SECTION A:Multiple choice questions (MCQs) 1. which of the following is an example of natural polymer? a) polyethylene b) polystyrene (C) c) silk d) PVG 2. What type of polymerization occurs when monomers join together with the elimination of a small molecule like water ? a) addition polymerization b) condensation polymerization (B) c) free radical polymerization d) chain polymerization 3. which of the following is a thermosetting polymer ? a) polyethylene b) polyvinyl chloride (C) ¢) bakelite d) nylon 4. which property is commonly associated with elastomers ? a) high tensile strength b) rigidity (Cc) c) elasticity d) crysttaline structure5. In polymer chemistry ,what does the term “degree of polymerization “refer to ? a) the number of polymers produced in reaction b) the molecular weight of the polymer (C) c) the number of repeating units in polymer d) the crystallinity of the polymer SECTION B: Short answer questions. 1. define the term polymer and explain the difference between natural and synthetic polymers. polymer refer to the large molecule made up of repeating sub units called monomers that linked to another by chemical bonds. natural polymer are polymer that occur and are present in nature and can be extracted from natural resources such as living organism and materials eg.hemp,shellac,amber,wool,silk while synthetic polymer are man made polymer composed of repeated monomer units eg. polyethylene, polyvinly chloride,nylon,bakelite 2. Briefly describe the two main type of polymerization addition and condensation. addition (chain) polymerization is the polymerization where monomers link together without co-generation of other products. conditions of addition polymerization. . Monomers containing a double bond. « Initiation, propagation, and termination steps.. Breaking of double bonds and formation of new single bonds. . Use of a catalyst to speed up the reaction. example polyethylene,polyvinly chloride condansation (step) polymerization is a form of a polymerization where smaller molecules or monomers react with each other to form larger structural units (usually polymers) while releasing by-products such as water or methanol molecule. The by-products are normally referred to as condensate. HOOC—(CH2)n—COOH + HO—(CH2)m—OH — HOOC— (CH2z)n—COO—(CH2)m—OH + H20: example polyester,nylon 6,6 3. What are primary different between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers ? provide examples for each. Behavior When Heated. Thermoplastics: These polymers soften upon heating and can be shaped and reshaped multiple times. When cooled, they harden again without undergoing any chemical change. This process is reversible.Thermosetting Polymers: These polymers undergo a chemical change when heated, which leads to a hard and inflexible structure. Once set, they cannot be remelted or reshaped. This process is irreversible. Molecular Structure. Thermoplastics: They have a linear or slightly branched molecular structure, allowing for free movement of molecular chains when heated. This structure enables them to flow when melted. Thermosetting Polymers: They have a cross-linked or network structure, which provides rigidity and strength. The extensive cross-linking restricts the movement of molecules, making them permanent after curing. Mechanical Properties. Thermoplastics: Typically exhibit good flexibility and toughness, making them suitable for applications requiring impact resistance. Thermosetting Polymers: Generally have higher strength, thermal stability, and resistance to chemicals and deformation under heat, making them ideal for high- performance applications. Recyclability. Thermoplastics: Can be recycled through remelting and reshaping processes, which makes them more environmentally friendly in terms of reuse. Thermosetting Polymers: Are not recyclable by remelting; once they are set, they must be disposed of as waste or, in some cases, can be downcycled into other products.Examples. Thermoplastics:Polyethylene ,Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polystyrene ,Polypropylene . Thermosetting Polymers:Epoxies,Phenolics,Polyurethane (when cured),Silicone Resins. 4, explain why cross-linked polymers are typically more rigid and less. soluble than linear polymer. Rigidity:In cross-linked polymers, the ability of polymer chains to move or slide over each other is significantly hindered due to the interconnected structure. This lack of mobility contributes to the overall stiffness of the material compared to linear polymer. Solubility:The strong covalent bonds and the stable network structure of cross-linked polymers generally reduce their solubility. The energy required to break these bonds and separate the chains is much higher compared to linear polymers, which can be easily solvated and pulled apart by solvent molecules. 