Wind Power Generator The wind turbine captures the wind’s kinetic energyin a rotor consisting of two or more

blades
 The rotor is mechanically coupled to an electrical generator. The turbine is mounted on a tall tower to enhance the
energy capture. Numerous wind turbines are installed at one site to build a wind farm of the desired power generation
capacity.  Sites with steady high wind produce more energy over the year.
Wind Power: The wind energy technology is rapidly growing globally.  The cumulative installed wind capacity has
increased from 6.1 GW in 1996 to 423.4GW in 2015 which indicates the great progress in wind energy system technology
Size of Wind Turbines The production capacity of wind turbine is proportional to the turbine size
(height of turbine and rotor diameter) 1980: 50 kW (Diameter = 15 m, height = 24 m) 2012: 10 MW (Diameter = 145
m, height = 168 m) 2020: Expected 20 MW
Wind Turbine Application:  Wind turbines can be installed in wind farms on the land or on the sea.A wind farm
installed on land is called an onshore wind farmwhile a wind farm installed on the sea is called an offshore wind farm.
Onshore wind farm is categorized by low cost, easy maintenance, and is easy to connect to grid compared to offshore
Wind Turbine Technology: Classification according to the type of axis installation: 1. Horizontal Axis: the axis of rotation
of rotor is parallel with ground 2. Vertical Axis: the axis of rotation of rotor is perpendicular to ground  Horizontal axis
turbine is the most famous shape used in wind farms
Advantages/Disadvantage: Horizontal axis wind turbines: Advantages:better efficiency, maximum utilization of wind
speed dueto its heightgood power regulation. Disadvantages:high cost: Prices ofwind turbines, cablesfor power to
the grid.Vertical axis wind turbines: Advantages:Low cost, Easy maintenanceOperation is independent of wind
direction. Disadvantages:Low efficiencyHigh torque fluctuationLow power regulation
Classification According to the Operating Speed of the Turbines: 1. Fixed Speed Wind Turbines:deliver rated power
only at a limited range equal to 1% rated wind speed any change in wind speed will cause fluctuation in its output power
2. Variable Speed Wind Turbines:Operate at a wide range of wind speed with maximum power conversion efficiency
1. Fixed Speed Wind Turbines  Squirrel cage induction generators (SCIGs) can be considered the only suitable
generators for this type of turbine.  Absorbs high amount of reactive power, capacitor bank is needed as reactive power
compensation  Advantages:Low costSimple constructionEasy maintenance Disadvantages:Power fluctuation
High mechanical stressLower conversion efficiency
2. Variable Speed Wind Turbines: In VSWTs, the rotor speed of IGs is always adjusted to keep the power at its rated
value even with high changes in wind speed Adjusting the rotor speed can be achieved by controlling the rotor current
and hence control the torque-speed characteristic Rotor current control can be accomplished by means of a power
converter system. Advantages: High efficiency Variable Speed Wind Turbines Good power quality Lower
mechanical stress Disadvantages: Complicity of construction High costVariable Speed Wind Turbines According to
the degree of the converter system used,
VSWTs are divided into three divisions:1. Wound rotor induction generator (WRIG) with variable speed resistance
2. Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) with rotor converter 3. Variable speed wind turbines with full power converter

