GST111 COURSE COMPACT

Program: General Studies

Course Title: Communication in English 1

Course Code: GST 111

Unit: 2

Lecturers: Dr. Mrs. M.O. Olasehinde, Mrs. O.A. Akanmode, Mrs. A.T. Alayemola

Session: 2013/2014

Semester: Alpha

Time: Mondays: 10a.m-12noon

Venue: MPH

Brief Overview of the Course

Communication in English 1 is part of the General Studies programme in English which aims at
inculcating basic language and study skills required for a successful university education. This
first part focuses on the study of receptive skills i.e. the ability to retrieve information from oral
and written texts with emphasis on reading and summarization. Other study skills such as time
management, effective listening, note-taking, vocabulary development etc. will be examined.

Course Objectives

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

i. Organize their study time effectively

ii. Listen to lectures and effectively manage lecture notes
iii. Develop effective reading habits and increase their reading speed
iv. Apply effective methods of summarizing reading materials
v. Develop a wide range of vocabulary for a successful academic career

Method of Lecture Delivery/Teaching Aids

Guided instructions, interactive sessions, group works/projects.

Multimedia-assisted power-point presentation may also be used.
Course Outline

Module A: ELEMENTS OF STUDY SKILLS

Week 1 Preparing for Academic Success

Week 2 Tools and Facilities for Effective Study

Week 3 Challenges for Effective Study Habits

Module B LISTENING SKILLS & NOTE TAKING

Week 4 Conditions for Effective Listening

Week 5 The Nature of the Lecture

Week 6 Aspects of Effective Note Taking

Module C EFFECTIVE READING SKILLS

Week 7 Overcoming Poor Reading Habits

Week 8 Increasing the Speed of Reading

Week 9 Types of Reading Materials

Week 10 Understanding and Summarizing Reading Materials

Week 11 Further Works on Summarizing

Module D ASPECTS OF VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Week 12 Sources of English Vocabulary

Week 13 Ways of Increasing the Vocabulary

Week 14 Revision

Week 15 Examination

Structure of Programme/Method of Grading

Continuous Assessment 30%

Examination 70%

Ground Rules

Students are to be seated at least 5minutes to the time of lecture. Lecture door closes 5minutes
after the commencement of lecture. Students are to attend lectures with relevant materials
and texts. No form of misconduct would be permitted in class. Side-talks, rude language,
 improper dressing, eating, drinking, playing computer games, sleeping, side –attractions etc.
will not be tolerated.

Topic for Assignments/Students’ Activities

i. Group project works (topics to be decided) will test language and study skills
ii. Other assignment topics will be decided by lecturers at the various study groups

Alignment with Landmark University Vision

As part of the vision of Landmark University with regard to raising a new generation of leaders
in Nigeria and beyond, this course is intended to produce competent communicators,
especially where language skills are of utmost importance. This course is specially designed to
equip students with advanced skill in listening and reading.

Contemporary Issues/Industry Relevance

There is an ever increasing need for highly qualified personnel with corporate skills in oral and
written communication in English. The products of this course are expected to satisfy the
needs for placement in the academia, the mass media- the corporate world and indeed all
other fields where a high degree of proficiency in communication and language skills are
required.

Recommended Reading

Adegbija, Efurosibina, ed (1998) Effective Communication in Higher Education: The Use of

English. Ilorin: The General Studies Unit, University of Ilorin.

Adegbija, Efurosibina, ed (2004) Language, Communication and Study Skills. Ilorin: Dominion
Publishing.

Adetugbo, Abiodun (1997) Communicative English and Study Skills. Lagos: University of Lagos
Press.

Akere, Funso. (1990) English Across Disciplines. Lagos: Pumarks Nig. Ltd. The World Book of
Study Power. Chicago: World Book Inc.

Alabi, Victoria and Babatunde, Sola eds (2009) The Use of English in Higher Education. Ilorin:
General Studies Division, University of Ilorin.