5. describe the process of vulcanization and its significance in the properties of rubber. Vulcanization is the chemical process used to improve the physical properties of rubber. Process of vulcanization. a) Preparation of Rubber: Natural rubber or synthetic rubber formulations are prepared by mixing rubber (usually in the form of latex or solid sheets) with various additives. These additives may include fillers (e.g., carbon black), plasticizers, accelerators, and sulfur.b) Adding Sulfur: The key component of the vulcanization process is sulfur. The rubber mixture is combined with a specific amount of sulfur, which serves as a cross-linking agent. The typical range of sulfur used can be from 1% to 8% by weight of the rubber. c) Heating: The rubber-sulfur mixture is then subjected to heat (usually around 140°C to 180°C) for a specific period. This heating initiates a series of chemical reactions where sulfur atoms form cross-links between the rubber polymer chains. d) Formation of Cross-links: During vulcanization, sulfur atoms create links (bridges) between the chains of rubber molecules. These cross- links can transform linear or slightly branched rubber (which is more flexible and softer) into a three- dimensional network structure, which results in a firmer and more elastic material. e) Cooling and Curing: After the desired degree of cross-linking is achieved, the mixture is cooled and allowed to cure. The cured rubber shows improved mechanical properties as a result of the cross-linked structure. Significance of Vulcanization in Rubber Properties. a) Increased Elasticity and Resilience: The cross-linked structure allows vulcanized rubber to stretch and return to its original shape more effectively. This elasticity is critical in applications like tires, seals, and gaskets.b) Improved Strength: Vulcanization increases tensile strength, making rubber more resistant to deformation and wear. This is particularly important in industrial applications where mechanical stresses are prevalent. ce) Enhanced Durability: Vulcanized rubber has better resistance to aging, weathering, and environmental factors. It is less prone to cracking, shrinking, or swelling when exposed to heat, light, and moisture. d) Greater Resistance to Chemicals: The vulcanization process improves the rubber’s resistance to oils, fuels, and solvents, making it suitable for automotive parts and industrial applications. e) Higher Thermal Stability: Cross-linked rubber can withstand higher temperatures without losing its mechanical properties, making it ideal for high-performance applications. f) Lower Compression Set: Vulcanized rubber maintains its shape better under compression and tends to return to its original form after the compressive force is removed, which is important for applications like O-rings and seals.SECTION C: Long answer questions. 1. polymer classification :explain the classification of polymer based on origin ,structure,and properties and provide example for each category. Classification Based on Origin. Natural Polymers: These are polymers that occur in nature and are derived from natural sources. They are typically biodegradable and can be produced by living organisms. Examples: ~ Gellulose: Found in plant cell walls, used in paper and textiles. + Proteins: Composed of amino acids, found in hair, nails, and other biological tissues. «> Natural Rubber (Polyisoprene): Obtained fram the latex of rubber trees. Synthetic Polymers: These are man-made polymers created through chemical processes. They do not occur naturally and are often designed for specific applications. Examples: ~ Polyethylene : Used in plastic bags, containers, and packaging materials. ~ Polystyrene : Commonly used in packaging, disposable cutlery, and insulation. «> Nylon: A synthetic fiber used in textiles and engineering materials.Classification Based on Structure. Linear Polymers: These polymers consist of long, continuous chains of repeating monomer units. Examples: ~ Polyethylene: Linear chains that can pack closely, providing strength. + Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Frequently used in pipes and vinyl flooring. Branched Polymers: These polymers consist of a main chain with side chains (branches) attached. The branches can affect the physical properties of the polymer. Examples: «> Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE): Features significant branching, making it flexible and soft. ~ Polypropylene: Can have branched structures that contribute to its properties. Cross-linked Polymers: In these polymers, chains are interconnected through covalent bonds, forming a three- dimensional network. This structure increases rigidity and thermal stability. Examples: ~ Vulcanized Rubber: Used in tires, made through the cross-linking of rubber molecules with sulfur. ~ Epoxy Resins: Commonly used in adhesives and coatings due to their strength and thermal stability.Polymer Structure Linear Branched ‘Cross-linked Classification Based on Properties. Thermoplastics: These polymers soften upon heating and can be reshaped multiple times. They have linear or slightly branched structures without chemical cross- linking. Examples: + Polystyrene : Easy to mold and remold, used in disposable products. «> Polyethylene : Used in a wide range of applications, from plastic bags to containers.Thermosetting Polymers: These polymers undergo a chemical change when heated, leading to a hard and inflexible structure. Once set, they cannot be remelted or reshaped. Examples: > Phenolic Resins: Used in electrical insulations and automotive components due to their heat resistance. ~ Polyurethane (when cured): Employed in foams and coatings with high durability. Elastomers: Polymers that exhibit rubber-like elasticity. They can be stretched significantly and will return to their original shape when the load is removed. Examples: + Natural Rubber: Known for its excellent elasticity and used in tires and rubber bands. «> Silicone Rubber: Used in sealants, gaskets, and medical devices due to its flexibility and temperature resistance. 