OPTICAL

PROPERTIES

PRESENTED BY:
ARIAS, CATHERINE
MAQUILING, MARK TEMY
SASTRILLO, JULLIE
SOLIGAN, JOHN DEO
VALDEZ, GENELYN D.

PRESENTED TO:
DR. JOHAAN HEINRICH P. MALONGO, M.E., LL.B.
Chapter Title: Optical Properties

Introduction:
A material’s reaction to exposure into electromagnetic radiation is refereed to as its optical
property. The first section of this chapter introduces some essential concepts related to
electromagnetic radiation and how it can interact with solid materials. Then, it explores the optical
properties of metallic and nonmetallic substances, including their ability to refract, reflect, absorb,
transmit, and exhibit color, opacity, and translucency in insulators. The last part of the chapter
covers topics such as light amplification through luminescence and photoconductivity, as well as
practical applications of these phenomena, such as stimulated radiation emission (laser) and the
use of optical fibers for communication.

With the emerge of optical technology and its applications, identifying its accurate
measurements of a material’s optical properties are crucial. These measurements consist of
absorptance, reflectance, transmittance, emittance, and index of refraction. Furthermore, optical
materials are important in our daily lives as both a major technology and a fundamental branch of
science. With recent significant advancements in telecommunications, healthcare, energy
production, and environmental monitoring, this lesson is essential to many sectors of the economy.
The optical materials helped bring about ultra-low loss telecommunication optical fibers, which
made the internet possible. It also enables the development of several high-impact technical sectors
(From the journal Advanced Optical Technologies).

It is sometimes critical to be able to detect electromagnetic radiation when materials are

subjected to it and also forecast their reactions and modify them. When we are familiar with their
visual characteristics, we can comprehend the mechanisms underlying their optical actions.
Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Calculate the energy of a photon using the frequency of the photon and the value of
Planck's constant.
2. Provide a brief explanation of the fundamental principles of optical properties.
3. Explain and identify the two main ways in which atoms, ions, or electrons interact with
electromagnetic radiation, and describe two effects of polarization.
4. Provide a reason for why metallic materials are not transparent to visible light.
5. Understand and be able to distinguish the optical properties of nonmetallic and metallic
materials.
6. Define index of refraction.
7. Explain how photon absorption works for (a) semiconductors and insulators of high purity
and (b) semiconductors and insulators with electrically active flaws.
8. For transparent dielectric materials, note three internal scattering sources that cause opacity
and translucency.
9. Provide a brief description of the setup and operation of semiconductor and ruby lasers.

Contents of the Module:

This module contains the following topics:

Topic 1: Basic Concepts of Optical Properties
Topic 2: Optical Properties of Metals
Topic 3: Optical Properties of Nonmetals
Topic 4: Applications of Optical Phenomena
Topic 1 - Basic Concepts of Optical Properties

Specific Learning Outcomes:

By the end of this lesson, students will have the ability to:
1. Clarify the notion of optical properties by using electromagnetic radiation.
2. Solve problems that involve calculating photon energy with Planck's constant.
3. Differentiate the optical classifications.
4. Provide a brief explanation of electronic polarization as a result of electromagnetic
radiation.

Motivation/Prompting Questions:

• Did you know that electromagnetic radiation can travel through an empty space? How do you
think that can happen?
• What could be the electromagnetic spectrum radiation is comprise of?
• When you heard the word optical, what comes first on your mind?

Discussion:

Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is the transfer of energy via electric and magnetic fields that
create electromagnetic waves, which travel at the speed of light through space. These waves have
time-varying electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and to the direction
of wave propagation. Unlike mechanical waves, electromagnetic radiation doesn't require
molecules to move and can travel through solid substances like air and space. The different types
of electromagnetic radiation include light, heat, radar, radio waves, and x-rays, which are classified
based on their wavelength range and how they are produced. The electromagnetic spectrum covers
a wide range of radiation, from gamma rays emitted by radioactive materials with wavelengths of
about 10^(-12) meters (or 10^(-3) nanometers) to radio waves with wavelengths up to 10^5 meters.
Figure 1 provides a spectrum illustration.

Image Source: Materials Science and Engineering 10th edition by Callister and Rethwisch
-
Figure 1. This figure shows a wave of electromagnetic radiation that has two components, an
electric field (E) and a magnetic field (H), and a defined wavelength (λ).

Visible light is a type of electromagnetic radiation that has a limited range of wavelengths,
which fall between 0.4 µm and 0.7 µm. The wavelength of visible light is important in determining
its color. Colors are perceived based on the radiation's wavelength, where a wavelength of 0.4 µm
corresponds to violet, 0.5 µm corresponds to green, and 0.65 µm corresponds to red.

The relationship between the frequency (𝜈) and the wavelength (λ) of electromagnetic
radiation is dependent on its velocity, and can be expressed as follows:

c = 𝜆ν

From Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 749)

Where, c is the electromagnetic constant that has a value of 3 x 108 m/s.

Taking a quantum mechanical approach is a more useful way of understanding

electromagnetic radiation, in which it is viewed as consisting of particles known as photons, rather
than waves. These photons exist as discrete bundles of energy, and their energy can be calculated
using the following formula:

𝒉𝒄
E = hν =
𝛌

From Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 749)

The formula for calculating photon energy involves three variables: h, which is the constant
value known as Planck's constant, ν, which represents frequency, and λ, which denotes the
wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation. It is important to note that the value of Planck's
constant is universally recognized as 6.63 × 10−34 J·s.