WRIG with Variable Speed Resistance: WRIGs are the exclusive type for this kind of wind turbine. The power
converter is used to adjust the rotor resistance and hence control the rotor current and the torque-speed characteristics
 Connected to the grid through a two-winding transformer. Ability to adjust the rotor speed in a range up to 10%
above syn. Speed  No connection between rotor and the grid
Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) with Rotor ConverterConnection between the rotor and the interconnected
grid The wind turbine is connected to the grid through a three-winding transformer,  The stator is connected to the
grid through a two-winding transformer and the third winding is used to connect the rotor to the grid through an
AC/DC/AC converter.  A control system is used to control AC/DC/AC converters.  Improves the power quality
Variable Speed Wind Turbines with Full Power Converter  Can be used with SCIG, DFIG, and synchronous
generation No connection between the generator and the grid Provides better power quality, because the output power
is transferred to the grid through full power converter system
Wind Turbine Components basic components:  Each turbine is made of the following basic components: Tower
structure Rotor with two or three blades attached to the hub Shaft with mechanicalgear Electrical generator Yaw
mechanism, such as the tail vane Sensors and control
 Rotor: consists of two parts, hub and blade(s).Hub is in the front of turbine connecting the Wind Turbine Components
blade(s) to the other parts. Blade(s) convert the kinetic energy of wind into rotating motion
Wind Turbine Components Pitch and ControllerGear BoxThe Brake SystemWind Turbine ComponentsWind
Turbine GeneratorAnemometers and Wind VanesYaw SystemTower
Pitch and Controller: Pitch is the moving portion of the blade and its function is very similar to the same portion of the
plane wings. The pitch and controller can increase, decrease, or even stop the wind turbine
 Gear Box:  Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the turbine speedfrom 30 to 60 rpm
to the 1200to 1800 rpm required by most generators to produce electricity in an efficient manner.
Wind turbine generator:  Synchronous Generators and Induction generators are used in as wind
turbines Induction Generators (IG):Squirrel Cage (SC) IGWound Rotor (WR) IGWRIG used
as Doubly-Feed IG Synchronous Generators (SG):Wound Rotor (WR) SGPermanent Magnet (PM) SG
Anemometers and wind vanes:  Anemometers and wind vanes are used to measure the speed and direction of the
wind, respectively.  The output data is transferred to the aerodynamic control system and the yaw system that are
controlling the speed and direction of the wind turbine according to wind condition.
Yaw system: The function of the yaw system is providing flexibility to wind turbinesto keep the wind perpendicular to
the turbine blades as much as possible.
Tower: carries the nacelle that represents the house of previously mentioned components and installing it in the ground.
The output power of the wind turbine is proportional to thetower height (hub height)The wind speed increases with
increase in height from the earth’s surface

Wind Turbine Power Characteristic Curve  Output power of the wind turbine: Proportional
to :1. Wind speed 2. Rotor diameter 3. Power coefficient
Modes of operation of WT:1. Parking mode 2. Operating mode
Operating mode has two regions: 1. Generator control region 2. Stall or pitch angle control
region (aerodynamic control): a. Stall control b. Pitch angle control
Stall Control:Stall phenomena is used to save the wind turbine from damage With high
wind speed, uniform distribution will disappear, causing turbulence on the above surface of the blade The turbulence
decreases the torqueing force of the blade and decreases the speed of rotor By good design of turbine blade, stall
phenomenon is used to keep the safety of the wind turbine during extreme wind speed.
There are two types of stall control: 1. Passive stall control 2. Active stall control Passive stall control: The blades
are fixed to the hub and β is fixed at its rated value. The blade is design in such a way that guarantees two functions 1.
The blade can extract the maximum power at rated wind speed as much as possible 2. The stall can occur only at high
wind speed to prevent the turbine from damage.
Active Stall Control: In active stall control, the blades are not fixed and β can be changed or controlled The stall
phenomenon will be generated by increasing β in the way that the blades will be turned into the wind.
Pitch angle control is same as active stall control except that the blades’ movement is not into the wind but out of wind
When wind speed exceeds the rated value, β is decreased to decrease pressure on lower surface of the blade which
decrease torque force.
Mathematical Modeling of Wind Turbine Generators: In wind turbines, the mechanical power is converted by electric
machine to electricity There are three types of electric machines: DC machines Synchronous machines Induction
machines In wind turbines, induction generators are dominantly used, however, synchronous generators are also used.
Induction generators: are widely used in small and large wind forms and small/micro hydro power plants, because
Induction machine has rugged brushless construction that does not need a separate DC field power It has low capital
cost, low maintenance and better transient performance Induction machines are available in numerous power ratings up
to several megawatts capacity. Same as other electric machines, induction machine consists of two parts, SATATOR (Is
the stationary part) and ROTOR (Is the rotating element and is of two types: a-Squirrel cage or cage rotor, b-Wound rotor)

which speed is called synchronous speed given by equation: 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 = 120𝑓𝑒 /p  The rotating magnetic field induces
Working Principle of Induction Machine: The 3-phase set of winding on the stator produces rotating magnetic field

voltage in rotor conductors which produces current in the conductors  The current in the rotor conductors produces
magnetic field, which results in rotation of roto.