2. polymerization process:Describe the mechanism of free radical polymerization. what are three stages involved in this process. Mechanism of Free Radical Polymerization. This polymerization process involves the initiation, propagation, and termination of polymer chains through the formation and reaction of free radicals.the following are stages of polymerization process; i. initiation. in the initiation stage, free radicals are generated, which then react with monomers to start the polymerization process.Generation of Free Radicals: Free radicals can be generated through several methods, including: @ Thermal Decomposition: Heating initiators (e.g., azo compounds or peroxides) can produce free radicals. For example, when azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) is heated, it decomposes to form two free radical species. @ Irradiation: Exposure to light (UV or visible) can break chemical bonds (e.g., in photoinitiators) to form free radicals. ™@ Chemical Reaction: Some initiators undergo reactions that directly produce free radicals without the need for heat or light. oO a aha -c-00-c- Git, 2 2 CHYE%O*— 2 c4HI + 2C0. il - ‘ t benzo ee pny aca raieal bay pacaide ‘cura Reaction with Monomer: The generated free radical then reacts with a monomer (typically containing a carbon-carbon double bond, C=C), resulting in a new radical wo . CoH; + CH, £CH, CyHs - CH, ~ CH, ethene larger free radicalii) Propagation The propagation stage involves the growth of the polymer chain through successive reactions with additional monomer units. @ Chain Growth: The active radical species reacts with another monomer molecule, resulting in the formation of a longer polymer chain and a new radical at the end of that chain. @ Repetition: This reaction keeps occurring as the radical chain continues to react with more monomers, allowing the polymer chain to grow. Each reaction typically increases the chain length by one monomer unit. OH; — CH, — CH + CH, + CsHs — CH: — CHy — CH, — CH Digger fee radial The propagation step can continue until:The monomer is consumed or a termination event occurs. iii). Termination The termination stage involves the disappearance of the propagating radical chains. There are two main mechanisms of termination: = Combination: Two growing radical chains combine to form a single, stable polymer chain. This can decrease the number of active radicals in the system.two radical chains combine into one.® Disproportionation: In this mechanism, one radical chain transfers a hydrogen atom to another radical chain, leading to the formation of a stable polymer and an alkene. This results in one chain being terminated and one remaining as a radical. R-M-M- + R'-M-M-—R-M-M + R'-M=C + H- 2C.Hs(CHy ~ CHy),, ~ CH; — CH + CpHy(CH; — CH), — CH, ~ CH; — CH; CH,(CH; ~ Cit), — CoH Both termination mechanisms effectively limit the growth of the polymer chain and lead to the formation of the final product. 3. Application of polymer :discuss the application of polymers in various industries such as medical,automotive and packaging .How do the properties of specific polymers make them suitable for these applications. Medical Industry. Applications: + Medical Devices: Polymers are extensively used in the production of various medical devices, including syringes, catheters, and surgical instruments. Prosthetics and Implants: Biocompatible polymers are used to make prosthetic limbs and implants, such as hip or knee replacements. Drug Delivery Systems: Polymers can be used to create hydrogels and nanoparticles for controlled drug release. Tissue Engineering: Polymers serve as scaffolds in tissue engineering to support the growth of new tissue.Suitable Properties: Biocompatibility: Polymers such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL) are biocompatible and biodegradable, making them suitable for temporary implants and drug delivery systems. > Flexibility and Malleability: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and silicone are flexible and can be molded into various. shapes needed for medical apparatus. > Sterilizability: Many polymers can withstand sterilization processes (¢.g., autoclaving, gamma radiation), making them ideal for single-use medical products. Water Resistance: Hydrogels, which can absorb significant amounts of water, are useful for wound dressings that promote a moist healing environment. Automotive Industry. Applications: Interior Components: Polymers are used in dashboard panels, door trims, and seating materials. Exterior Parts: Plastics are increasingly used in body panels, bumpers, and light covers to