Example:
A photon has a frequency () of 6.89 x 106 Hz. Calculate its energy.
SOLUTION:
E = hν

We know that h is the universal constant, therefore

1
−34 6 s
E = (6.63 × 10 J·s) (3.89 x 10 Hz) ( )
1 𝐻𝑧

J·s
E = 25.7907 x 10−34 x 106
𝑠
−28
E = 25.7907 x 10 J
E = 2.58 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 J Ans.

Light Interaction with Solids

Maxwell's equations provide a means of understanding how electromagnetic radiation

interacts with solid materials. These equations view the solid as a continuous entity and enable
the calculation of its optical properties based on the frequency of the radiation. When light passes
through different media, such as from air to a solid substance, various phenomena occur. When
radiation passes through a medium, it can be divided into three parts: the transmitted portion, the
absorbed portion, and the reflected portion, which may occur at the interface between the two
media. The intensity of the incident beam on the surface of the solid (Io) must equal the combined
intensities of the transmitted (IT), absorbed (IA), and reflected (IR) portions.

Io = IT + I A + IR (21.4)

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Interaction-between-light-and-matter_fig1_282191179

The measure of the energy being transmitted per unit of time across a unit area
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is known as radiation intensity and is typically
expressed in watts per square meter. (Source from: Callister & Rethwisch, 2017). It can play a
crucial role in various applications and fields, such as solar energy, telecommunications, and
environmental studies. In these contexts, understanding and controlling radiation intensity is
essential for optimizing energy transfer, and signal strength, and assessing the potential impacts
on ecosystems or human health. Measuring radiation intensity allows researchers and practitioners
to make informed decisions about the design of technologies, infrastructure, and safety protocols.

The equation T + A + R = 1 is the alternate form or equation 1.

 The respective fractions can be represented by the variables T (transmitted), A (absorbed),
and R (reflected). Consequently, the mathematical expression of this principle is given by T + A
+ R = 1, where T, A, and R is expressed as percentages or fractions of the incident light.
Understanding these factors is crucial in various scientific and engineering applications such as
optics, energy efficiency, and material design. By analyzing and manipulating materials'
transmittance, absorbance, and reflectance properties, engineers, and scientists can create
innovative solutions for diverse fields such as solar energy, telecommunications, and
environmental sustainability.

The optical categorization of materials can be classified as transparent, translucent, or

opaque. Transparent materials enable light to pass through them with minimal distortion, enabling
objects to be seen clearly on the other side. Translucent materials let some light pass through but
scatter the light, making it difficult to see objects clearly through them. Opaque materials do not
allow light to pass through and are effective in blocking the visibility of objects on the other side.
Each of these classifications has a unique set of properties and applications that are crucial in
various industries and everyday-life situations.

Figure 21.4 will help you completely understand these classifications.

Figure 21.4

https://www.sciencebuddies.org/teacher-resources/lesson-plans/light-transparent-translucent-opaque
 All visible light emissions are either reflected or absorbed by bulk metals, resulting in their
opacity throughout the visible spectrum. Bulk metals are opaque because they absorb or reflect all
incident lights. This is due to the fact that electrons in metals are free to move and can easily absorb
and re-emit photons of light. Metals appear shiny and reflective as a result.

Atomic and Electronic Interactions

Atomic and electronic interactions refer to the ways in which atoms and electrons interact
with each other and with external electromagnetic radiation. These interactions are responsible for
a wide range of optical phenomena, including absorption, reflection, refraction, and scattering.

In solids, the atoms are arranged in a regular lattice structure, which can affect the way that
electromagnetic radiation interacts with the material. For example, when light is incident on a solid
material, it can be absorbed by the electrons in the material, causing them to transition to higher
energy levels. This absorption can result in a variety of optical phenomena, such as coloration or
fluorescence.

In addition to electronic interactions, there are also atomic interactions that can affect the
behavior of electromagnetic radiation in solid materials. For example, when light is incident on a
solid material, it can interact with the lattice vibrations of the atoms in the material. This interaction
can result in a variety of optical phenomena, such as phonon-assisted absorption or Raman
scattering.

Electronic Polarization
When an atom or molecule is exposed to an electric field, it can cause a change in its
electron cloud, leading to what is known as electronic polarization. This distortion can cause the
charges to separate, leading to a dipole moment, with the positive charge moving in one direction
and the negative charge moving in the opposite direction. This dipole moment can interact with an
external electric field to produce various optical effects. When an electromagnetic wave interacts
with the atoms of a medium, the medium may become polarized, which can lead to two outcomes:
firstly, some of the energy in the wave may be absorbed by the medium, and secondly, the speed
of light waves passing through the medium may decrease.

Electron transition
Electron transition refers to the movement of an electron from one energy level to another
within a molecule or an atom. This motion can happen as a result of the absorption or emission of
an electromagnetic radiation photon that possesses an energy corresponding to the discrepancy
between the electron's initial and final energy states.