the stator flux ϕ  By Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: 𝑒 = − 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑡  If the induction machine’s rotor were
The relative speed between the rotating field and the rotor induces the voltage in each loop of the rotor conductors linking

running at synchronous speed, then the rotor bars would be stationary relative to the magnetic field and there would be no
induce voltage  If the induced voltage is zero, then there would be no rotor current and no magnetic field.
 This voltage in turn sets up the circulating current in the rotor. The electromagnetic interaction of the rotor current and
stator flux produces the torque. The magnitude of this torque is given by the following: where k = constant of

by which the rotor current lags the rotor voltage: 𝑇 = 𝑘Φ𝐼2 cos𝜙2
proportionality Φ = magnitude of the stator flux wave I2= magnitude of induced current in the rotor loops ϕ2= phase angle
Induction Motor The concept of Rotor Slip  The voltage induced in a rotor bar of an induction motor depends on the

rotor and the magnetic fields 1. Slip speed, defined as: (𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 – 𝑛𝑚) nslip: slip speed of machine nsync:
speed of the rotor relative to the magnetic fields  Two terms are commonly used to define the relative motion of the

speed of the magnetic fields nm : mechanical shaft speed of motor

Induction Generator Advantages of the induction machine are:  rugged brushless construction  does not need a
separate DC field power  The disadvantages of both the DC machine and the synchronous machine are eliminated in the
induction machine  Low capital cost  Low maintenance  Better transient performance
 For these reasons:  Extensively used in small and large wind farms and small hydroelectric power plants  The
machine is available in numerous power ratings up to several megawatts capacity, and even larger.  For economy and
reliability, many wind power systems use induction machines as electrical generators
Induction Generator or Asynchronous Generator Grid and Stand-Alone Connections:  In induction generators, the
magnetizing flux is established by a capacitor bank connected to the machine in stand-alone system  For stand-alone
system, frequency and voltage are complex functions of machine parameters, capacitance used for excitation, and load
value and type  In grid connection it draws a magnetizing current from the grid  For a grid-connected system,
frequency and voltage at the machine will be dictated by electric grid  Induction generators are often used in wind
turbines and some micro-hydroinstallations due to their ability to produce useful power at varying rotor speeds  They are
mechanically and electrically simple than other generator types  They are more rugged and require no brushes or
commutators
Squirrel Cage Induction Generator in a WEGS  Wind turbines based on SCIGs are classified as self-exited fixed
speed wind turbines.  Only the stator of a SCIG is connected to the grid through a two-winding transformer  A
capacitor bank is used for the self-excitation process.  A static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) is connected at
the piont of common connection (PCC) between the wind turbine and the interconnected grid
Principle Operation of STATCOM  STATCOM is connected in parallel with a transmission line through a coupling
transformer that is called a shunt device.  STATCOM consists of a DC bus and voltage source converter (VSC). VSC
uses power electronic devices to synchronize the DC voltage with the grid voltage.  STATCOM injects or absorbs
reactive power to regulate the voltage at PCC (VPCC).  If the VPCC is lower than its rated value, SATCOM will inject
reactive power to the grid to regulate the voltage  but if the VPCC is higher than its rated value, SATCOM will absorb
reactive power from the grid to keep the voltage at its rated value.
DFIGs in a WEGS  Wind turbines based on DFIG can be classified as variable speed wound rotor wind turbines. 
The rotor is wound rotor type, voltage and current of the rotor of DFIG play an important role in the control system and
hence in the stability of the wind farm.  The power is delivered to the interconnected grid from the stator and rotor.
Synchronous Generator Wind Turbine  The most application of synchronous generator wind turbine (SGWT) is
standalone wind energy system and home applications.  The types of SGWT are divided into two types according to
the type of the excitation field  Permanent magnet excitation  External field excitation  In the external field
excitation type, the rotor of SG is a wound rotor, which is connected to the DC supply through brushes so that this type is
known as a WRSG  In permanent magnet excitation, the magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet so that this
type is known as PMSG.