reduce weight and improve fuel efficiency. + Engine Components: High-performance polymers are used in various engine components, fuel systems, and electrical insulation. Suitable Properties: > Lightweight: Polymers such as polypropylene and polycarbonate are lighter than metals, helping to improve fuel efficiency while maintaining strength and performance. + Impact Resistance: Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and nylon are tough, providing durability against impacts and vibrations. + Chemical Resistance: Polymers that resist oils, fuels, and coolants (such as fluoropolymers) are critical for components in contact with automotive fluids.Thermal Stability: Materials like polyamide (nylon) and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) maintain their properties under high temperatures, which is vital for engine components. Packaging Industry. Applications: + Flexible Packaging: Polymers are used in films for bags, wraps, and pouches that protect food and other goods. + Rigid Containers: Many bottles and jars are made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or polycarbonate. Protective Packaging: Styrofoam (expanded polystyrene) is used for cushioning fragile items, and polymer foams are used in protective packing materials. Suitable Properties: + Barrier Properties: Polyethylene (PE) and polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) provide excellent barriers against moisture, oxygen, and other gases, which help preserve the freshness of food products. > Lightweight and Strength: Many polymers, such as PET and polypropylene, offer a strong yet lightweight option for packaging that minimizes shipping costs. Transparency: Certain polymers, like PET and polystyrene, can be made transparent, allowing consumers to see the product inside, which is crucial for marketing. + Sealing and Heat Resistance: The ability to form hermetic seals and resist heat makes certain polymers ideal for use in microwaveable and heat-sealable applications. 4, Environmental impact:discuss the environmental impact of synthetic polymers.what are methods used to mitigate the negative effects of polymer waste ?Environmental Impact of Synthetic Polymers Persistence and Accumulation: @ Non-biodegradability: Many synthetic polymers, such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), are not biodegradable. They can take hundreds to thousands of years to decompose, leading to accumulation in landfills and natural habitats. @ Microplastics: Over time, larger plastic debris breaks down into smaller fragments known as microplastics, which have been found in oceans, rivers, soil, and even in the air. These microplastics can enter the food chain, posing risks to wildlife and human health. Pollution: @ Marine Pollution: Synthetic polymer products often end up in oceans, leading to serious environmental consequences for marine life, including ingestion by marine animals, which can cause injury or death. ®@ Soil Contamination: Improper disposal of plastic waste can lead to soil contamination, affecting plant growth and terrestrial ecosystems. Wildlife Harm: Animals can become entangled in plastic waste or ingest it, which can cause injury or death, disrupt reproductive systems, and contribute to declines in biodiversity. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The production and incineration of synthetic polymers contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, exacerbating climate change. The fossil fuels used as raw materials for many synthetic polymers are significant sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other pollutants.Methods to Mitigate the Negative Effects of Polymer Waste Waste Reduction and Prevention: ¥ Source Reduction: Encouraging manufacturers to minimize polymer use by designing products with fewer materials, using more sustainable designs, or creating products that require less packaging. »¥ Consumer Awareness: Educating the public on the importance of reducing single-use plastics and promoting the use of reusable alternatives. Recycling: ¥ Mechanical Recycling: Collecting, sorting, and processing used polymers to create new materials. This process is commonly applied to PET and HDPE plastics. Recycling can significantly reduce the amount of waste produced and decrease the demand for virgin materials. ¥ Chemical Recycling: This process involves breaking down polymers into their monomer components or other valuable chemicals to create new polymers. Technologies such as depolymerization and pyrolysis. are employed in chemical recycling. ¥ Closed-loop Recycling: Industries can implement closed-loop recycling systems where waste is repurposed into new products, effectively reducing waste and resource use. Biodegradable and Compostable Alternatives: ¥ Developing and using biodegradable or compostable polymers, such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), which can decompose under certain environmental conditions, reducing long- term pollution.