Ogbulogo, Charles. (2004) Problem Areas in English Grammar & Usage. Lagos: Sam Iroanusi
Publications.
GST 111: Communication in English 1

Module A: Elements of Study Skills

(i) PREPARING FOR ACADEMIC SUCCESS

 Purpose (right choice of Courses)

• Time Management
• Effective use of the Library
• Friendship with teachers/Mentors
• Active use of the four basic language skills
• Effective note taking/note making
• Team work – project participation/extra-curricular activities
• Have the I CAN attitude

(ii) TOOLS AND FACILITIES FOR EFFECTIVE STUDY

An effective study is usually enhanced by procuring relevant tools/facilities that are needed.
Such tools include:

Text books

•
Reference books (dictionaries, commentaries, encyclopaedia, charts, atlas, thesaurus,
graph books, yearbooks etc. Other materials/publications like newspapers, magazines,
abstracts etc. may be useful)
Study Tools

• Journals
• Personal PCs with Internet resources
• Stationery
• Files
• Other peculiar course requirements
• Note: you are supposed to acquire at least two text books for every course.

(iii) CHALLENGES TO EFFECTIVE STUDY HABITS

Most challenges to effective study arise as a result of students’ inability to organise:

• Their time
• Their environment or location for study
• Their learning resources
• A systematic and coherent approach
• The records and notes they keep for future reference.
Organizing your Time

One of the best ways of organizing your time is to draw out a time-table of your waking hours
for the whole day/week. Then fill in those times taken up with eating, lectures, fellowships,
relaxing or resting. Then you will be left with times for:

• Private study period between lectures

• Time after breakfast or dinner
• Time during weekends

In our context, a student should be prepared to commit some 12-15 hours per week to studying
and assignment production. Your schedule should have at least the following 4 main types of
times:

 For writing up your notes at the end of each day

• For accessing reference books in the library and for doing research
• For extended uninterrupted periods to do assignments
• For leisure/recreation/rest

Module B: Listening Skills and Note Taking

(i) CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Language skills

 Receptive Skills (Listening & Reading)

 Expressive Skills (Writing & Speaking)

Listening & Hearing

Hearing – (a biological) process by which sound waves are received, modified and relayed along
the nervous system – done effortlessly - (passively) perceiving sounds. Listening –
Psychological) (conscious) processes of selecting sounds – concentrating and getting desired
information from sound frequencies. It is active (the first and the most important language
skill). It involves the application of your:

 language skill
 general knowledge
 cognitive reasoning
 evaluation skills

Types of Listening
Types of information being anticipated and the context, determine the appropriate listening
type.

 Attentive listening – basic for all types of contexts–full concentration/attention e.g.

lectures
 Critical/analytic listening – requires evaluating a message/information using explicitly
stated points, context/discourse to curve at point not stated. You listening objectively-
questioning points in the light of existing information
 Reflective listening – listening with positive thinking; reflecting on main points of the
message, their implication –their general impact etc. e.g. sermon.
 Appreciative listening – engaging in feelings/emotion in listening able to identify the
mood of the speaker in the event - how the speaker use words to add effect to
meaning-forming image of certain expressions
 Empathic listening – identifying with the mood of the speaker – i.e. responding to
his/her feeling

Conditions for Effective Listening

 Take a convenient sitting position

 Concentrate – discipline your mind – avoid distractions, mind wandering or day
dreaming
 Pay attention to the speaker’s verbal performance appreciate his/her use of
language (if you can) - note his/her voice modulations.
 Stay alert to speaker’s pauses or falls of speech rhythm for position response,
interposing, or follow-up questions
 Repeat keywords or phrases in your mind in order to retain them, especially names,
items, dates etc.
 Look at the speaker’s face, posture and gesture interpret NVCs correctly
 Be ready to ask questions or remark that will provide further
explanation/amplification of information
 Provide regular feedback responses
 Give appropriate NVC (non verbal communication) feedbacks to reinforce the
speaker’s confidence, establish rapport and strengthen confidence e.g. smiles,
especially actions that will reduce breakdown, indifferences or tiredness
 Take notes for future reference

Poor Listening

Poor listening is characterized by:

 Intermittent dozing
 Mind-wondering or day dreaming
 Distractions, such as talking, or doing something else during lectures
 Feedback responses that communicate tiredness or resentment
 Actions, such as intermittent gazing at the wrist watch, tapping the foot on the floor or
hissing, which imply that the speakers is not wanted
  A negative opinion of the speaker and his or her message thereby giving a negative
response

