% sepiolite powder activated by
calcium chloride. Both experimental and simulation studies were conducted to assess its humidity-
control performance. The experimental results indicate that gypsum-based humidity-control material
has the property of absorbing moisture in high-humidity environments and releasing moisture in
low-humidity environments. Moreover, both environmental temperature and relative humidity (RH)
have an impact on the material’s humidity-control performance. At a relative humidity of 97.4%,
the maximum equilibrium moisture content of the material is 0.225 g/g, which is 1.4 times that of
the gypsum–silica gel humidity-control material and 4.5 times that of pure gypsum material. The
simulation results indicate that gypsum-based humidity-control material effectively mitigates indoor
relative humidity fluctuations and maintains indoor air relative humidity within a narrow range.
Furthermore, the material has the potential to reduce building energy consumption. This is especially
evident under climate conditions with large temperature and relative humidity differences between
day and night, such as in Beijing, Paris, and Atlanta. The maximum potential energy-saving rate in
Beijing can reach up to 19.31%.

Keywords: humidity control; composite material; energy saving simulation; gypsum

Citation: Li, X.; Ran, M. Gypsum-

Based Humidity-Control Material:
1. Introduction
Preparation, Performance and Its The indoor environment plays a crucial role in determining individuals’ physical and
Impact on Building Energy mental well-being, a relationship that is primarily affected by indoor environmental param-
Consumption. Materials 2023, 16, eters [1–3]. Relative humidity is one such parameter that significantly influences thermal
5211. https://doi.org/10.3390/ comfort, building load, indoor air quality, and occupant work efficiency [4,5]. To create a
ma16155211 comfortable indoor environment, it is pivotal to regulate relative humidity based on active
Academic Editor: Gabriele Milani or passive methods. The former involves using heat, ventilation, and air conditioning
systems to either humidify or dehumidify indoor air, thereby keeping relative humidity
Received: 7 June 2023 at cozy levels for occupants. However, this method consumes energy and causes envi-
Revised: 20 July 2023
ronmental pollution, undermining China’s strategy for renewable energy development.
Accepted: 21 July 2023
Reports indicate an average annual growth rate of 5.39% in China’s energy consumption
Published: 25 July 2023
during building operations from 2005 to 2018 [6]. In contrast, the latter method utilizes
renewable energy or materials with moisture absorption and desorption capabilities. This
approach aims to achieve the same goal of enhancing comfort while reducing building
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
energy consumption [7–9]. This ecological approach holds great significance for improving
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. indoor living space and building energy conservation.
This article is an open access article As a passive energy-saving technology for regulating indoor humidity, humidity-
distributed under the terms and control materials stand out among numerous passive technologies. The concept of humidity-
conditions of the Creative Commons control materials was initially proposed by Nishito and Miyano in Japan in the 1940s [10].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// It refers to the method of automatically regulating indoor air humidity without relying on
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ energy-consuming equipment, based on the moisture absorption and desorption charac-
4.0/). teristics of the material. It is acknowledged as an environmentally benign passive control

Materials 2023, 16, 5211. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155211 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 5211 2 of 16

method. It can manage indoor relative humidity fluctuations and maintain indoor relative
humidity within a comfortable range, thereby avoiding negative impacts on human health
caused by high or low relative humidity environments [11,12].
In recent years, the utilization of humidity-control materials for regulating indoor
relative humidity has yielded promising results [13–15]. Zhang’s experimentation with
humidity-control materials placed in an artificial climate chamber indicated their effec-
tiveness in regulating indoor humidity levels [16]. Ge’s inquiry focused on the moisture
buffering performance of common humidity-control materials. The results revealed sig-
nificant variations in the moisture absorption and desorption capabilities across similar
materials [17]. Simonson’s numerical simulation study demonstrated that incorporating
humidity-control materials in indoor spaces led to a reduction in required ventilation rates.
Importantly, this reduction was achieved without compromising comfort or air quality [18].
Zhang’s application of numerical simulation techniques revealed the significant impact
of humidity-control materials on building energy consumption in different climatic condi-
tions. This study highlights their potential for up to 25% energy savings in temperate and
semi-arid climates [19].
Currently, various types of humidity-control materials have been developed and
classified as biomass, organic, inorganic, and composite materials [20]. Biomass materials
have relatively large moisture capacity, but they exhibit smaller vapor permeability and
slower moisture transfer rate [21]. Organic materials can absorb moisture hundreds of
times their own weight, but they have weaker desorption ability [22]. Inorganic materials
possess open porous structures and strong adsorption capabilities. Among them, gypsum
is a widely used lightweight construction material known for its cost-effectiveness and
eco-friendly production process. Its high porosity and uniform pore size distribution
enable favorable permeability, making it suitable for humidity-control applications. Roel
investigated the moisture absorption and desorption performance of gypsum boards
coated with latex paint compared to bare gypsum boards. The findings indicated that
applying latex paint on the surface of gypsum boards significantly diminishes their moisture
buffering capacity [23]. Zhang evaluated the humidity-control capabilities of magnesite
board, diatomaceous earth, and gypsum board. The results revealed that they all possess
varying degrees of humidity-control capabilities, with magnesite board performing the best,
followed by diatomaceous earth, and gypsum board performing poorly [24]. Shahrzad
found that placing gypsum inside concrete walls under higher indoor ventilation rates can
maintain indoor relative humidity at approximately 60% [25]. Although gypsum possesses
certain moisture control capabilities, it presents two limitations in terms of its moisture
absorption and desorption performance. Firstly, within the relative humidity range of
40–70%, gypsum exhibits relatively low equilibrium moisture content, which fails to meet
the demand for substantial moisture absorption within the standard humidity range.
Secondly, gypsum displays a slow rate of moisture absorption and desorption, making it
challenging to promptly respond to dynamic humidity changes.
To enhance the humidity-control performance of gypsum, numerous researchers have
chosen gypsum as the matrix and incorporated other materials to develop gypsum-based
composite materials [26,27]. Jiang employed sepiolite powder activated by calcium chlo-
ride as an additive and incorporated it into gypsum to prepare a composite material. The
adsorption and desorption performance were tested, revealing that the adsorption and
desorption capacity of the samples increased with the increase in the dosage of activated
sepiolite powder. However, with a continuous increase in the content of activated sepiolite
powder, wetting phenomena were observed on the sample surface. Consequently, the
optimal additive content was found to be 20% of activated sepiolite powder [28]. Shang
introduced lithium chloride into gypsum and developed a novel material. The research in-
dicated that this material exhibited good humidity absorption and desorption performance,
with a maximum moisture absorption capacity of 0.410 g/g [29]. Lee added activated
clay into gypsum to fabricate a new gypsum-based composite material. The experimental
results showed that the humidity absorption and desorption performance of the material
Materials 2023, 16, 5211 3 of 16