Photovoltaic (PV) Technology PV power has been the fastest growing renewable energy technology (50 MW in 1990
to 177GW in 2014 [IEA]) Researches are focusing on: Material sciences for doping semiconductor materials for higher
efficiency Inverter technology for efficient conversion of DC to AC Integration technologies on potential issues with
interconnection to utility grid systems Battery technology for energy storage systems for large-scale PV systems
Promoting policies on PV systems by governments.
PV convert sun light into DC electrical power The building block of PV system is PV cell:  Made of semiconductor
Convert sun light into electricity by Photovoltaic effect Similar to diode p-n junction  Photovoltaic effect is a process
with PV cells that uses solar light photons to strike on the doped semiconductor silicon to produce electricity
PV Generator: PV cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages, currents
and power levels  PV modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, and are the
fundamental building blocks of PV systems.  PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a prewired,
field-installable unit.  A PV array is the complete powergenerating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and
panels.
PV Technologies 1-PV Technologies 1- Crystalline a- Monocrystalline (Made of a crystal of single silicon 15%-20%)
b- Multicrystalline (Made of a crystal of single silicon Made of multi crystals of silicon Conversion Efficiency
Conversion Efficiency 10%-14%) 2- Thin film Made with microscopically thin deposit of semiconductor/ silicon on a
sheet of metal, glass or plastic Conversion Efficiency 5%-8%) a- Amorphous silicon (a-Si), Energy conversion 5%-9%
b- Cadmium telluride (CdTe) 7% c- Copper indium diselenide (CIS or CuInSe2) 17%
The Principles of Photovoltaics A solar module has a number of layers in the process of manufacturing. 1.
Protection layer: Usually made from glass. Thin film modules are made of transparent plastic. 2. Front contact: The
electric contact at the front has to be transparent to allow light into the cell. 3. Absorption material: Silicon is used as the
single layer in most of the module, where the light is absorbed and converted into electric current. 4. Metal back contact:
A conducting material at the back completes the electric circuitry. 5. Laminate film: A laminate ensures that the structure
is waterproof and insulated from heat. 6. Back glass: This layer made of glass, aluminum, or plastic gives protection on
the back side of the module. 7. Connectors: Finally, the module is fitted and wired with connectors and cables.
Characteristic of PV Cell  The actual circuit model includes a series resistor RS and a shunt resistor RSH which would
provide the actual I-V characteristic of the solar PV  The series resistance, RS represents the ohmic loss in the front
surface of the cell  The shunt resistance, RSH represents the loss due to diode leakage currents to account for the power
dissipation in the internal resistance of the PV cells
Fill Factor (FF)  FF is essentially a measure of the quality of the solar cell.  It is calculated by comparing the
maximum power to the theoretical power (PT ) that would be output at both the open circuit voltage and short circuit
current together.  A larger FF is desirable and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more square-like.  Typical FFs
range from 0.50 to 0.82.  FF is also often represented as a percentage.
Efficiency (η)  The conversion efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output, Pout, compared to the solar power
input, Pin, into the PV cell.  Pout can be taken to be PMAX because the solar cell can be operated up to its maximum
power output to get the maximum efficiency.
Shunt Resistance (RSH) and Series Resistance (RS )  Decreasing RSH and increasing RS will decrease the FF and
PMAX  If RSH is decreased too much, VOC will drop  Increasing RS excessively can cause ISC to drop.
Classification: The PV system is classified into two major groups: 1. Stand-alone solar power system with and without
battery back up 2. Grid-connected AC solar power system
Componenets: Grid-connected PV systems typically have the following basic components: Solar PV modules Array
mounting racks and supporting structure Grounding equipment Combiner box Surge protection equipment Inverter
to convert DC to AC Meters to measure system power and energy Disconnects: Array disconnect Inverter DC
disconnect Inverter AC disconnect Exterior AC disconnect
A grid-connected battery support system also includes the following components: Battery bank with cabling Charge
controller Battery disconnect
Inverter: Converting the DC power from the panel or from the battery to AC power to the grid or to the AC load
Ensuring the required frequency Reducing the voltage fluctuations Ensuring the voltage wave shape suitable to utility
sinewave Inverter design should be with reference to standards to match the utility system in terms of power quality, AC
power output, and input voltage Higher efficiency (up to 92%), maximum power tracking (MPPT), and integral safety
disconnects. For battery-based systems, should have factory integrated charge controllers