(ii) NATURE OF THE LECTURE

A lecture is a body of information, which may consist of instructions, procedures, processes or

practice on any aspect of human knowledge. Generally a lecture mirrors what is on the mind of
the lecturer to offer to his students or learners. Most academic lectures are instructional and
some are interactive, generally aimed at equipping the learner with certain skills and requisite
knowledge. Some train the learner to be able to perform certain assignment or jobs in order to
practice certain professions. Therefore a lecture is NOT just about passing academic
examinations; rather it is for imparting knowledge, skills and values for a successful living. Here
in Landmark University our goal is to produce capacity-based new generation of leaders that
will be entrepreneurially self-reliant, intellectually robust and visionary oriented.

What to expect from a lecture

 Life- applicable knowledge or information

 Procedures for performing certain knowledge-based activities
 Results of proven processes and procedures
 Precaution against possible failures (i.e. how not to perform/approach certain activities)
etc.

Right Attitude to a Lecture

 An inquisitive mind
 A question (s) to be answered in the lecture
 An attentive heart and ears
 A positive attitude towards the lecture and the lecturer
 Active participation in class
 A sense of alertness and vigilance
 A determination to leave the lecture with a new knowledge

Structure of a Lecture

Every lecture has a topic and consists of key points and goals/objectives, which lecturers often
share with their students at the beginning of the lecture. Lectures are usually organized
sequentially and logically. Ideas are sometimes presented in a chronological order, transiting
from one level to another. Most lectures are divided into three segments namely:

 The introduction: comprising a summary of what the entire lecture is about. Some
introductions define key concepts and purpose of the lecture
 The Body: comprising the content of the lecture. Here main ideas and key points are
explored, illustrated and exemplified. Subordinate ideas are also explored.
 Conclusion: comprising a summary of the lecture. Students are reminded of the key
points of the lecture. Sometimes practical demonstrations of certain main points are
carried out here.

Identifying key points in a Lecture

A student must watch out for guides to new points at the point of transitions. Words such as
next, firstly, secondly or thirdly, moreover are good guides to new ideas. As you will find in the
next lecture on note-taking, words that indicate cause and effects relationship (e.g. therefore)
and contrast (e.g. on the contrary) are also very helpful. You must participate in practical
demonstrations and applications and pay attention to models or examples.

Lecture paragraphs are usually tied together coherently by certain discourse markets or
cohesive devises such as although, similarly, in addition, etc are also good guides to key points
in the lecture.

Identifying patterns of Lecture Organization

You may begin by asking yourself the following questions about the lecturer and the lecture,
particularly about how the lecture is organized.

 Does s/he order, list or itemize facts?

 Does s/he narrate events sequentially?
 Does s/he relate cause to effect?
 Does s/he make a general statement followed by examples?

Being able to recognize the organization of a lecture aids understanding and note-taking

Conclusion

Lectures should therefore not leave you the way they met you. There is always sometime new
to learn. It is always good to prepare for a lecture by:

 reading ahead (with the course outline of the lecture, you can begin to read around the
topic)
  arming yourself with relevant questions
 providing study materials e.g. relevant texts and writing materials
 approaching a lecture with a ready mind in order to have your questions answered.

(iii) ASPECTS OF EFFECTIVE NOTE TAKING

Recording frees your mind from the stress of the memory

Mike Murdock

Human beings forget more than half of what they hear within 24 hours

Research findings

Consider these Realities:

 There is a great mass of new information to the assimilated in the university

 There are urgent mental tasks competing for time.
 Lectures must be complemented by personal reading.
 Assignments and projects are tied to deadlines
 Success is indexed on completion of assignments and the fulfilling of requirements
 Non-compliance leads to frustration

Note-Taking

Note-taking involves the following related activities:

 Listening attentively to lectures;

 Reading carefully through a passage, a part of a book or the entire book
 Making amend of the major point heard or read; and
 Organizing these points for easy understanding.

Note-taking can also be used as a plan of:

 What to say as a speech, or

 What to write as a text, an essay or an examination answer

Uses of note-taking
Note-taking has been found to be useful in the following areas:

 Research – involving review of relevant sources on specific topics

 Examination preparation – with good points from our lectures and relevant books
 Memory help.

