Determinant of a Matrix 1

Find the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix.

Find the minors and cofactors of a matrix.
Use expansion by cofactors to find the determinant of a matrix.
Find the determinant of a triangular matrix.

THE DETERMINANT OF A 2 × 2 MATRIX

Every square matrix can be associated with a real number called its determinant. Historically, the use
of determinants arose from the recognition of special patterns that occur in the solutions of systems of linear
equations. For example, the system
a11x1 + a12x2 = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 = b2
has the solution
b1a22 − b2a12 b2a11 − b1a21
x1 = and x2 =
a11a22 − a21a12 a11a22 − a21a12
when a11a22 − a21a12 ≠ 0. Note that both fractions have the same
denominator, a11a22 − a21a12. This quantity is the determinant of the coefficient matrix of the system.

Definition of the Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix

The determinant of the matrix

[aa ]
a12
A= 11

21 a22

∣∣
is det(A) = A = a11a22 − a21a12.

The diagram below shows a convenient method for remembering the formula for
the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix.

∣A∣ = ∣ a11
a21
a12
a22 ∣
= a11a22 − a21a12

The determinant is the difference of the products of the two diagonals of the matrix.
Note that the order of the products is important.

Determinants of Matrices of Order 2

a. For A = [1
2 −3
2
, A =]∣∣
2
1 ∣ ∣ −3
2
= 2(2) − 1(−3) = 4 + 3 = 7.

b. For B = [24 1
2 ]∣∣
, B =
2
4 ∣ ∣ 1
2
= 2(2) − 4(1) = 4 − 4 = 0.

[ ]∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
3 3
0 0
c. For C = 2
, C = 2
= 0(4) − 2(32 ) = 0 − 3 = −3.
2 4 2 4

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 MINORS AND COFACTORS
To define the determinant of a square matrix of order higher than 2, it is convenient to use minors
and cofactors.

Minors and Cofactors of a Square Matrix

If A is a square matrix, then the minor Mij of the entry aij is the determinant of
the matrix obtained by deleting the ith row and jth column of A. The cofactor Cij
of the entry aij is Cij = (−1)i+jMij.

For example, if A is a 3 × 3 matrix, then the minors and cofactors of a21 and a22
are as shown below.
Minor of a21 Minor of a22

[ ] ∣ ∣ [ ] ∣ ∣
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a12 a13 a11 a13
a21 a22 a23 , M21 = a21 a22 a23 , M22 =
a32 a33 a31 a33
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33

Delete row 2 and column 1. Delete row 2 and column 2.

Cofactor of a21 Cofactor of a22

C21 = (−1) 2+1M
21 = −M21 C22 = (−1)2+2M22 = M22
The minors and cofactors of a matrix can differ only in sign. To obtain the cofactors of a matrix,
first find the minors and then apply the checkerboard pattern of +’s and −’s shown at the left.
Note that odd positions (where i + j is odd) have negative signs, and even positions (where i + j is
even) have positive signs.

Sign Pattern for Cofactors Minors and Cofactors of a Matrix

[ ]
+ − +
Find all the minors and cofactors of
− + −

[ ]
+ − + 0 2 1
A= 3 −1 2 .
3 × 3 matrix
4 0 1

[ ]
+ − + −
− + − +
+ − + −
− + − +
4 × 4 matrix

[ ]
+ − + − + . . .
− + − + − . . .
+ − + − + . . .
− + − + − . . .
+ − + − + . . .
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
n × n matrix

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 THE DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX
The definition below is inductive because it uses the determinant of a square matrix of
REMARK
order n − 1 to define the determinant of a square matrix of order n.
The determinant of a matrix
of order 1 is simply the entry
of the matrix. For example, if Definition of the Determinant of a Square Matrix
A = [−2], then
If A is a square matrix of order n ≥ 2, then the determinant of A is the sum of
det(A) = −2. the entries in the first row of A multiplied by their respective cofactors. That is,
n
det(A) = A = ∣ ∣ j=1
∑ a1jC1j = a11C11 + a12C12 + . . . + a1nC1n.

Confirm that, for 2 × 2 matrices, this definition yields

∣A∣ = a11a22 − a21a12

as previously defined.
When you use this definition to evaluate a determinant, you are expanding by
cofactors in the first row. Example 3 demonstrates this procedure.

The Determinant of a Matrix of Order 3

Find the determinant of

[ ]
0 2 1
A= 3 −1 2 .
4 0 1

Although the determinant is defined as an expansion by the cofactors in the first row, it can be shown that the
determinant can be evaluated by expanding in any row or column. For instance, you could expand the matrix in
Example 3 in the second row to obtain

∣A∣ = a21C21 + a22C22 + a23C23 Second row expansion

= 3(−2) + (−1)(−4) + 2(8)
= 14
or in the first column to obtain

∣A∣ = a11C11 + a21C21 + a31C31 First column expansion

= 0(−1) + 3(−2) + 4(5)
= 14.
Try other possibilities to confirm that the determinant of A can be evaluated by expanding in any row
or column. The theorem on the next page states this, and is known as Laplace’s Expansion of a Determinant,
after the French mathematician Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749–1827).