Electromagnetic radiation can cause electrons to transition between different energy states
within an atom or molecule. To demonstrate this, let's take the example of a solitary atom having
an energy diagram for its electron as presented in Figure 21.3. If an electron occupying a state at
energy level 𝐸2 absorbs a photon of energy, it can move to a higher unoccupied state designated
as 𝐸4 . The change in energy of the electron, represented by ΔE, depends on the frequency of the
radiation and can be mathematically represented in the following manner:

ΔE = hv

Once again, the constant h refers to Planck's constant.

Figure 21.3 The diagram shows how a
photon can be absorbed by an isolated atom,
causing one of its electrons to move from a
lower energy level to a higher one. This
process requires the energy of the photon
(ℎ𝑣42 ) to be equal to the difference in energy
between the two states (𝐸4 − 𝐸2 ).

Adapted from Fig. 21.3, Callister

& Rethwisch (Figure 21.3)

It is important to note that an excited electron, after absorbing a photon, cannot stay in that
state for a long time. The electron will eventually return to its lower energy state, also known as
the ground state, and emit electromagnetic radiation. This process of decay can happen in so many
different ways, which we will discussed later. It is essential to keep in mind that energy must be
conserved during both absorption and emission electron transitions.

Learning Activities/Exercises:

1. What hue would be visible when the radiation's wavelength is about 0.5 µm? What about
for radiation with a wavelength of roughly 0.7 µm?
2. Identify what optical classification of materials are the following:
a.)

Image source: https://sites.google.com/site/topclassproject4year/unit-6/a-energy/a4-objects-and-light

 b.)

Image source: https://www.woodcraft.com/categories/wood

c.)

Image source: https://gustoemergencyglassreplacement.com.au/frosted-glass/

Practice Task/Assessment:

1. What is the main reason why an electromagnetic radiation can travel even through an empty
space?
2. Calculate the (a) frequency and the (b) energy of blue light that has a wavelength of 350 nm.
3. What happened if an electron in an occupied state at energy label absorbs a photon of energy?

Feedback to Assessment:

1. An electromagnetic radiation can travel even through an empty space because unlike
soundwaves, it doesn’t require molecules to move which means that electromagnetic waves
can go through solid substances, such as air, as well as across space.
 2.
SOLUTION:

Given: ν = 350 nm
h = 6.63 × 10−34 J·s
c = 3 x 108 m/s

(a). c = 𝜆ν
𝑐
ν=
λ
3 x 108 m/s
ν= 10−9 m
(350 nm) ( )
1 nm

3 x 108 m/s
ν = 350 x 10−9 m
3 x 108 m/s
ν = 3.5 x 10−7 m

ν = 8.57 x 1014 1/s

We know that 1/s = 1 Hz, therefore

ν = 8.57 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 Hz

(b). E = hν
1
−34 14 s
E = (6.63 × 10 J·s) (8.57 x 10 Hz) ( )
1 𝐻𝑧

J·s
E = 56.8191 x 10−34 x 1014
𝑠
E = 56.8191 x 10−20 J
E = 56.82 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 J

3. It can be excited to a higher-lying vacant state labeled.

Assignment:

1. Why do you think it is important to know the basic concepts of optical properties?
2. Look around your house and identify which objects in your house can be classifies as
Transparent, translucent or opaque give at least five examples for each classification with
pictures.

References:

Optical materials. (n.d.). Optical materials. Advanced Optical Technologies. Retrieved March
23, 2023, from https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/aot-2018-0036/html
Britannica. (n.d.). Electromagnetic radiation | Spectrum, Examples, & Types | Britannica.
Retrieved March 23, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/science/electromagnetic-radiation
electro. (n.d.). electro. Retrieved March 23, 2023, from
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/electro#:~:text=Electromagnetic%20waves%20are%20not%
20like,spacewalks%20use%20radios%20to%20communicate.
Callister, W.D. & Rethwisch D.G. (2017). Materials Science and Engineering (10th edition).
Wiley. pg. 747-751
Interaction of Light with Solids. (n.d.). Interaction of Light with Solids. Retrieved March 23,
2023, from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06540-3_10-1
Electric Polarization - an overview. (n.d.). Electric Polarization - an overview. Retrieved March
23, 2023, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/electric-polarization
Topic 2 - Optical Properties of Metals

Specific Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this topic, students will have the ability to:
1. Provide a definition and comprehensively explain the idea of the optical properties of metals.
2. Describe the relationship between the electronic structure of metals and their optical
properties
3. Explain how metals interact with light and how this interaction affects their optical properties

Motivation/Prompting Questions:
• How do the optical properties of metals differ from those of non-metals?
• What factors determine the optical properties of metals?
• How do the optical properties of metals play a role in interaction with light and
electromagnetic waves?

Discussion:

The optical characteristics of metals are distinguished by their high reflectivity and low
transmission. To quantify the optical properties of metals, two constants, namely the index of
refraction and the absorption coefficient, are used. Although the index of refraction and absorption
coefficient typically describe the amplitude as constant along a wavefront, this is only accurate for
normal incidence. Electron energy band schemes for metals are illustrated in Figures 18.4a and
18.4b, where a high-energy band is partially filled with electrons. Metals are opaque because
visible light radiation excites electrons into unoccupied energy states above the Fermi energy,
resulting in the absorption of incoming radiation, as depicted in Figure 21.4a. This absorption
happens within a very thin outer layer, usually less than 0.1 m, which means that only metal sheets
thinner than 0.1 m may permit visible light transmission.
This figure, labeled 18.4, depicts different electron band structures found in solids at 0 K.