Achieving Success in Note-taking

 Find out the subject of the lecture or the text and make it the title of your notes – e.g.
The Core Values of Landmark University
 Identify the main points of the lecture or the text
 Look out for the logic of the text or the speech
 Follow specific markers as guides such as listing, sequencing and time relatives e.g. first,
next, lastly, then, which etc. Or
 For indicating a cause and effect relationship – so, because, therefore, since, thus, etc.
 For contrast – but, nevertheless on the contrary, on the other hand, although, yet etc.
 For summing up – to sum up, to conclude, in other words, finally.

It is advisable when taking notes from a text to start with a quick survey of the text. This is
followed by another quick reading within which to make a mental note, and bearing in mind the
connectivity between the points. It is important to understand the whole text before taking
notes. Emphasis should be placed on the paragraph, rather than on the sentence.

You may use abbreviations to represent information, e.g. e.g., i.e., c.f. pp. dt. esp. Etc.

Forms of the note

There are a variety of ways of taking notes. While some of them are highly personalized others
are quite standardized. Most of the personalized ones occur as diagrams, charts, designs. The
standard methods are the outline, and the summary in connected sentences.

Summary as a form of note-taking

The summary is an advancement of the outline. The points jotted are used in writing
connected and co-ordinated sentences. These sentences must be cohesive and coherent. To
achieve success in summarizing, the following guidelines should be adopted:

 Select relevant points

 Present the points briefly and accurately.
  Write the points in short sentences and in your own words
Conclusion

Reading and listening to lectures will not achieve the desired result without note-taking.
Students who take notes concentrate better, create records for future use and enhance their
memory. These are requirements for becoming great students in a world-class university.

Module C: Effective Reading Skills

Reading makes a man – Francis Bacon

Today a reader, tomorrow a leader - Fusselman

(i) OVERCOMING POOR READING HABITS

Reading of relevant texts and materials complement lectures as an important study skill. Active
reading helps solve the problems associated with poor reading habits.

Active reading therefore must involve:

 Reading with a purpose

 Reading with a focus
 Reading with guide questions
 Adopting a flexible reading speed
 Employing memory enhancing devices
 Having attitudinal adjustments

The general reading process involves:

 The eyes and the mind decoding encoded information

 The mind absorbing the ideas stated or implied

Types of Reading

 Intensive reading – painstaking

 Extensive reading covering wide areas of knowledge
 Skimming – general overview
 Scanning – for specific information
 Detailed reading for general information
Techniques for Effective Reading

SQ3R

 Survey
 Question
 Read
 Review
 Recall

(ii) INCREASING THE SPEED OF READING

 Skimming – very fast – surveying for general impression

 Fairly rapid reading – for review materials/revision/recreation
 The average reading – for leisure
 Contemplative reading – for sake of memorizing

Eye Movements

 The ‘saccadic’ movement followed by a stop

 The regressive or backward movement – eyes go backward - re-read parts to reinforce
memory

Poor Reading Habits

 Reading all materials at the same speed

 Saying word to yourself (vocalizing)
 Moving the lips while reading
 Using a finger or pen to trace words
 Moving the head or shoulder
 Reading word by word
 Reading aloud
Rather:

 Vary your reading speed to suit context

 Read with your mind
 Control backward eye movement
 Read critically
 Let your eyes move and not your head
Conclusion

 Take enough rest

 Eat well
 Plan your reading
 Read with a focus
(iii) TYPES OF READING MATERIALS

Reading materials include:

 Books (recommended texts)

 Reference Materials (dictionaries, encyclopedias, year books, journals, abstracts,
indexes, internet resources etc.)
 Newspapers, magazines and other media
 Lecture Notes
 Etc.