¥ Promoting the use of bioplastics derived from renewable resources, which have a lower environmental impact compared to traditional petrochemical-based polymers. Improved Waste Management: v Enhancing waste collection, sorting, and recycling systems to prevent plastic waste from entering landfills or the environment. ¥~ Supporting policies and regulations for improved waste management practices, including deposit return schemes for bottles and containers. Research and Development: ¥ Investing in research to explore new polymer chemistry, focusing on designing polymers that are easier to recycle or biodegrade.Exploring alternative materials (like bio-based materials) that have a smaller environmental footprint. Legislation and Policies: ¥ Enacting regulations to restrict single-use plastics and encouraging manufacturers to adopt sustainable practices. ¥ Promoting initiatives aimed at reducing plastic use, such as plastic bag bans and charges, which can motivate consumers to shift to alternative materials. 5. crystallinity in polymer. explain the concept of crystallinity in polymer and how it affects the physical properties of polymer.discuss methods used to control the crystallinity during polymer sythesis.Concept of Crystallinity in Polymers. Crystallinity refers to the degree of structural order in a polymer. In crystalline regions, the polymer chains are packed in a regular, ordered arrangement. The extent of crystallinity can vary from completely amorphous (no crystallinity) to fully crystalline, although most polymers have a mixture of crystalline and amorphous regions. Effects of Crystallinity on Physical Properties. Mechanical Properties: > Strength and Stiffness: Crystalline polymers tend to be stronger and more rigid than their amorphous counterparts due to close packing and intermolecular forces in crystalline regions. Higher crystallinity often results in improved tensile strength and stiffness. » Toughness: Amorphous polymers generally exhibit higher toughness and impact resistance than highly crystalline polymers, which can become more brittle at lower temperatures.Thermal Properties: > Melting Temperature : Crystalline polymers have a well-defined melting temperature, where the crystalline regions transition to the molten state. In contrast, amorphous polymers do not have a sharp melting point, exhibiting a glass transition temperature (Tg) where the material becomes rubbery. > Thermal Stability: Higher crystallinity is often associated with improved thermal stability, as crystalline structures can withstand higher temperatures before degradation. Optical Properties: > Transparency and Clarity: Amorphous polymers typically exhibit better transparency as they scatter light less than crystalline polymers. Crystalline structures can cause light scattering, leading to opacity. Gas and Moisture Barrier Properties: > Crystalline polymers have lower permeability to gases and moisture due to the dense packing of chains, which can enhance their application in packaging and barrier materials. Methods to Control Crystallinity During Polymer Synthesis. Selection of Monomers: > Choosing monomers with specific chemical structures can influence crystallinity. For example, monomers that can form rigid, linear structures (e.g., crystalline polymers like polyethylene) will lead to a higher degree of crystallinity. Polymerization Conditions: >» Temperature Control: The polymerization temperature can significantly affect crystallinity. Higher temperatures during the synthesis can promote the formation of amorphous regions, while lower temperatures canenhance crystallinity by allowing for better chain packing. > Cooling Rate: The rate at which the polymer is cooled after synthesis affects crystallinity. Rapid cooling can lead to an amorphous structure, while slower cooling provides longer time frames for chains to organize into crystalline structures. Additives and Fillers: > The incorporation of additives, such as nucleating agents, can promote crystallization by providing nucleation sites for crystalline growth. This can increase the overall crystallinity of the polymer. > Fillers or reinforcing materials can also influence the crystallinity and mechanical properties of the final product, depending on their compatibility with the polymer matrix. Post-Synthesis Treatments: > Annealing: Subjecting polymers to heat treatments after synthesis allows for relaxation of the polymer chains, enabling better crystallization. This can improve the polymer's mechanical properties and overall crystallinity. > Solvent Vapor Treatments: Exposing amorphous polymers to solvent vapors can allow for rearrangement of the polymer chains into a more crystalline structure. Molecular Weight and Chain Length: > Controlling the molecular weight of the polymer can influence crystallinity. Higher molecular weight polymers generally have increased entanglements and may promote crystallization by enabling better chain alignment and packing.REFERENCE > Cowie,S.M.G;Arrigh ,valeria (2007).polymer:chemistry and physics of modern materials (3° ed.) Boca Raton, LA: CRC press. Sperling ,leslie H. (2006). Introduction to physical polymer science (4" ed.).Haboken, NS:John Wiley & Sons. Young ,robert J;Lovell,Peter A. (2011). Introduction to polymer (3 ed.) Boca Raton LA:CRC Press , Taylor & Francis Group .