The initial configuration illustrated in (a) is

typical of metals such as copper, which possess
electron states that are present above and
adjacent to filled states within the same band.
The second configuration, shown in (b), is
discovered in metals such as magnesium and
includes a merging of filled and unoccupied
external bands.
Adapted from Fig.18.4, Callister & Rethwisch.
Materials Science and Engineering (Electrical
Properties)

Metals do not allow visible light to pass through and absorb all frequencies of it due to the
availability of continuous electron states, which allows electron transitions, as shown in Figure
21.4a. Metals are generally opaque to all electromagnetic radiation frequencies at the lower end of
the range, starting from radio waves through infrared and visible light to ultraviolet rays. However,
metals can allow high-frequency radiation, such as x-rays and gamma rays, to pass through them.

The majority of the radiation that is absorbed by metals

is emitted back from the surface as visible light of the
same wavelength, which gives the appearance of
reflected light. Figure 21.4b shows an electron transition
accompanying reradiation. In metallic materials, when a
photon is absorbed, an electron is elevated to a higher
energy level that is unoccupied, as depicted in Figure
21.4a. The energy of the photon is equal to the energy
Adapted from Fig.21.4, Callister & Rethwisch.
Materials Science and Engineering (Fig.21.4)
difference (ΔE) of the electron's transition. Conversely, when an electron transitions from a high-
energy state to a low-energy state, it emits a photon of light.

Metals are both opaque and have a high degree of reflectivity, and the color they exhibit is
determined by the wavelength distribution of the energy that is reflected rather than absorbed.
When a metal reflects light across the entire visible spectrum, it appears to have a brilliant, silvery
sheen. This indicates that the frequency and amount of the reemitted photons in the reflected beam
are similar to those in the incident beam. Some metals such as silver and aluminum have this
reflective property. However, copper and gold appear reddish-orange and yellow, respectively,
because some of the energy associated with light photons has a short lifetime.

Learning Activities:
1. What are the two constant that metal optical properties are expressed quantitatively?
2. Why are some metals opaque?

Practice Task/Assessment:
1. How metals absorb visible light?
2. Is described as constant along a wave front when specifying a metal’s index of refraction and
absorption coefficient.

Feedback to Assessment:
1. Metals absorb all visible light frequencies due to the continuously available empty electron
states.
2. The amplitude

Assignment:
1. Write a reflection paper about the optical properties of metals.
2. Give 4 examples of metals and its optical properties.
References:
Optical Properties of Metals. (n.d.). Optical Properties of Metals. Retrieved March 23, 2023, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0081194708607298
Callister, JR W. & Rethwisch, D (2017). Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction,
10th Edition, chapter 21, pg. 751-752.

Topic 3 - Optical Properties of Nonmetals

Specific Learning Outcomes:

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to achieve the following objectives:
1. Understand the definitions of various optical phenomena such as refraction, reflection,
absorption, transmission, and the color of materials.
2. Explain the connection between refraction and dielectric constant for transparent materials.
3. Provide a brief explanation of reflectivity in terms of the intensities of reflected and incident
beams.
4. Learn to differentiate and explain translucency in materials.
5. Analyze the Opacity and Translucency of non-metals specifically in insulators.
6. Distinguish the characteristics of absorption, transmission, and color of materials.

Motivation/Prompting Questions:
• How do lenses use refraction to focus light?
• What is the impact of a material's index of refraction on the extent of refraction that takes
place?
• Have you ever wondered how a light beam responds to a particular material, particularly
non-metals, as someone with the sense of sight?
• Why do non-metals' optical characteristics differ from those of metals?

Discussion:

Refraction
When light travels through transparent materials, it experiences a decreasing in velocity
and becoming bent at the interface as a result, this process is known as refraction. One of the
primary properties that distinguishes an optical substance is its refractive index n. The refractive
index, put simply, determines how much light is twisted or “refracted” when it crosses the
boundary between two media. The ratio of a material’s index of refraction n can be identify as the
ratio of the vacuum’s velocity c to the velocity of the medium ν, with this formula:
 𝒄
n=
𝝂
From Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 752)

The light's wavelength affects the size of n, also known as the degree of bending. This
effect is illustrated by the image below which shows the familiar separation or dispersion of a
white light beam into its constituent colors using a glass prism.

Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 753)

The separation of colors happens when each color is deflected differently upon entering
and exiting the glass. The index of refraction plays a crucial role in determining both the path of
light and the amount of light reflected at the surface, especially in transparent materials. The
dielectric constant and index of refraction have a direct relationship. The size of the atoms or ions
within the medium can cause electronic polarization, which causes a delay in the electromagnetic
radiation. The size of the atom or ion determines the electronic polarization, velocity, and index of
refraction, and therefore, determines the magnitude of the effect. The relationship between
refraction phenomena and electronic polarization at higher frequencies for visible light has been
discussed.