improved with an increasing amount of clay addition, reaching its peak when the clay
content reached 70% [30]. Shang successfully developed a gypsum-based humidity-control
material by mixing it with adsorbent materials such as plant fiber, kaolin, and activated
carbon [31].
In conclusion, gypsum is a traditional building material with humidity-control proper-
ties, but it has limitations in terms of moisture absorption and desorption performance. The
current focus of research lies on composite humidity-control materials [32,33], but there
has been no study on the preparation of a novel composite material by mixing gypsum
with silica gel. Therefore, in previous studies, the author employed silica gel as a functional
material to modify gypsum and prepare a gypsum–silica gel composite [34]. Through ex-
perimental measurements, the composite material exhibited markedly enhanced moisture
absorption and desorption capacity as well as rate compared to pure gypsum. To further
enhance the humidity-control capabilities of this composite material, we developed a novel
gypsum-based humidity-control material. This was achieved by adding sepiolite powder
activated by calcium chloride at a mass ratio of 20%, based on existing research [28,35]. The
humidity-control performance of the material was then evaluated through experiments and
simulated tests. The study aims to provide a new idea for continuously seeking low-cost
and practical humidity-control building materials suitable for the construction field.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The study used gypsum material and calcium chloride from Sinopharm Chemical
Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China. Silica gel was obtained from Henan Pubang Environ-
mental Protection Materials Co., Ltd., Henan, China. Sepiolite powder was provided by
Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China. The preparation process of
gypsum-based humidity-control material is described as follows.

2.1.1. Preparation of Activated Sepiolite Powder

The sepiolite powder was placed in an air-drying oven (10HS, made in China) to
dry at a temperature of 90 ◦ C until the change in weight did not exceed 0.1% over three
consecutive days. Subsequently, a 3 mol/L calcium chloride solution was formulated and
blended with the dried sepiolite powder at a mass ratio of 8:2 with the aid of an electronic
balance (TP-213, accuracy: ±0.01 g). The mixture was subsequently homogenized using a
glass rod until it attained a dry and friable consistency to obtain sepiolite power activated
by calcium chloride.

2.1.2. Preparation of Gypsum–Silica Gel Humidity-Control Material

Firstly, the silica gel was crushed using a crusher (MT-10S, made in China) and sieved
through a mesh to obtain 3 mm particle-size silica gel. Then, gypsum and silica gel were
separately weighed in a mass ratio of 6:4 using an electronic balance (TP-213, accuracy:
±0.01 g). After thoroughly mixing the materials in a beaker, the desired amount of distilled
water was added and stirred well. Finally, the well-mixed composite slurry was poured
into a precast mold with dimensions of 50 × 50 × 5 mm and allowed to solidify. It was
then cured for 24 h at a temperature of 50 ± 2 ◦ C and a relative humidity of 40 ± 5%. This
resulted in the formation of the gypsum–silica gel humidity-control material. The detailed
preparation procedure can be found in reference [34].

2.1.3. Preparation of Gypsum-Based Humidity-Control Material

The uncured gypsum–silica gel humidity-control material slurry was mixed with acti-
vated sepiolite powder in a mass ratio of 8:2. The mixture was poured into a beaker and the
desired amount of distilled water was added, then stirred thoroughly to achieve uniformity.
The well-mixed composite slurry was poured into a precast mold with dimensions of 50 ×
50 × 5 mm and allowed to solidify. It was then cured for 24 h at a temperature of 50 ± 2 ◦ C
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4

Materials 2023, 16, 5211 the desired amount of distilled water was added, then stirred thoroughly 4 of 16
to achieve
formity. The well-mixed composite slurry was poured into a precast mold with di
sions of 50 × 50 × 5 mm and allowed to solidify. It was then cured for 24 h at a temper
and a relativeofhumidity
50 ± 2 °Cofand
40 a±relative
5%. Thishumidity
resultedofin40 ± 5%.
the This resulted
formation in the formation of the
of the gypsum-based
sum-based
humidity-control humidity-control material.
material.
The raw
The raw materials usedmaterials used inpreparation
in the sample the sampleprocess,
preparation process,
as well as theassamples
well as the sam
employed
employed during during the experimental
the experimental procedure, areprocedure,
illustratedare illustrated
in Figure 1. in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Raw materials and sample.

Figure 1. Raw materials and sample.

The material composition

The material parameters
compositionare shown in are
parameters Table 1. The
shown inratio
Tableof1.materials
The ratiotoof materia
water was determined based on the results of multiple preliminary experiments.
water was determined based on the results of multiple preliminary experiments.

Table 1. Materials composition

Table parameters.
1. Materials composition parameters.

Material Material Mass Ratio Material to Water Mass Material

Ratio to Wa
Material Material Mass Ratio
activated sepiolite power 80% sepiolite power + 20% calcium chloride - Mass Ratio
gypsum–silica gelactivated
material sepiolite power 60% gypsum 80% sepiolite
+ 40% power + 20% calcium chloride
silica gel -
gypsum-basedgypsum–silica
material 80%
gelgypsum–silica
material gel material + 20%60%
activated sepiolite
gypsum + 40% power
silica gel 1:0.7
gypsum material 100% gypsum
gypsum-based material 80% gypsum–silica gel material + 20% activated sepiolite power 1:0.7
gypsum material 100% gypsum
2.2. Testing Methods
2.2.1. Experimental Testing
2.2. Testing Methods
1. Humidity-control performance
2.2.1. Experimental Testing
1. humidity-control
To test the Humidity-controlperformance
performanceof the gypsum-based humidity-control
material, two experimental
To test theschemes were designed.
humidity-control First, the
performance gypsum-based
of the gypsum-based humidity-
humidity-contro
control material was
terial, used
two to dehumidify
experimental and were
schemes humidify high-humidity
designed. (85%) and low-
First, the gypsum-based humidity
humidity (25%) environments consecutively. This continuous humidity-control test
trol material was used to dehumidify and humidify high-humidity (85%) and low-huwas
repeated three itytimes.
(25%) Second, the gypsum-based
environments humidity-control
consecutively. This continuousmaterial was used test wa
humidity-control
to dehumidify peated three times. Second, the gypsum-based humidity-control materialthe
the high-humidity environment (85%) and immediately humidify was used t
low-humidityhumidify
environment (25%). This intermittent
the high-humidity environment humidity-control test was repeated
(85%) and immediately humidify the low
three times. midity environment (25%). This intermittent humidity-control test was repeated
The experimental
times. setup design schematic diagram illustrated in Figure 2a consisted
of a box and an adsorbent cylinder situated outside it. The outer magnet block slid
The experimental setup design schematic diagram illustrated in Figure 2a cons
along the outer guide rail, controlling the inner magnet block inside the box via magnetic
of a box and an adsorbent cylinder situated outside it. The outer magnet block slid a
attraction. This allowed for the opening or sealing of the partition between the box and
the outer guide rail, controlling the inner magnet block inside the box via magnetic a
the adsorbent cylinder as required. The experiment involved establishing high- or low-
tion. This allowed for the opening or sealing of the partition between the box and
humidity conditions within the box by humidifying or dehumidifying through the piston
adsorbent cylinder as required. The experiment involved establishing high- or low
port. After that, the dehumidification and humidification process was initiated by opening
midity conditions within the box by humidifying or dehumidifying through the p
the sealing partition using the outer magnet block. In situ relative humidity measurements
port. After that, the dehumidification and humidification process was initiated by ope
were performed using a temperature and humidity recorder (AZ8829, made in China)
the sealing partition using the outer magnet block. In situ relative humidity measurem
placed in the box every minute. The experimental temperature was maintained at 23 ◦ C.
were performed using a temperature and humidity recorder (AZ8829, made in C
The actual image of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 2b.
placed in the box every minute. The experimental temperature was maintained at 2
2. The impact Theofactual
the environment
image of theon humidity-control
experimental setup performance
is shown in Figure 2b.
To test the effect of environmental temperature on the humidity-control performance
of gypsum-based humidity-control material, the programmable temp&humi chamber
(LY-2150B, made in China, accuracy: +2 ◦ C; +3%RH) was utilized. A constant relative
 Materials 2023, 16, 5211 5 of 16