(iv) SUMMARISING READING MATERIALS AND NOTE TAKING

Summarizing means reducing the structural length of a reading material while retaining its
original meaning. You generally apply the principles of summarizing in note making. The general
assumption in summarizing and note-making is that a text exists which can be reduced in length
without tampering with the content or meaning. It is also assumed that the writer of a
summary understands thoroughly the content of the message or information contained in the
material. In summary writing therefore, you are required to:

 Read the passage until you understand it thoroughly. You may have to read it at least
twice.
 Capture the essence and main points of the passage in one or two phrases
 Underline the essential points of the material if necessary (note: Do not underline
library books)
 Identify subordinate points
 Put the main points in your own words; arrange them systematically
 Include only the information in the text. However in note-making you may compare
information from supplementary materials and include important points to enrich your
note.
 Give your summary a title
 Avoid such phrases like ‘the author says that…’ or ‘the writer appears to think that…’

As a matter of fact, your summary of a material forms your note. It is recommended that for
effective note-making, you read up to three materials on the same subject or topic before
making your note/summary. Certain materials are lengthy because the author has included
some items which are merely there as illustrations or repetition for emphasis. In your note or
summary therefore, you don’t include them. In a nutshell, do not include:

 Illustrations
 Repetitions
 Detailed explanations
  Comparisons etc.

Conclusion

Re-telling a story or information without leaving out the most important points has been a very
important part of our everyday life. It is a skill worth developing. You need summary writing
skills not only for a fruitful academic career but also for other endeavors later in life.

Module D: Aspects of Vocabulary Development

(i) SOURCES OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY

What is known today as the English vocabulary is a product of historical and social
developments.

Historical Developments

Historically, the old English which was the native Anglo-Saxon language was introduced in
England following the conquest of the Jutes and Angles between the 5th and 10th centuries.
Before this period, the Romans had conquered and occupied Britain between AD 43 and AD
410. The Danes or Vikings (from modern Denmark) also plundered and occupied English in the
11th century. These conquests brought their cultures and civilization, including language to
Britain. Latin was the language of the Romans and became a national language of Britain. Many
English place names today such as Dorchester, Manchester, Lancaster, Newport, Portsmouth,
Oakmont, Torbridge etc. are of Latin origin. Most words associated with religion are also Latin,
e.g. alms, chalice, altar, angel, anthem, epistle, hymn, litany, cleric, martyr, nun, minister,
organ, pope, priest, psalm, provost, shift, shrine, deacon etc.

The Vikings also introduced places names especially those that end with ‘waite’ (e.g.
Braithwaite), ‘by’ (e.g. Derby), ‘thorpe’ (e.g. Althorp) into the old English. The French conquered
and governed England between the 11th and 13th centuries. This period is known as the Middle
English period. French had the dominant influence on the Middle English vocabulary
contributing about 10,000 words associated with administration e.g. authority, empire
authority, crown, liberty, majesty, palace, parliament etc; Law e.g., accuse, arrest, assault,
execute attorney, evidence, crime, fine, fraud etc. Religion, e.g. cathedral, chaplain, clergy,
communion, confess, convert, prayer, salvation, saviour, sermon, temptation, theology, virtue
etc. Military e.g. ambush, army, besiege, captain, lieutenant, battle, sergeant, soldier, spy, etc.
Food and Drink e.g., beef, biscuit, cream, dinner, feast, fruit, fry, herb, lemon, orange, plate,
pork, appetite etc.
Below are examples of words (or lexemes) with their French and Latin equivalents. The French
and Latin words are today used alongside the old English ones as synonyms but are often more
‘bookish’ and formal in their usage.

Old English French Latin

Guts courage -

Clothes attire -

Climb - ascend

Sweat perspire -

Happiness - felicity

House mansion -

Wish desire -

Weariness - lassitude

Rise mount ascend

Ask question interrogate

Fast firm secure

Kingly royal regal

Holy sacred consecrated

Fire flame conflagration

(Source: Crystal 2002)

Social Developments

The 19th century to the present time (the period of modern English) has witnessed a great deal
of social changes and developments which have turned out to be important sources of modern
English vocabulary. These include growth in Science and technology; growth in automobile and
transport industry; development of broadcasting, information technology and computing.
Other sources of new words include borrowings from other modern European languages;
creation of words through self-explaining compounds, prefixes and suffixes; coinages; forming
of words from Greek and Latin elements and slang.
(i) Growth in Science and Technology: In every field of science, there has been a growth in
technical words in the 19th and 20th centuries which have since become part of everyday usage.
In medicine for example we are familiar with terms like Anaemia, Diarrhoea, Appendicitis,
Bronchitis, Bacteriology, Virology, Immunology, Paediatrics, Orthodontics, etc. AIDS (acquired
immune deficiency syndrome) which has become a household term was unknown in the 19th
century. We can easily talk of clinics, anti-biotic, paracetamol, aspirin, iodine, panadol, penicillin
etc.