As you can see, below is an example of refractive indices for some transparent materials.
 Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 753)

Reflection
When light radiation moves from one medium to another with a different index of
refraction, some light is scattered at the interface, even if both media are transparent. Reflectivity
(R) represents the percentage of incident light reflected at the interface, which can be calculated
using the following formula:

𝐈𝐑
R=
𝐈𝐎
\
From Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 754)
Where,
𝐼𝑜 = intensities of the incident
𝐼𝑅 = reflected beams

However, if the light is normal or perpendicular, then we are going to use this formula:
𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏 𝟐
R=( )
𝒏𝟐 + 𝒏 𝟏
 From Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 754)
Where,
𝑛1 & 𝑛2 = indices of the two media of refraction

R is influenced by the angle of incidence if the incident light is not normal to the interface.
When light travels through air or a vacuum and enters a solid s, then we are going to use this
formula:

𝒏𝒔 −𝟏 𝟐
R=( )
𝒏𝒔 +𝟏

From Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 754)

because air has an almost perfect index of refraction. Hence, the reflectance of a solid increases
with its index of refraction. The wavelength of the incoming light affects the index of refraction
and reflectivity of a solid. The use of extremely thin layers of dielectric materials, such as
magnesium fluoride, on the reflective surface of lenses and other optical instruments, significantly
decreases reflection losses.

Absorption
If a light beam of certain wavelength is moving from a medium to another medium, one of
the things that could happen is absorption which is also a property not only exclusive for metals
but also for non-metals. The light is also converted into another form of energy one of such form
is generally known as heat.

The extent of light absorption by a material depends on certain parameters such as a light
beam considering its wavelength, the structure and composition of materials that are in contact
with the light incident, and on how thick the material is.
 Light absorption by a material can have significant number of applications, such as
designing optical filters, designing of photovoltaic cells in solar panels for the conversion of solar
energy, and other important applications that could have a huge impact the industry.
Fig. 1a Fig. 1b

Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 755)

As we can see in the figure 21.5, band gaps do exist in non-metals or insulators and it shows
the mechanism of the absorption of photons for non-metals where electron excitation occurs and
goes through the band gap of a non-metal leaving a space or a hole in the valence band the photon
energy that is absorbed ∆E which usually is greater than the band gap energy denoted as Eg.

Continuing its path, the photon leaves the said hole in the valence band where the electron
goes to a transition across the gap. In conclusion, the electron added with the hole left during the
photon absorption results into an energy. (Callister & Rethwisch, 2018, p. 755)

Here we can see that in electronvolt unit (eV), calculating the maximum band gap energy
(Egmax) for possible light absorption, considering the wavelength that is minimum in the spectrum
of visible light (purple) which has a value of λ = 4 x 10-7 m and knowing that the speed of light in
vacuum is c = 3 x 108 m/s, also given that Planck’s constant value is h = 4.13 x 10-7 eV•s (in terms
of electronvolt second) here we can see in the formula:
Formula 1

𝒉𝒄
𝑬𝒈 (𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝛌 (𝐦𝐢𝐧)

(𝟒.𝟏𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐞𝐕•𝐬 )(𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬

= 𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦

= 3.1eV

From Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 755)

We can see that a value of energy band beyond 3.1 eV could not handle more excess light
resulting for it to transmit through the material concluding that it has a purity beyond average and
it appears to be transparent or even colorless. (Callister & Rethwisch, 2018, p. 755). As mentioned
above, the thickness of the material mainly affects how the material absorbs such light. This states
that the net of the radiation absorbed intensity depends on the route or path thickness of the
material, while the intensity of the radiation that passed through or the one that is not absorbed
(𝐼𝑇′ ) decreases along as it goes through the distance (x) of the light passes through (thickness or
𝐼𝑇′
length of material) where it shows the or the fraction of the non-reflected light, 𝛽 or the
𝐼0′

coefficient of absorption in the unit of /mm (mm-1) .

Formula 1.1
𝐈𝐓′ = 𝐈𝟎′ 𝐞−𝐱

From Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 757)

Transmission

Another optical property is transmission, this optical property in non-metals refer to how a
non-metallic substance behave when a beam of light travels through it. From transparent or even
to visible light, some non-metallic materials or most generally known as insulators such as plastics,
glass, and ceramics allow the light to travel through them with an absorption from little to none.

The transmission qualities of non-metallic materials are possible in certain number of

variables, including the material’s composition, its structure, and the thickness in which the path
of light passes through. In some cases, the atom’s arrangement in a certain material can influence
or affect its capacity to distribute light anywhere on its vicinity or scatter, and absorb light. Let us
also not forget that the thickness of the material might mainly influence its quality of transmission.
Some uses in real life utilizing the transmission of light are Microscopy, Photography or
Videography, and Optical Sensors.
Given that a light beam is pointed towards a certain material with an intensity (I0) impinges
to the material’s front face with a given thickness l with an absorption coefficient (𝛽), the intensity
(IT) that passed through the material is computed as

Formula 1.2
𝐈𝐓 = 𝐈𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝐑)𝟐 𝐞−𝐭

From Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 757)

Assuming that the substances that is pointed with the light incidence has the same medium
existing in both faces. (Callister & Rethwisch, 2018, p. 758)

Color

Color is a fundamental property of light and is related to its optical properties. It is how our
sense of sight interact with the material’s visible characteristic when a light is impinged towards
its surface, unlike metals, the color of the non-metal is actually not the visible light that is reflected
back into our sight but instead, it is the visible light that is absorbed, take a material with a red
color for example, other colors in the visible light except the red color is transmitted through and
keeps the red color scattered in its body, that is why we don’t see other complementary colors of
the object because it has passed through, think about it as a color filtration.