humidity of 80% and 20%, respectively, was maintained for the experiment. The materials
were placed in an air-drying oven to dry at a temperature of 80 ◦ C until the change in
weight did not exceed 0.1% over three consecutive days. The dry materials were placed
in the chamber with a constant relative humidity of 80% to absorb moisture. In contrast,
the materials that had reached the maximum equilibrium moisture absorption at a relative
humidity of 97.4% were placed in the chamber with a constant relative humidity of 20% to
desorb moisture. The chamber was set to 13 ◦ C, 23 ◦ C, and 33 ◦ C, respectively.
To test the effect of environmental relative humidity on the humidity-control per-
formance of gypsum-based humidity-control material, the internal temperature of the
programmable temp&humi chamber was kept at 23 ◦ C. The dry materials were placed
in the chamber to absorb moisture, and the relative humidity inside the chamber was
controlled at a constant level of 50%, 60%, 70%, and 80%, respectively. The materials that
had reached the maximum equilibrium moisture absorption at a relative humidity of 97.4%
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEWwere placed in the chamber to desorb moisture. Inside the chamber, the relative humidity
5 of 18
was controlled at constant levels of 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%, respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Experimental setup (a) design schematic diagram; (b) actual image.
Figure 2. Experimental setup (a) design schematic diagram; (b) actual image.

2. 3. The impact of moisture

Isothermal the environment on humidity-control
adsorption–desorption curve performance
ToIntest the effect of
accordance environmental
with the Chinese temperature
standard GB/T on the humidity-control
20312-2006 performance
[36], the isothermal mois-
of ture
gypsum-based humidity-control
adsorption–desorption curve wasmaterial, the programmable
tested using the programmable temp&humi
temp&humi chamber
chamber
(LY-2150B,
method, madeand thein internal
China, accuracy: +2 °C;
temperature of+3%RH)
the chamberwas utilized.
was kept Aatconstant relative
23 ◦ C. The dry hu-
mate-
midity of 80% and 20%, respectively, was maintained for the experiment.
rials were placed in the chamber to absorb moisture. Inside the chamber, the relative The materials
were placed was
humidity in ancontrolled
air-dryingatoven to dry
constant at aof
levels temperature
22.5%, 32.9%, of 80 °C until
43.2%, 53.5%,the64.9%,
change75.4%,
in
weight did not exceed 0.1% over three consecutive days. The dry materials
84.6%, and 97.4%. The materials that had reached the maximum equilibrium moisture were placed in
theabsorption
chamber with a constant
at a relative relativeofhumidity
humidity 97.4% wereof 80%
placedto absorb moisture.toIndesorb
in the chamber contrast, the
moisture.
materials that had reached the maximum equilibrium moisture absorption at
Inside the chamber, the relative humidity was controlled at a constant relative humidity of a relative
humidity of 97.4%
84.6%, 75.4%, were53.5%,
64.9%, placed43.2%,
in the32.9%,
chamber andwith
22.5%.a constant relative humidity of 20%
to desorb moisture. The chamber was set to 13
The equilibrium moisture content u during the °C, 23 °C,process
and 33of °C,moisture
respectively.
adsorption and
To test the effect of environmental relative humidity on
desorption of the above material can be calculated using Formula (1), the humidity-control perfor-
mance of gypsum-based humidity-control material, the internal temperature of the pro-
grammable temp&humi chamber was ukept = (m at−
23m°C.
0 )/m
The0 dry materials were placed in the(1)
chamber to absorb moisture, and the relative humidity inside the chamber was controlled
at awhere m0 is
constant theof
level dry mass
50%, of material
60%, 70%, and(g),
80%, mrespectively.
is the mass ofThe thematerials
material at moisture
that equilib-
had reached
therium (g).
maximum equilibrium moisture absorption at a relative humidity of 97.4% were
placed in the chamber to desorb moisture. Inside the chamber, the relative humidity was
controlled at constant levels of 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%, respectively.
3. Isothermal moisture adsorption–desorption curve
In accordance with the Chinese standard GB/T 20312-2006 [36], the isothermal mois-
ture adsorption–desorption curve was tested using the programmable temp&humi cham-
ber method, and the internal temperature of the chamber was kept at 23 °C. The dry ma-
 Materials 2023, 16, 5211 6 of 16

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

The moisture content U during the process of moisture adsorption and desorption of
the above material can be calculated using Formula (2),
The moisture content U during the process of moisture adsorption and desorption of
the above material can be calculated using Formula
U = (u −(2),u ) ∗ 100 (2)
1 2
U = (u1 − u2) ∗ 100 (2)
where u1 is the moisture content of the material after adsorption or before desorption (g/g),
where u1 is the moisture content of the material after adsorption or before desorption
u2 is the moisture content of the material before adsorption or after desorption (g/g).
(g/g), u 2 is the moisture content of the material before adsorption or after desorption (g/g).
The actual image showcasing the experimental process of using the programmable
The actual image showcasing the experimental process of using the programmable
temp&humi
temp&humi chamber chamber is illustrated
is illustrated in Figurein3.Figure 3.

Figure
Figure 3. Experimental
3. Experimental processprocess
of using of
theusing the programmable
programmable temp&humitemp&humi
chamber. chamber.