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 THEOREM Expansion by Cofactors
Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then the determinant of A is
n
det(A) = A = ∣ ∣ j=1
∑ aijCij = ai1Ci1 + ai2Ci2 + . . . + ainCin ith row
expansion

or
n jth column
det(A) = A = ∣ ∣ i=1
∑ aijCij = a1jC1j + a2jC2j + . . . + anjCnj.
expansion

When expanding by cofactors, you do not need to find cofactors of zero entries, because zero times
its cofactor is zero.
aijCij = (0)Cij
=0
The row (or column) containing the most zeros is usually the best choice for expansion by cofactors. The
next example demonstrates this.

The Determinant of a Matrix of Order 4

Find the determinant of

[ ]
1 −2 3 0
−1 1 0 2
A= .
0 2 0 3
3 4 0 −2

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 An alternative method is commonly used to evaluate the determinant of a 3 × 3
matrix A. To apply this method, copy the first and second columns of A to form fourth
and fifth columns. Then obtain the determinant of A by adding (or subtracting) the
products of the six diagonals, as shown in the diagram below.

Subtract these three products.

a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
a21 a22 a23 a21 a22
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32

Add these three products.

Confirm that the determinant of A is

∣A∣ = a11a22a33 + a12a23a31 + a13a21a32 − a31a22a13 − a32a23a11 − a33a21a12.

The Determinant of a Matrix of Order 3 .

Find the determinant of

[ ]
0 2 1
A= 3 −1 2 .
4 −4 1

The diagonal process illustrated in Example 5 is valid only for matrices of order 3.
For matrices of higher order, you must use another method.

Recall that a tetrahedron is a polyhedron consisting of four

LINEAR triangular faces. One practical application of determinants is
ALGEBRA in finding the volume of a tetrahedron in a coordinate plane.
APPLIED If the vertices of a tetrahedron are (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2),
(x3, y3, z3), and (x4, y4, z4), then the volume is

[ ]
x1 y1 z1 1
1 x2 y2 z2 1
Volume = ± 6 det .
x3 y3 z3 1
x4 y4 z4 1
You will study this and other applications of determinants
in Section 3.4.
magnetix/Shutterstock.com

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 TRIANGULAR MATRICES
Upper Triangular Matrix Recall that a square matrix is upper triangular when it has all zero entries below its

[ ]
main diagonal, and lower triangular when it has all zero entries above its main
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
diagonal, as shown in the diagram at the left. A matrix that is both upper and lower
0 a22 a23 . . . a2n triangular is a diagonal matrix. That is, a diagonal matrix is one in which all
0 0 a33 . . . a3n entries above and below the main diagonal are zero.
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ To find the determinant of a triangular matrix, simply form the product of the
0 0 0 . . . ann entries on the main diagonal. It should be easy to see that this procedure is valid for
triangular matrices of order 2 or 3. For example, to find the determinant of
Lower Triangular Matrix

[ ]
2 3 −1

[ ]
a11 0 0 . . . 0
A= 0 −1 2
a21 a22 0 . . . 0
0 0 3
a31 a32 a33 . . . 0
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ expand in the third row to obtain
an1 an2 an3 . . . ann
∣A∣ = 0(−1)3+1 −1
= 3(1)(−2)
∣ 3 −1
2 ∣
+ 0(−1)3+2
2
0 ∣ ∣ −1
2
+ 3(−1)3+3
2
0 ∣ ∣ 3
−1

= −6
which is the product of the entries on the main diagonal.

THEOREM Determinant of a Triangular Matrix

If A is a triangular matrix of order n, then its determinant is the product of the
entries on the main diagonal. That is,

∣∣
det(A) = A = a11a22a33 . . . ann.

PROOF
Use mathematical induction* to prove this theorem for the case in which A is an upper
triangular matrix. The proof of the case in which A is lower triangular is similar. If A
has order 1, then A = [a11] and the determinant is A = a11. Assuming the theorem ∣∣
is true for any upper triangular matrix of order k − 1, consider an upper triangular
matrix A of order k. Expanding in the kth row, you obtain

∣A∣ = 0Ck1 + 0Ck2 + . . . + 0Ck(k−1) + akkCkk = akkCkk.

Now, note that Ckk = (−1)2kMkk = Mkk, where Mkk is the determinant of the upper
triangular matrix formed by deleting the kth row and kth column of A. This matrix is of
order k − 1, so apply the induction assumption to write

∣A∣ = akkMkk = akk(a11a22a33 . . . ak−1, k−1) = a11a22a33 . . . akk.

The Determinant of a Triangular Matrix

The determinant of the lower triangular matrix

[ ]
2 0 0 0
4 −2 0 0
A=
−5 6 1 0
1 5 3 3

∣∣
is A = (2)(−2)(1)(3) = −12.

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