Opacity and Translucency in Insulators

According to (Simmons & Potter, 2000), one of the sources of opacity is that there are
insulators that originated from dopants (to alter such properties specifically in optics) that absorb
light through bound electron excitations as discussed back in the absorption (band gap energy for
non-metals) section. The two characteristics (opacity and translucency) of insulators are
manipulated thanks to the domination the optical properties of dopants whether if it’s the color or/
and the transparency. Considering these factors, various applications of insulators come to rise
ranging from the usage of optical lenses to optical waveguides used in fiber communication.

When talking about insulators, the two optical properties namely, opacity and translucency
talks about the ability of a certain substance to transmit light. The property of a certain material
that does not allow light to pass through it is called opacity, while translucency is the ability of a
material to allow a part light to pass across its structure, but not fully clear, one can say that it is in
between opaque and transparent.

Various factors such as the thickness of the material, the wavelength of the light, and the
chemical composition of the material affect the degree of opacity and translucency of a material.
Take a ceramic and certain types of glass as examples, the said materials are typically opaque to
visible light but may be translucent to UV light or infrared radiation. But there are also some
insulators like certain types of polymers may be translucent or even transparent to visible light,
allowing light to pass through them, for various applications like glasses, optical fibers, and
windows.
Learning Activities/Exercises:
1. In relation to refraction, where do you think the degree of bending depends on?
2. A glass with a thickness x of 200mm has an absorption coefficient of 1.01×10^-4 mm^-1.
Calculate the fraction of non-reflected light that is transmitted in the material.
3. This optical property in non-metals refer to how a non-metallic substance behave when a
beam of light travels through it.
4. Ceramic is a material that to visible light but may be ______ to UV light or infrared radiation.

Practice Task/Assessment:

1. It is the process when light travels through transparent material, and experiences a decrease
in its velocity and bents at the interface.
2. What medium does absorption and transmission occur? And state an application or an
example of where it can be found in materials that are used in our society.
3. Explain the difference between Opacity and Translucency?
4. A certain material with 0.98 fraction of non-reflected light and absorption coefficient of
1.29×10−4 mm−1. Calculate the thickness of the material in meter.

Feedback to Assessment:

1. Refraction
2. Absorption occurs in an opaque medium while transmission occurs in a transparent medium.
Light absorption is found in designing optical filters, designing of photovoltaic cells in solar
panels, while in transmission of light its uses in real life applications are Microscopy,
Photography or Videography, and Optical Sensors.
3. Opacity is a characteristic that prevents any light from passing through a material, whereas
translucency refers to a material's ability to allow some light to pass through, but not enough
to see through it distinctly.
 4.
SOLUTION:
Given:
I’ₜ/I’ₒ=0.98
β=1.29×10⁻⁴mm⁻¹
𝐼′ ₜ
′
= 𝑒 −𝛽𝑥
𝐼ₒ
𝐼′ ₜ
ln ( ′ ) = 𝑙𝑛 𝑒 −𝛽𝑥
𝐼ₒ
𝐼′ₜ
−𝛽𝑥 = ln ( )
𝐼′ₒ
𝐼′ ₜ
ln 𝐼 ′ ₒ
𝑥=−
𝛽
ln (0.98)
𝑥=−
1.29 × 10−4 𝑚𝑚−1
𝟏𝒎
𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔. 𝟔𝟏𝒎𝒎( )
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟔 𝒎

Assignment:
1. Consider a material with 97% of non-reflected light with β=1.10×10⁻⁴ mm⁻¹.
2. What will be the thickness (x) of the material in ft?
3. Write a reflection about what have you learned in the discussed topic.

Reference:

Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2018). Material Science and Engineering (Tenth). Wiley.
Simmons, J. H., & Potter, K. S. (2000). Optical properties of Insulators—Fundametals. Optical
Materials.
Optical Properties - Refractive Index & Dispersion. (n.d.). Optical Properties - Refractive Index &
Dispersion. Retrieved March 23, 2023, from https://escooptics.com/blogs/news/optical-
properties-refractive-index-dispersion
Conducting polymers: a comprehensive review on recent advances in synthesis, properties and
applications. (2021, March 23). Conducting polymers: a comprehensive review on recent advances
in synthesis, properties and applications. RSC Advances.
https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2021/ra/d0ra07800j

Topic 4 - Applications of Optical Phenomena

Specific Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Comprehend the diverse uses of optical phenomena.
2. Comprehend the concepts of photoconductivity and luminescence.
3. Create their own model to experiment with the transmission of light through different media.
4. Understand the operation of each component in a fiber-optic communication system,
including the transmitter, fiber, amplifier, and receiver.

Motivation/Prompting Questions:
• Which materials have the property of luminescence?
• What are the characteristics that you associate with a laser?
• What are the differences between lasers and flashlights?
• Are you familiar with how optical fibers have transformed our world?

Discussion:

Luminescence
Luminescence are materials that are capable of absorbing energy and then spontaneously
producing visible light. The easiest way to define luminescence is as the radiation that an atom or
molecule emits after absorbing energy and entering an exited state. The phenomenon of
luminescence involves the absorption of light at a particular wavelength (the excitation
wavelength) by a chemical molecule and the emission of light at a longer wavelength (the emission
wavelength).