2.2.2. Simulation Testing

2.2.2. Simulation Testing
To the
To test testhumidity-control
the humidity-control effect ofeffect of gypsum-based
gypsum-based humidity-control
humidity-control material material
ap- applied
in the building, EnergyPlus software (EnergyPlus 9.6.0) was used.
plied in the building, EnergyPlus software (EnergyPlus 9.6.0) was used. The study focused The study focused on
investigating the impact of material thickness and material laying
on investigating the impact of material thickness and material laying area on the indoor area on the indoor air
parameter
air parameter changes
changes in ainroom
a roomunder under
summersummer climate
climate conditions
conditions in Xiamen.
in Xiamen. The simu- The simulation
period
lation periodspanned
spanned from
from 11 August
Augusttoto7 August.
7 August.
To test
Tothetestenergy-saving effect of
the energy-saving gypsum-based
effect humidity-control
of gypsum-based material applied
humidity-control material applied in
in buildings,
buildings, EnergyPlus
EnergyPlus software
softwarewas used. The study
was used. The focused on investigating
study focused the im- the impact
on investigating
pact of
of the
the laying
layingandandnon-laying
non-laying of material on building
of material energyenergy
on building consumption under var-
consumption under various
ious climatic
climatic conditions. Four cities worldwide characterized by typical
conditions. Four cities worldwide characterized by typical urban urban climates climates were
were selected for analysis. These cities include Beijing, China (continental monsoon cli-
selected for analysis. These cities include Beijing, China (continental monsoon climate),
mate), Paris, France (temperate oceanic climate), Atlanta, United States (subtropical and
Paris, France (temperate oceanic climate), Atlanta, United States (subtropical and sub-
sub-humid climate), and Xiamen, China (subtropical oceanic monsoon climate).
humid climate), and Xiamen, China (subtropical oceanic monsoon climate).
For accurate and typical results, the BESTEST base case building (shown in Figure 4)
For
from the IEA ECBCSaccurate and 21
Annex typical results,as
was selected thetheBESTEST baseThe
test building. caseBESTEST
building (shown
base case in Figure 4)
is assumed to be a typical office house. The room is occupied during the daytime from base case is
from the IEA ECBCS Annex 21 was selected as the test building. The BESTEST
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8:00 assumed
to 18:00 and to unoccupied
be a typicalthe office
resthouse. The room is occupied during the
of the day. 7 ofdaytime
18 from 8:00 to
18:00 and unoccupied the rest of the day.

Figure 4. Figure 4. Thebase

The BESTEST BESTEST base case building.
case building.

The detailed physical property parameters of each layer in the BESTEST base case
building are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Physical parameters of different layers in building envelopes.

Materials 2023, 16, 5211 7 of 16

The detailed physical property parameters of each layer in the BESTEST base case
building are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Physical parameters of different layers in building envelopes.

K U
Construction Material d (m) ρ (kg/m3 ) cp (J/kg·K)
(W/m·K) (W/m2 ·K)
Wooden board 0.01 530 900 0.14 0.474
Wall (from outer layer to Rock wool board 0.066 60 850 0.04 -
inner layer) Concrete 0.1 1400 1000 0.51 -
gypsum-based material - 1000 2250 0.45 -
Cement panel 0.012 1130 840 0.255 0.307
Roof (from outer layer to
Rock wool board 0.066 60 850 0.04 -
inner layer)
gypsum-based material - 1000 2250 0.45 -
Thermal insulating 1 60 850 0.04 0.04
Floor (from outer layer to
layer - - - - -
inner layer)
gypsum-based material - 1000 2250 0.45 -
Window Double glazing unit - - - - 1.99

The simulation settings and boundary conditions are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Simulation settings and boundary conditions.

Conditions Office Case

Occupied period 8:00–18:00
Unoccupied period The rest of the day
Air conditioning running time Occupied period
Air conditioning running temperature (◦ C) 18–26
Air conditioning running relative humidity (%) 30–70
Air change rate (ACH) 0.5
Air infiltration No

Table 4 displays the materials utilized in the simulation. Case A studied the influence of
gypsum-based humidity-control material thickness on its regulating humidity effectiveness.
The thickness ranged from 0.01 m to 0.05 m, and the material laying area was 159.6 m2
(internal walls, floor, and ceiling). Case B studied the impact of gypsum-based humidity-
control material laying area on its regulating humidity effectiveness. The material laying
area was 63.6 m2 (internal walls) and 159.6 m2 (internal walls, floor, and ceiling), and
the material thickness was 0.03 m. Finally, Case C acted as the reference group where no
gypsum-based humidity-control material was applied in the room.

Table 4. Simulating material.

Case ID Thickness (m) Area (m2 )

Case A.1 0.01
Case A.2 0.02
Case A.3 0.03 159.6
Case A.4 0.04
Case A.5 0.05
Case B.1 63.6
0.03
Case B.2 159.6
Case C - 0
 Case A.5 0.05
Case B.1 63.6
0.03
Case B.2 159.6
Case C - 0
Materials 2023, 16, 5211 8 of 16
3. Results
3.1. Experimental Testing
3. Results
3.1.1. Humidity-Control Performance
3.1. Experimental Testing
The results of the continuous dehumidification and humidification tests of the gyp-
3.1.1. Humidity-Control Performance
sum-based humidity-control material are shown in Figure 5. Figure 5a shows the results
The resultsdehumidification
of continuous of the continuous dehumidification
tests. These results and humidification
reveal tests of the gypsum-
that the dehumidification ca-
based humidity-control material are shown in Figure 5. Figure 5a shows the results of
pacity of the material continuously decreases during three consecutive dehumidification
continuous dehumidification
tests. The first dehumidificationtests. These results
reduces revealhumidity
the relative that the dehumidification
from 85% to 68%,capacity
the sec-
of the material continuously decreases during three consecutive
ond dehumidification reduces it to 70%, and the third dehumidification dehumidification
only reducestests.
it to
The
72%.first dehumidification
Figure 5b presents the reduces theofrelative
results humidity
continuous from 85% to
humidification 68%,
tests. the second
These results
dehumidification reduces it to 70%, and the third dehumidification only reduces it to 72%.
demonstrate that the humidification capacity of the material exhibits a continuing down-
Figure 5b presents the results of continuous humidification tests. These results demonstrate
ward trend during three consecutive humidification. The first humidification increases the
that the humidification capacity of the material exhibits a continuing downward trend
relative humidity from 25% to 45%, the second humidification increases it to 43%, and the
during three consecutive humidification. The first humidification increases the relative
third humidification only increases it to 41%.
humidity from 25% to 45%, the second humidification increases it to 43%, and the third
humidification only increases it to 41%.

Figure 5. Results of (a) continuous dehumidification tests; (b) continuous humidification tests.
Figure 5. results of (a) continuous dehumidification tests; (b) continuous humidification tests.
The results of the intermittent dehumidification and humidification tests of the
The resultshumidity-control
gypsum-based of the intermittentmaterial
dehumidification
are shownand humidification
in Figure 6. Figure tests
6a of the gyp-
shows the
results of intermittent dehumidification tests. These results reveal that there is noresults
sum-based humidity-control material are shown in Figure 6. Figure 6a shows the atten-
of intermittent
uation dehumidification
in the dehumidification tests. of
ability These results reveal
the material duringthat
thethere
threeisdehumidification
no attenuation in
the dehumidification
tests. ability inside
The relative humidity of the the
material
box canduring the three
be reduced dehumidification
from 85% to 70% intests. The
130, 170,
relative
and humidity
100 min inside
for the first,the box can
second, andbethird
reduced from 85% to 70%
dehumidification, in 130, 170,Additionally,
respectively. and 100 min
forthree
all the first, second, and third
dehumidification dehumidification,
tests achieve a stabilizedrespectively. Additionally,
relative humidity of 65% ±all2% three de-
within
humidification tests achieve a stabilized relative humidity of 65% ± 2%
200 min. Figure 6b shows the results of intermittent humidification tests. These results within 200 min.
Figure 6b shows
demonstrate thatthe results
there of no
is also intermittent
attenuation humidification tests. These
in the humidification results
ability demonstrate
of the material
during the three humidification tests. The relative humidity can be increased from 25% to
40% in 100, 150, and 110 min for the first, second, and third humidification, respectively.
Additionally, all three humidification tests can stabilize the relative humidity at 43% ± 2%
within 200 min.