In physics and electricity we can easily identify words like relativity, calorie, ultra-violet rays,
light, etc. The development of atomic energy and nuclear weapons following the World Wars
and international conflicts gave rise to words like atomic bomb, hydrogen bomb, air raid,
ballistic missiles, chain reaction, fallout, etc.

Chemistry has given the English lexicon, nitrogen, alkali, biochemical, petro-chemical etc.
Aviation and space science have also contributed terms such as astronaut, cosmonauts, space
craft, space shuttle, count down etc.

(ii) Growth in Automobile and Transport Industry: Scientific discoveries and inventions have
proved to be an important source of new words. Words associated with transport technology
include trailer limousine, mustang, jeep, Mercedes-Benz, Ford, Volkswagen, etc. some of the
cars are named after their inventors, e.g., Ford or Mercedes. We have learnt new words with
the evolution of vehicles like carburetor, sparking plug, (American(Ame) spark plug) choke,
clutch, gear liver (Ame-gear shift), gearbox, steering wheels, differential, shock absorber,
chassis, automatic transmission, radial tyres, spare tyres, convertible, or station wagon etc .And
a car is usually parked in a garage. We now talk of the traffic, speeding, traffic light, petrol (Ame
gas), bus-stop, terminus, ticket, etc. You may supply more examples to illustrate further how
these technical terms have become part of our everyday language.

(iii) Development in Broadcasting, Information Technology and Computing. Communication and

computer technology are other aspects of science development that have contributed new
words to English vocabulary such as broadcasting, newscaster, aerial, transmitter, transmission,
antenna, lead-in, loud speaker, standby, announcer, reception, microphone, camera, etc. Terms
like cable TV, cable network, teleprompter, video tape, UHL channel, colour programming,
digital TV, super thin TV, VCD, DVD are peculiar to the television. Computer technology
introduced terms such as RAM (random-access memory), ROM (read-only memory) DOS (disk
operating system), microprocessor, byte, gig, modem, software, mouse, keyboard etc. and with
the growth of the internet, we now use terms like www (World Wide Web), browse, hack,
down load, upload, hypertext, browser, search engine, LAN (local area network, WAN (wide
area network), e-mail, yahoo etc.

Other Sources of New Words

 Borrowings from modern European languages. The English language has further
extended its vocabulary with new words like aperitif, chauffeur, garage etc (French),
ciao, vendetta etc (Italian), bonanza, canyon, cantina etc (Spanish) festschrift, angst, etc
 (German), troika, vodka, glasnost, perestroika (Russia), robot, (Czech), loot, thug etc
(India), pyjamas (Persia), sake, yen, soy etc (Japan).

 Forming words through self-explaining compounds. Compound words such as fire-

extinguisher, finger-print etc. (often with hyphens) represent the old method of creating
words in English language. In the 20th century, it continued to provide cheap method of
forming new words. Words such as know-how, lip-stick, streamline, hitchhike, e-mail,
babysitter, life style, greenhouse effect, etc. are familiar examples.

 Compounds from Greek and Latin Elements. The suffix scope in telescope, stethoscope,
etc. is from the Greek word meaning water, while ‘tele’ in telescope, telephone,
television etc., is adopted from Greek element meaning far. The word automobile is
from both Greek and Latin. Auto in Greek represents self while mobile is Latin mobilis
meaning moveable. Many scientific words in the English language can actually be
traceable this way with their roots in Greek or Latin.

 Prefixes and suffixes. Another method for forming words has been by adding familiar
prefixes and suffixes to existing words. Thus in the Modern period, words such as
transatlantic, transcontinental, transformer, transmarine, post classical, postgraduate,
prenatal, counterattack, superman etc. have become part of the English vocabulary.

 Coinages. Some new words in the language are as a result of deliberate coinages. Words
like Xerox, Frigidaire and Kodak were initially used as trademarks, but today you can
hear someone saying “I would like to Xerox the whole paper”. Acronym is another
method through which new words were invented. Examples include OPEC (Organization
of Petroleum Countries) ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) UNICEF
(United Nations Children’s fund) etc. In some coinages you can guess the combination
that is made. For examples travelogue (travel and dialogue), electrocute (electricity and
execute) etc. Words like travelogue and electrocute are called blends or portmanteau
words.