Luminescence has two types namely: fluorescence and phosphorescence. When we say
fluorescence, reemission occurs far less frequently than once every second. Instead of producing
actual light, the pigment molecule's setting causes the surface or object it is a part of to appear to
glow, which may improve communications and, in certain situations, camouflage. It can be
difficult to tell when fluorescence is a biological coloration's functional component and when it is
a pigment or other molecule's byproduct. To sum up, there is insufficient evidence to support the
use of fluorescence in most cases of visually-motivated behavior. However, fluorescence is still a
valuable analytical tool in many scientific fields due to its high sensitivity and selectivity. It can
be used to study the structure and dynamics of biomolecules in real-time, both in solution and
under a microscope. On the other hand, phosphorescence is a type of afterglow or delayed
luminescence where the re-emission of light occurs over a longer time period. Phosphorescent
materials, unlike fluorescence, do not immediately release the absorbed radiation because of
prohibited energy state transitions and imperfection levels in the material.

Photoconductivity
Photoconductivity refers to the situation where a material's electrical conductivity rises upon
absorbing electromagnetic radiation, including gamma radiation, infrared light, ultraviolet light,
or visible light, in both electrical and optical aspects. When more free electrons and holes become
available by absorbing light, the material's electrical conductivity increases. To create excitation,
the light that reaches the semiconductor should have enough energy to lift electrons across the
band gap or excite the impurities within the band gap.

We have two types of photoconductors in photoconductivity. First, the intrinsic

photoconductor. An intrinsic photoconductor is the primary band gap absorption that generates
electrons and increases photocarriers. Second, extrinsic photoconductors. An extrinsic
photoconductor is the conduction or valence band photocarriers that are produced by the
absorption from the impurity site in the gap.
 Image source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/4641401/

Laser
In layman's terms, a laser is a device that produces a concentrated beam of light, which
has unique characteristics such as collimation, coherence, and monochromaticity. The way lasers
work is based on the particle theory of light, where photons (packets of light energy) are released
as atoms in a laser are stimulated by light waves. These photons are regulated and amplified by
the laser, which makes them travel in unison and in phase with each other. This is what gives laser
beams their narrow and straight shape.

Lasers have a wide range of uses in various industries, including healthcare, military,
electronics, and manufacturing. They are used for cutting, welding, heating, missile guidance,
radar replacement, target guidance, and more. The use of lasers is possible because they produce
high-energy light that can be guided to accomplish various productive and useful tasks.

Unlike spontaneous radiative electron transitions that produce incoherent radiation,

electron transitions in lasers produce coherent light, which is amplified by an external stimulus.
 Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 764)
Figure 21.13. Schematic diagram of the ruby laser and xenon flash lamp

While being exposed, the xenon flash lamp's brightness illuminates the ruby, as presented
in Figure 21.13. Nearly all of the Cr3+ ions are in their ground states, signifying that the electrons
are in the lowest energy levels, as shown in the schematic diagram of Figure 21.14.

Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 764)
Figure 21.14 illustrates a diagram that represents the energy levels in the ruby laser,
demonstrating the paths of electron excitation and decay.

Nevertheless, electrons from the Cr3+ ions are excited by photons with a wavelength of
0.56 m from the xenon lamp.into states with greater vitality. These electrons can return to their
ground state by decaying into two distinct routes. Some revert immediately; related photon
emissions are not included in the laser's light. A metastable intermediate state is created when other
electrons decay (path EM,Figure 21.14).

(a) Before excitation of the chromium ions.

(b) The xenon light flare causes some of the
chromium ions to have higher energy states and
contain electrons.
(c) Spontaneously emitted photons induce or stimulate
metastable electron states to emit.
(d) While passing through the entire rod, the photons
continue to induce emissions as they reflect off the
silvered ends.
(e) Finally, a strong beam emerges from the end of the
rod that is silvered.

Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.).

Material Science and Engineering (p. 765)

The above paragraphs describe the process of light amplification and stimulated emission
for a diamond laser, with a schematic representation shown in Figure 21.15.

Moreover, lasers made of semiconducting semiconductors, like gallium arsenide, CD

players and the current telecommunications sector are two examples.

When a voltage is applied, electrons move from the valence band to the conduction band,
creating holes in the valence band. On a section of the energy band diagram, Figure 21.16a
demonstrates this process. Within a semiconductor, numerous excited electrons and holes are
present, and eventually, only a small number of these excited electrons and holes spontaneously
recombine.
 Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 766)

Figure 21.16 schematically shows how excited molecules recombine to create a laser beam
in a semiconductor laser. This beam is created when conduction band electrons and valence band
holes combine. In (a), the recombination of an excited electron and a hole leads to the release of
energy in the form of a light photon. Similarly, in (b), the recombination of another excited electron
and hole results in the emission of another light photon. These two photons have the same
wavelength and phase. A fully reflecting mirror reflects these photons back into the semiconductor
laser. This encourages more excited electron-hole re-combinations through the semiconductor,
producing more photons of light that contribute to the formation of the coherent and
monochromatic laser beam. At one end of the semiconducting material, a partially reflective mirror
allows the laser beam to escape.

Several layers of semiconducting materials make up the semiconductor laser. They are
sandwich between a heat sink and a metal and have various compositions Figure 21.17 shows a
schematic representation of a common setup for a conductor. The layers' compositions are selected
to contain both the excited electrons and holes.to the interior of the central gallium arsenide layer,
along with the laser beam.
 Moreover, lasers serve as the light source in optical communication systems. Furthermore,
Lasers can be utilized to make extremely exact measurements since the beam is highly coherent
length measures.

Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 767)

Optical Fibers in Communication

Optical fibers are slender and adaptable tubes created from excellent extruded glass or
plastic that are marginally thicker than a human hair. These fibers are transparent and act as a light
pipe for conveying light from one end of the fiber to the other. The scientific and engineering
domain that focuses on designing and applying optical fibers is called fiber optics. Fiber optics is
extensively utilized in communication systems since it enables transmission over more extensive
distances and at higher bandwidths than other communication methods. Optical fibers are preferred
over metal wires because signals travel along them with minimal loss and are immune to
electromagnetic interference. They are also utilized for illumination and are bundled for various
other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.

With the advent of optical fiber technology, the communications industry recently
underwent a revolution; today, this medium is used almost exclusively for the transmission of
telecommunications. instead of over copper wires.
 Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 768)

Figure 21.18 provides a schematic illustration of these parts. A telephone conversation, for
example, must first be converted from its electrical form into bits, or 1s and 0s, which is done in
the encoder.

The fiber core's ability to contain light within it entirely means that any light rays that travel
at an angle to the fiber axis are reflected back to the center. This is accomplished by changing the
index of refraction of the glass utilized for both the cladding and core. There are two types of
designs utilized: one where the cladding's index of refraction is slightly lower than the core's
(known as step-index), and another design shown in Figures 21.21b and 21.21d, which exhibits a
specific index profile and internal reflection style. In this setup, the output pulse is larger than the
input pulse. However, pulse broadening can occur, as illustrated in Figures 21.21c and 21.21e,
which can restrict the transmission speed. Despite injecting separate light rays at approximately
the same time, they travel along different paths and have varying path lengths, resulting in pulse
broadening and arriving at the output at different times. (Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.).
Material Science and Engineering (p. 769)

Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 769)
 Therefore, the velocity of light within the core changes as it moves radially, being faster at
the periphery than at the center. In the lower-index cladding, light rays with longer path lengths
around the outer edge of the core travel faster and reach the output at about the same time as
undeviating rays with shorter path lengths through the center of the core. It is important to
eliminate impurities and flaws that absorb, scatter, and weaken the light beam. Vanadium, copper,
and iron are especially harmful and must be reduced to a few parts per billion. The levels of water
and hydroxyl contaminants are also kept very low. This glass material attenuates light with an
extremely low level of loss. For example, the power loss through optical-fiber glass with a
thickness of 16 km (10 mi) is similar to that of regular window glass with a thickness of 25 mm (1
in).

Image Source: Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (n.d.). Material Science and Engineering (p. 770)

Learning Activities/Exercises:
1. What is luminescence and how does it work?
2. What are the two types of luminescence and how are they different?
3. What is fluorescence and how is it used in science?
4. What is phosphorescence and how does it differ from fluorescence?

Practice Task/Assessment:
1. What is photoconductivity and how does it work?
2. What is a laser and how does it work?
 3. What are the characteristics of laser light?
4. What are some common uses of lasers in various fields?

Feedback to Assessment:
1. Photoconductivity is the increase in electrical conductivity of a material as a result of the
absorption of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared light,
or gamma radiation.
2. A laser is a device that regulates the release of photons, which are little pockets of light
energy, by controlling the excitation and relaxation of atoms.
3. Laser light is collimated, coherent, and monochromatic. The photons travel in unison and are
in phase with one another, resulting in a small divergence and narrow beam. All of the light
waves have the same wavelength due to just one set of atomic energy levels where the emitted
photons originate. The laser waves are perpendicular to mirrors at each end of the laser cavity
and parallel to one another, which helps to prevent divergence and sustain amplification.
4. Lasers have a wide range of applications, including optical storage, metal cutting, product
scanning, CD and DVD players, surgical treatment, vision treatment, kidney stone treatment,
dentistry, hair removal, skin treatment, tattoo removal, missile guidance, radar replacement,
target guidance, laser printers, holograms, barcode scanners, cutting, welding, and heating
materials.

Assignment:
1. Write a reflection about what have you learned in the discussed topic.

References:
Arfaqamar. (2021, March 2. Photolumniscence. https://youtu.be/A9szSQcU0sI
Boat of Knowledge Ohio Universe. (2017, January 19). Luminiscence.
https://youtu.be/l_26zzP8Eik
Elsa B. (2022, June 25). https://youtu.be/tkneXGURDxM
Justin Marshall. Sonke Johnsen. (2017, May 22) Fluorescence as a Means of Colour Signal
Enhancement. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2016.0335
Progress in Polymer. (2015). Luminescence. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-
science/luminescence#:~:text=Luminescence%20is%20the%20phenomenon%20involving,wavel
ength%20(the%20emission%20wavelength).
Dictionary.com. Lexico Publishing Group, LLC. (2008, August 27). Source of vocabulary
definitions, with some adaptation)
Hecht, J. (n.d.). Lasers. https://www.britannica.com/technology/laser
The Fundamentals of Laser Technology. (n.d.). https://www.ulsinc.com/learn
Callister, JR W. & Rethwisch, D (2017). Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction,
10th Edition, chapter 21, pg. 764-770.