3.1.2. The Impact of the Environment on Humidity-Control Performance

Figure 7 illustrates the absorption and desorption of the moisture content variations
of gypsum-based humidity control under different ambient temperatures. As observed
in Figure 7a, all dry materials under various ambient temperatures reached absorption
moisture equilibrium after 100 h. Notably, there is a 2% increase in the equilibrium moisture
absorption content when the ambient temperature changes from 13 ◦ C to 33 ◦ C. As ob-
served in Figure 7b, all the materials that had reached the maximum equilibrium moisture
absorption at a relative humidity of 97.4% under various ambient temperatures reached
desorption moisture equilibrium after 100 h. The moisture desorption content also increases
Materials 2023, 16, 5211 9 of 16
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18

by 6%, when the ambient temperature increases from 13 ◦ C to 33 ◦ C. Observations demon-

that there
strate is also no attenuation
that alterations in the humidification
in ambient temperature minimallyability of the
impact themoisture
material absorption
during the
three humidification tests. The relative humidity can be increased from 25% to 40%
content of the material. However, temperature fluctuations significantly affect the moisturein 100,
150, and 110 min for the first, second, and third humidification, respectively. Additionally,
desorption content of the material. The presence of silica gel in gypsum-based hygroscopic
all three humidification
materials can account forteststhiscan stabilize theWith
phenomenon. relative humidity
increasing at 43%temperature,
ambient ± 2% within 200
the
min.
moisture absorption capacity of silica gel strengthens, consequently enhancing the moisture
absorption capacity of the material.

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Figure 6. Results of (a) intermittent dehumidification tests; (b) intermittent humidification tests.
Figure 6. results of (a) intermittent dehumidification tests; (b) intermittent humidification tests.

3.1.2. The Impact of the Environment on Humidity-Control Performance

Figure 7 illustrates the absorption and desorption of the moisture content variations
of gypsum-based humidity control under different ambient temperatures. As observed in
Figure 7a, all dry materials under various ambient temperatures reached absorption mois-
ture equilibrium after 100 h. Notably, there is a 2% increase in the equilibrium moisture
absorption content when the ambient temperature changes from 13 °C to 33 °C. As ob-
served in Figure 7b, all the materials that had reached the maximum equilibrium moisture
absorption at a relative humidity of 97.4% under various ambient temperatures reached
desorption moisture equilibrium after 100 h. The moisture desorption content also in-
creases by 6%, when the ambient temperature increases from 13 °C to 33 °C. Observations
demonstrate that alterations in ambient temperature minimally impact the moisture ab-
sorption content of the material. However, temperature fluctuations significantly affect
the moisture desorption content of the material. The presence of silica gel in gypsum-
based7.hygroscopic
Figure The impact of materials canon
temperature account for this phenomenon.
the (a) moisture With increasing
absorption; (b) moisture ambient
desorption.
Figure 7. The impact of temperature on the (a) moisture absorption; (b) moisture desorption.
temperature, the moisture absorption capacity of silica gel strengthens, consequently en-
Figure
hancing the88moisture
illustrates the absorption
absorption capacity and
of desorption
the material. moisture content variations of
gypsum-based humidity control under different ambient relativecontent
Figure illustrates the absorption and desorption moisture variations
humidities. of gyp-
As depicted
sum-based humidity control under different ambient relative humidities.
in Figure 8a, the material’s moisture absorption content was augmented by 6% upon an As depicted in
Figure 8a,
increase in the material’s
relative moisture
humidity fromabsorption
50% to 80%. content was augmented
This increase by 6%
culminated at upon
15.88% anatin-a
crease in relative humidity from 50% to 80%. This increase culminated at 15.88%
relative humidity of 80%. As demonstrated in Figure 8b, the material’s moisture desorption at a rel-
ative humidity of 80%. As demonstrated in Figure 8b, the material’s moisture
content was augmented by 6% upon a decline in relative humidity from 50% to 20%. This desorption
content was
increase augmented
culminated by 6%atupon
at 9.02% a decline
a relative in relative
humidity humidity
of 20%. from 50% to outcomes
The experimental 20%. This
increase culminated at 9.02% at a relative humidity of 20%. The experimental
evince that the ambient relative humidity engenders an influence on both moisture ab- outcomes
evince that
sorption andthe ambientcontent
desorption relativeofhumidity engenders
the material. an influence
Additionally, on both
the greater the moisture
gap betweenab-
sorption and desorption content of the material. Additionally, the greater the
the ambient relative humidity and the internal moisture content of the material, the more gap between
the ambient
superior relative humidity
its performance and the moisture.
in regulating internal moisture content of the material, the more
superior its performance in regulating moisture.
3.1.3. Isothermal Moisture Adsorption–Desorption Curve
To evaluate and compare the humidity-control performance of pure gypsum, gypsum–
silica gel humidity-control material, and gypsum-based humidity-control material, an
Materials 2023, 16, 5211 Figure 7. The impact of temperature on the (a) moisture absorption; (b) moisture desorption.10 of 16

Figure 8 illustrates the absorption and desorption moisture content variations of gyp-
sum-based humidity control under different ambient relative humidities. As depicted in
isothermal moisture absorption and desorption test was conducted. Figure 9 indicated
Figure 8a, the material’s moisture absorption content was augmented by 6% upon an in-
that the gypsum-based humidity-control material exhibited significantly superior moisture
crease in relative humidity from 50% to 80%. This increase culminated at 15.88% at a rel-
absorption and desorption performance compared to the other two materials. The humidity-
ative humidity of 80%. As demonstrated in Figure 8b, the material’s moisture desorption
control performance ranking was determined as follows: gypsum-based humidity-control
content was augmented by 6% upon a decline in relative humidity from 50% to 20%. This
material > gypsum–silica gel humidity-control material > pure gypsum. The maximum
increase culminated at 9.02% at a relative humidity of 20%. The experimental outcomes
equilibrium moisture content of the gypsum-based humidity-control material was
evince that the ambient relative humidity engenders an influence on both moisture ab-
0.225 g/g at 97.4% relative humidity. This value exceeded that of the gypsum–silica
sorption and desorption content of the material. Additionally, the greater the gap between
gel humidity-control material by 1.4 times and pure gypsum by 4.5 times. Incorporating
the ambient
sepiolite relative
powder humidity
activated by and the internal
calcium chloridemoisture
resultedcontent of the
in further material, theofmore
enhancement the
superior its performance in regulating moisture.
adsorption and desorption capacity of gypsum. This improvement led to better humidity-
control performance compared to the gypsum–silica gel humidity-control material.