 Slang. Slang could be said to be common words or expressions that do not belong to the
standard variety but are generally used in some informal contexts, with some special
meaning. Earlier in the history of the English language slang was rejected as vulgar, or
‘vagabond’. But in modern times, many slang words like joke, boom, slum, fad, scram,
buzz, put-down, vamoose etc are finding their way into formal writing.

(ii) WAYS OF INCREASING THE VOCABULARY

You can develop and increase your vocabulary by making conscious effort to do so.
Develop the habit of reading on specific and general subjects. Encounter new words or
registers through new experiences.

Types of Vocabulary Development.

 Recognition vocabulary - meaning derived from contexts (reading/lectures)

 (Endeavour to go back to look up the meaning of recognized vocabulary)

 Active vocabulary - stock of words a student actively uses

Procedure

 Mark every new word

 Provide a vocabulary notebook
 Enter each new word in your notebook
 Consult a good dictionary for explanation of new words
 Consult the thesaurus for possible synonyms/antonyms
 Practice creating new words using affixes
 Make sentences with new found words.

Using the Dictionary

A good dictionary provides meaning, a guide to pronunciations and usage of words. Some
words have more than one entry showing different shades of meanings, and usages based on
the context. Some good dictionaries give the etymology (history and development) of some
words, and give insight to their structures and inflections. Most dictionaries give information
on:

 The grammatical contexts of words and their place in usage

 Information on parts of speech,
 Spelling variations
 Whether countable or uncountable (noun), and
 Possible collocations of words

Definitions of words are given with variations of meanings based on the context of use, e.g.
shoot – shoot (sports), shoot (armed forces), shoot (films industry). Context associated with
phrases, clauses, sentences, idiomatic expressions are also listed. Words are normally arranged
alphabetically. So, a dictionary is not all about meanings of words. But also:

 A guide to good pronunciation of words

 A guide to correct usage
 Insight to register/context variations
 Insight to origin/etymology of words
 Guide to grammatical context/parts of speech.
 Guide to spelling
NOTE: do not study dictionaries in isolation of application. Do not depend solely on the
dictionary explanation of meaning. Study how certain words are used within contexts and
suggest meanings according to situations. Some big words can easily be explained without the
dictionary if you look at them closely. You may discover that if you remove the affixes
(prefix/suffix), the stem becomes obvious and meaningful e.g.

 Malfunction (function)
 Hypersensitive (sensitive)
 Incomprehensible (comprehend)
 Indefensible (defend), etc.

Note the ‘meaning’ of the following affixes:

 Ante- before (ante-natal, i.e. before birth)

 Anti-against (anti-malaria)
 Demo- of the people (demography)
 Mis- wrong (mismanage)
 Multi- many (multinationals)
 Post- after (post-independence)
 Semi- half (semi-circle)
 Trans- across (trans-Atlantic)
 Pseudo- false (pseudo limbs)
 De- reverse (deforestation)

Try to form nouns from verbs and adjectives: adjectives from nouns: verbs from nouns e.g.

Verb Noun Noun Adjective

Collect collection attraction attractive

Civilize civilization custom customary

Confuse confusion beauty beautiful

Decide decision affection affectionate

Defend defence industry industrious

Exercises- Form nouns from the following words:

 Accurate
 moral
 mission
 free
  gay
 Persuade
 prosper
 proud
 prove
 pursue

Form adjectives from:

 law
 learn
 life
 sense
 mourn
 music
 storm
 youth
 nature
 neglect

Form verbs from:

 imitation
 sharp
 force
 friend
 colony
 actual
 creator
 camp
 terror
 trial
Words often misspelt

Parallel occasion coolly

Mischievous description proceed

Precede comparison ecstasy

Rhythm rhyme possesses

Vacuum tyrannise(ze) panicky

Sustenance leisure receive

Superintendent definitely privilege

Tranquility newsstand believe

Pronunciation noticeable argument

Corroborate accessible maintenance

Indigenous committee seize