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

moisture absorption and desorption performance compared to the other two materials.
The humidity-control performance ranking was determined as follows: gypsum-based
humidity-control material > gypsum–silica gel humidity-control material > pure gypsum.
The maximum equilibrium moisture content of the gypsum-based humidity-control ma-
terial was 0.225 g/g at 97.4% relative humidity. This value exceeded that of the gypsum–
silica gel humidity-control material by 1.4 times and pure gypsum by 4.5 times. Incorpo-
rating sepiolite powder activated by calcium chloride resulted in further enhancement of
the adsorption and desorption capacity of gypsum. This improvement led to better hu-
midity-control performance compared to the gypsum–silica gel humidity-control mate-
rial.
Figure 8. The impact of relative humidities on the (a) moisture absorption; (b) moisture desorption.
Figure 8. The impact of relative humidities on the (a) moisture absorption; (b) moisture desorp-
tion.

3.1.3. Isothermal Moisture Adsorption–Desorption Curve

To evaluate and compare the humidity-control performance of pure gypsum, gyp-
sum–silica gel humidity-control material, and gypsum-based humidity-control material,
an isothermal moisture absorption and desorption test was conducted. Figure 9 indicated
that the gypsum-based humidity-control material exhibited significantly superior

Figure 9. Isothermal moisture adsorption–desorption curve.

Figure 9. Isothermal moisture adsorption–desorption curve.
The ExpDec1 model in Origin software (Origin 2017) was used to fit the isothermal
The ExpDec1
equilibrium model
moisture in Origin
content curve,software (Origin
the formula is as2017) was used to fit the isothermal
follows,
equilibrium moisture content curve, the formula is as follows,
y = y0 + A1 e−x/t1 (3)
y = y0 + A1e−x/t1 (3)
relevantparameters
relevant parameters of
of the
the fitting
fittingcurve
curveare
are listed
listed in
in Table
Table 5.
5.

Table 5. Parameters of sample isothermal equilibrium moisture content fitting curve.

Parameters Gypsum-Based Material Gypsum–Silica Gel Material Gypsum

y0 −0.08307 −0.654 0.00327
A1 0.09532 0.65651 2.5 × 10−4
Absorption process
t1 −82.5884 −455.15 −18.7285
R2 0.97 0.98 0.97
y0 0.24001 0.16084 0.06589
Desorption process A1 −0.24108 −0.16068 −0.06519
Materials 2023, 16, 5211 11 of 16

Table 5. Parameters of sample isothermal equilibrium moisture content fitting curve.

Parameters Gypsum-Based Material Gypsum–Silica Gel Material Gypsum

y0 −0.08307 −0.654 0.00327
A1 0.09532 0.65651 2.5 × 10−4
Absorption process
t1 −82.5884 −455.15 −18.7285
R2 0.97 0.98 0.97
y0 0.24001 0.16084 0.06589
Desorption process A1 −0.24108 −0.16068 −0.06519
t1 34.41 23.24 78.49
R2 0.99 0.99 0.98

3.2. Simulation Testing

3.2.1. The Impact of Material Thickness on Indoor Air Parameters
After conducting a simulated study on the impact of different thicknesses of materials
laid on the interior of rooms under Xiamen’s summer climate conditions. These12results
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 18
are illustrated in Figure 10. The study found that the temperature trends of rooms with
different thickness materials were similar. It was observed that as the thickness increased,
the average indoor air temperature slightly increased. The average temperature of the
material. Furthermore, the relative humidity in rooms with different thickness materials
room with a 0.05 m thickness material was 0.26 ◦ C higher than that with a 0.01 m thickness
could be stabilized within the range of 40% to 70%. After laying the 0.05 m thick material,
material. Furthermore, the relative humidity in rooms with different thickness materials
the change in indoor air relative humidity was the smallest and the trend was the most
could be stabilized within the range of 40% to 70%. After laying the 0.05 m thick material,
stable. However, there was not a significant difference compared to other thicknesses. The
the change in indoor air relative humidity was the smallest and the trend was the most
mean relative humidity of rooms with a 0.05 m thickness material was only 0.78% lower
stable. However, there was not a significant difference compared to other thicknesses.
than rooms with a 0.01 m thickness material. In conclusion, the variation in material thick-
The mean relative humidity of rooms with a 0.05 m thickness material was only 0.78%
ness has a negligible effect on indoor air parameters. This may be due to the large range
lower than rooms with a 0.01 m thickness material. In conclusion, the variation in material
of the laying area, and the change in material thickness almost does not affect the total
thickness has a negligible effect on indoor air parameters. This may be due to the large
amount of material used.
range of the laying area, and the change in material thickness almost does not affect the
total amount of material used.

Figure 10. The impact of material thickness on (a) indoor temperature; (b) indoor relative humidity.
Figure 10. The impact of material thickness on (a) indoor temperature; (b) indoor relative humid-
ity.
Based on the simulation results, the optimal thickness value of the material cannot
be determined solely by changes in indoor air parameters. However, a specific thickness
Based on the simulation results, the optimal thickness value of the material cannot be
value needs to be determined in subsequent simulations. Figure 11 shows the energy
determined solely by changes in indoor air parameters. However, a specific thickness
consumption of the room with different thickness materials laid on the inside of the room.
value needs to be determined in subsequent simulations. Figure 11 shows the energy con-
As apparent from Figure 11, as the laying thickness increases, energy consumption shows a
sumption of the room with different thickness materials laid on the inside of the room. As
significant downward trend. It is worth noting that when the laying thickness is 0.03 m,
apparent from Figure 11, as the laying thickness increases, energy consumption2 shows a
0.04 m, and 0.05 m, the energy consumption is relatively close, at 89 ± 1 kwh/m , which is
significant downward trend. It is worth noting that when the laying thickness is 0.03 m,
significantly better than the energy consumption of 0.01 m and 0.02 m. Compared with
0.04 m, and 0.05 m, the energy consumption is relatively close, at 89 ± 1 kwh/m2, which is
laying thicknesses of 0.01 m and 0.02 m, energy efficiency has been improved by 7.25% and
significantly better than the energy consumption of 0.01 m and 0.02 m. Compared with
laying thicknesses of 0.01 m and 0.02 m, energy efficiency has been improved by 7.25%
and 3.17%, respectively. Considering economic factors, we choose 0.03 m as the laying
thickness for subsequent simulations.
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
Materials 2023, 16, 5211 12 of 16

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

3.17%, respectively. Considering economic factors, we choose 0.03 m as the laying thickness
for subsequent simulations.

Figure 11. The impact of material thickness on energy-saving.

3.2.2. The Impact of Material Area on Indoor Air Parameters

Figure 11. The impact of material thickness on energy-saving.
Figure 11. The impact of material thickness on energy-saving.
Then, a simulated study was conducted on the impact of different areas of materials
3.2.2.
laid onThethe Impact
interior of of
Material
rooms Area on theon Indoor
indoor airAir Parameters
parameters under Xiamen’s summer climate
3.2.2. The Impact of Material Area on Indoor Air Parameters
Then, a simulated study was conducted
conditions. These results are illustrated in Figure 12. Figure on the impact of 12a
different
reveals areas
thatofthematerials
average
Then,
laid on a
thesimulated
interior study
of rooms was on conducted
the indoor on
air the impact
parameters
room temperature with laid material is higher than that without it, and the indoor of different
under areas
Xiamen’s of materials
summer climate
tem-
laidconditions.
on the interior
perature Theseof rooms
intensifies results on
as the arethe
area indoor
of theair
illustrated inparameters
materialFigure 12. under
increases.Figure Xiamen’s
12a
This can besummer
reveals that the
attributed climate
average
to the ex-
conditions.
room
change These
temperature results
of outdoor with are
heatlaidillustrated
intomaterial
the indoor isinhigher
Figure 12. Figure
than
environment. that without 12a reveals
It occurs it,due
andto that
the theoutdoor
indoor
high average
tempera-tem-
roomturetemperature
intensifies
peratures with
as
combined thelaid
area
with material
ofstrong is higher
the material
sunlight, than that
increases.
where This
the without
can beit,
material and the
attributed
retains indoor
to the
some tem-
exchange
of the indoor
perature
ofheat intensifies
outdoor
load. heat
As aintoas the
result,thearea ofisthe
indoor
there an material
increase increases.
environment. in Itthe
occurs This
average duecan be attributed
to high
indoor to the
outdoor temperatures
temperature. ex- 12b
Figure
change
combinedof outdoor
with heat
strong into the
sunlight, indoorwhere environment.
the material It
deduces that relative humidity outside remains high for most of the time. During the occurs
retains due
some toof high
the outdoor
indoor tem-
heat load.air
peratures
As a combined
result, there with
is an strong
increase sunlight,
in the where
average the
indoor material
conditioning operation period (8:00–18:00), both rooms exhibit comfortable levels ofthat retains
temperature. some
Figure of
12b the indoor
deduces rela-
heatrelative
load.humidity.
tive As a result,
humidity there isremains
outside
However, an increase
when thehighairin forthemostaverage
conditioning of the isindoor temperature.
time. During
turned off, thethe airFigure
relative 12b in
conditioning
humidity
deduces
operationthat relative
the room period
without humidity
(8:00–18:00),
laid materialoutside
bothmay remains
rooms reach high
exhibit for mostthe
80%,comfortable
while of room
the time.
levels of During
with relative the air can
humidity.
laid material
However,
conditioning when
operation the air conditioning
period (8:00–18:00), is turned
both off,
rooms the
maintain indoor relative humidity at around 65%. This implies that the material has relative
exhibit humidity
comfortable in the
levels room
of rela-with-
the
tiveout laid
humidity. material
However, may reach
when 80%,
the airwhile the
conditioning room iswith
turned
potential to regulate indoor humidity fluctuations and stabilize indoor relative humidity laid material
off, the can
relative maintain
humidity indoor
in
the relative
room humidity
withinwithout
a narrow laidat around
material
range 65%.
as the may This
area reach implies
80%,that
increases. while thethe
Compared material
to thehas
room with
roomthelaid
potential
material
without to regulate
laid can
material
indoor
maintain humidity fluctuations and stabilize indoor relative
and the room with a 63.6 m2 area, the room with a 159.6 m2 area exhibits a smallerthe
indoor relative humidity at around 65%. This implies humidity
that thewithin a
material narrow
has range
ampli-
as
potentialthe
tude to area
of increases.
regulate
moisture indoor Compared
content humidity
fluctuation. tofluctuations and stabilize indoor relative humidity a
the room without laid material and the room with
63.6am 2 area, the room with a 159.6 m2 area exhibits a smaller amplitude of moisture
within narrow range as the area increases. Compared to the room without laid material
andcontent
the room fluctuation.
with a 63.6 m2 area, the room with a 159.6 m2 area exhibits a smaller ampli-
tude of moisture content fluctuation.

Figure 12. The impact of material area on (a) indoor temperature; (b) indoor relative humidity.
Figure 12. The impact of material area on (a) indoor temperature; (b) indoor relative humidity.

Figure 12. The impact of material area on (a) indoor temperature; (b) indoor relative humidity.
Materials 2023, 16, 5211 13 of 16

3.2.3. Analysis of Energy-Saving

Table 6 presents a comparative analysis of the annual energy consumption and energy-
saving efficiency achieved by using gypsum-based humidity-control material in the interior
of buildings located in different cities. These cities include Beijing, Paris, Atlanta, and
Xiamen. The analysis reveals that the energy-saving efficiencies for these cities are 19.31%,
18.48%, 18.04%, and 10.81%, respectively. These findings demonstrate that the utilization of
such material can effectively reduce building energy consumption, and their energy-saving
effect is substantial. However, in Xiamen’s hot and humid climate, it should be noted
that high outdoor temperatures elevate the thermal load accumulated by the material.
Additionally, the outdoor relative humidity impedes the desorption process of the material,
leading to suboptimal discharge of internal moisture. Consequently, in areas with large
temperature and relative humidity fluctuations throughout the year, such as Beijing, Paris,
and Atlanta, the materials manifest excellent energy-saving capabilities. This suggests
that if the heat and moisture retained by the material are expelled promptly, and the heat
dissipation and desorption processes are facilitated, the energy-saving performance of the
material will improve.

Table 6. Annual energy consumption and energy saving of different cities in office buildings.

Case ID
City Load and Efficiency
Reference CaseB.2

Beijing Total load (kwh/m2 ) 77.88 62.84

Energy saving (%) - 19.31
Total load (kwh/m2 ) 60.77 49.54
Paris
Energy saving (%) - 18.48
Total load (kwh/m2 ) 112.13 91.9
Atlanta Energy saving (%) - 18.04
Total load (kwh/m2 ) 100.34 89.49
Xiamen
Energy saving (%) - 10.81

4. Discussion
Through the analysis of experimental results, it was found that intermittent dehu-
midification and humidification have shown more beneficial long-term performance for
the material compared to continuous dehumidification and humidification. Moreover,
although high temperature can promote the desorption process of gypsum-based humidity-
control material, its desorption capacity is still limited under continuously high-humidity
conditions. In contrast to temperature, relative humidity has a more significant impact on
the material’s humidity-control performance.
The simulation results also confirmed the findings. In climates characterized by
sustained high temperature and humidity, such as Xiamen, outdoor high temperature
increases the accumulated heat load on the material. Additionally, outdoor high humidity
hinders the desorption process, resulting in suboptimal discharge of internal moisture.
Conversely, in regions with greater fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity
throughout the year, such as Beijing, Paris, and Atlanta, the material exhibits excellent
energy-saving performance.
To better elucidate this finding, Xiamen was taken as an example to categorize the im-
pact of gypsum-based humidity-control material on annual building energy consumption
according to the seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The results are presented in
Figure 13. During spring, it can be observed that there is a large temperature and relative
humidity difference between daytime and nighttime. The temperature is higher during
the day, and the relative humidity is lower. Under this circumstance, the material can
absorb the heat from the surrounding environment by releasing the moisture stored in
the internal capillary pores, thereby effectively reducing the indoor temperature. Con-
versely, at night, the temperature drops, and the relative humidity increases, allowing the
material to absorb moisture from the air that condenses inside the material and releases
heat, leading to an increase in indoor temperature. Consequently, this material exhibits
excellent energy-saving performance during spring. During summer, due to the continuous
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

Materials 2023, 16, 5211 14 of 16

Conversely, at night, the temperature drops, and the relative humidity increases, allowing
the material to absorb moisture from the air that condenses inside the material and re-
leases heat, leading to an increase in indoor temperature. Consequently, this material ex-
highexcellent
hibits temperature and humidity
energy-saving in Xiamen,
performance duringthe internal
spring. Duringwaste heat and
summer, due moisture
to the are not
fully discharged
continuous and released.
high temperature As a result,
and humidity thisthe
in Xiamen, limits the waste
internal energy-saving
heat and mois-capacity of the
ture are not fully
material. discharged
Similarly, duringandautumn,
released. although
As a result,outdoor
this limits the energy-saving
temperature capac- decrease
and humidity
ityrelative
of the material. Similarly,
to summer, theyduring
remainautumn, although
relatively highoutdoor
overall.temperature
This indicatesand humid-
that the material
itycannot
decreaseefficiently
relative to discharge
summer, they remain
excess relatively
internal heathigh
and overall. This indicates
moisture, thereby that the
resulting in weak
material cannot efficiently discharge excess internal heat and moisture, thereby
energy-saving performance. During winter, it exhibits similar characteristics to spring, resulting
in weak energy-saving performance. During winter, it exhibits similar characteristics to
with significant diurnal temperature variation and relative humidity. However, the average
spring, with significant diurnal temperature variation and relative humidity. However,
temperature and average relative humidity are the lowest throughout the year, with an
the average temperature and average relative humidity are the lowest throughout the
average
year, with antemperature of 17.43of◦ C
average temperature and°Canand
17.43 average relative
an average humidity
relative humidity ofof58.3%.
58.3%.During the
During the daytime, the temperature is relatively high, and the humidity is lower. This
daytime, the temperature is relatively high, and the humidity is lower. This creates an
creates an environment where the material can release moisture from its pores, effectively reducing
environment where the material can release moisture from its pores, effectively
the indoor
reducing temperature
the indoor and decreasing
temperature and decreasing the cooling
the coolingloadload
on air
on conditioning.
air conditioning. However, as
the nighttime
However, temperature
as the nighttime drops,drops,
temperature the remaining
the remainingmoisture
moisturemay mayfurther
furtherlower
lower the indoor
thetemperature,
indoor temperature, increasing
increasing the heating
the heating load load
on onairair conditioning. Overall,
conditioning. Overall,the thema-
material still
terial still demonstrates good energy-saving
demonstrates good energy-saving effects in winter.effects in winter.

Figure 13. Energy consumption of Xiamen office buildings in (a) spring, (b) summer, (c) autumn, and
Figure 13. Energy consumption of Xiamen office buildings in (a) spring, (b) summer, (c) autumn,
and(d)
(d)winter.
winter.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
To To improve
improve the humidity-control
the humidity-control performance
performance of traditional
of traditional buildingand
building materials materials and
augment
augment theirtheir
efficacyefficacy in regulating
in regulating indoorhumidity,
indoor relative relative this
humidity, this study se-
study incorporated incorporated
sepiolite
piolite powder powder activated
activated bychloride
by calcium calciuminto
chloride into gypsum–silica
gypsum–silica gel humidity-control
gel humidity-control ma-
material
terial to prepare
to prepare a new type a new type of gypsum-based
of gypsum-based humidity-controlhumidity-control
material. Through material.
exper- Through
imental and simulation
experimental studies, thestudies,
and simulation following main
the conclusions
following mainwere drawn: were drawn:
conclusions
(1) (1)
Gypsum-based
Gypsum-based humidity-control material
humidity-control exhibitsexhibits
material the ability
theto absorb
ability tomoisture
absorb moisture in
in high-humidity
high-humidity environments and desorb moisture in low-humidity environments.
environments and desorb moisture in low-humidity environments. How-
However,
ever, the thematerial’s
material’s humidity-control
humidity-control capacity decreases
capacity over time
decreases during
over time continuous
during continuous
dehumidification or humidification. Therefore, intermittent dehumidification and humid-
dehumidification or humidification. Therefore, intermittent dehumidification and humidi-
ification are more conducive to maintaining relative humidity stability for extended peri-
fication are more conducive to maintaining relative humidity stability for extended periods
ods of time.
of time.
(2) The moisture absorption content of the gypsum-based humidity-control material
is minimally influenced by changes in environmental temperatures, while its moisture
desorption content is noticeably affected. On the other hand, variations in relative humidity
impact both the moisture adsorption and desorption content of the material. The larger the
discrepancy between environmental relative humidity and the internal moisture content of
the material, the greater the effectiveness of the material’s humidity-control performance.
Materials 2023, 16, 5211 15 of 16

(3) Addition of calcium-chloride-activated sepiolite powder significantly enhances

the adsorption and desorption abilities of the gypsum–silica gel humidity-control material.
At a relative humidity of 97.4%, the equilibrium moisture content of the gypsum-based
humidity-control material can reach a maximum of 0.225 g/g. It is 1.4 times higher than
that of gypsum–silica gel material, and 4.5 times than that of pure gypsum materials.
(4) Gypsum-based humidity-control material can mitigate the influence of exterior and
interior humidity loads on indoor relative humidity. The material can reduce fluctuations
in indoor relative humidity and maintain it within a narrow range, providing a more stable
indoor environment.
(5) Gypsum-based humidity-control material has the potential to reduce building
energy consumption. Simulation results show that compared with regions with high
temperatures and high humidity throughout the year, this material is more suitable for
areas with large diurnal temperature differences and differences in relative humidity.
The uniqueness of this study lies in the successful preparation of a novel gypsum-based
humidity-control material. It provides a new approach for low-cost and practical humidity-
control building materials in the field of architecture. However, there are still several
limitations to be considered. This study explores the practical application of gypsum-based
humidity-control materials through simulation research methods. Further work requires
long-term monitoring and analysis in actual architectural environments to evaluate their
actual moisture regulation performance. Additionally, during the preparation process
of gypsum-based composite materials, the silica gel and activated sepiolite powder as
additives significantly enhance the moisture absorption and desorption properties of the
materials. However, considering that silica gel itself belongs to a “strong absorption and
weak desorption” material, it leads to relatively poor desorption performance of gypsum-
based materials. The next focus of research will concentrate on exploring modification
methods to improve the moisture desorption performance of the materials. Simultaneously,
it aims to achieve cost reduction objectives and ensure meet energy-saving requirements in
continuous high-temperature and high-humidity environments.

Author Contributions: X.L.: Writing—original draft, Software, Methodology, Formal analysis.

M.R.: Writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51678254).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interest or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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