Fuel Cell (A fuel cell (FC) is an electrochemical device that works by reverse electrolysis operation  Produces
electricity by the reaction of oxygen (air) and hydrogen (fuel).  A FC converts the chemical energy of a fuel directly into
electrical energy.  The output is DC, it needs inverters so as to convert DC output to AC
*A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to create electricity by an electrochemical
process.  A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two thin electrodes (anode and cathode) 
Hydrogen, or a hydrogen-rich fuel, is fed to the anode where a catalyst separates hydrogen's negatively charged electrons
from positively charged ions (protons)  At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and protons (positive hydrogen
ions) and form water while releasing heat.
*The electrons from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the membrane to the positively charged cathode; they
must travel around it via an electrical circuit to reach the other side of the cell. This movement of electrons is an electrical
current.  The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends upon several factors, such as fuel cell type, cell size, the
temperature at which it operates, and the pressure at which the gases are supplied to the cell
*A single FC is able to produce just less than one volt of electrical potential  To reach higher voltages, FCs are stacked
on top of each other and connected in series  Cell stacks consist of repeating FC units, each comprised of an anode,
cathode, electrolyte, and a bipolar separator plate.
Uses of FCs in communication networks and also portable applications have been increasing  With the increasing
production of FCs, their price has plummeted.  The Figure illustrates the price reduction of an 80 KW PEMFC based on
high-volume manufacturing per year from 2002 to 2017
Battery vs. Fuel Cell Battery Fuel Cell Generate power electrochemically, Generate power electrochemically, Electrodes
are the working materials, Gasses are the working materials, Electrodes get consumed, Electrodes do not get consumed
Limited operation, Continue to operate as long as fuel gas is supplied, Storage device, Conversion device
Fuel Cell Types: Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This determines the kind of
chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell
operates, the fuel required, and other factors.
 Division of FCs based on the type of electrolyte  PEMFC: proton exchange membrane fuel cell  AFC: alkaline fuel
cell  PAFC: phosphoric acid fuel cell  MCFC: molten carbonate fuel cell  SOFC: solid oxide fuel cell
 Division of FCs based on types of fuel and oxidant  Hydrogen (pure) – Oxygen (pure) fuel cell  Hydrogen rich gas
– air fuel cell  Ammonia – air fuel cell  Synthesis gas – air fuel cell  Hydro carbon (gas) – air fuel cell
 Division of FCs based on operating temperature  High operating temperature FC  Low operating temperature FC
PEMFC Hydrogen is the main fuel of the PEMFC, but other fuels such as methanol, biomass, or the others can be
injected with an external reformer that refines fuel and delivers pure hydrogen to the PEMFC.  The electrolyte in this FC
is a solid polymeric membrane placed between two platinum-catalyzed porous electrodes.  PEMFCs typically operate at
about 40–80°C, a temperature determined by both the thermal stability and the ionic conductivity characteristics of the
polymeric membrane.  To get sufficient ionic conductivity, the proton-conducting polymer electrolyte requires water
AFC: One of the first-developed types of FCs.  Air and space and the military are the main areas that use AFCs.  AFC
can produce both power electricity and drinking water for space crews and astronauts.  These fuel cells use a solution of
potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of nonprecious metals as a catalyst at the anode and
cathode. High-temperature AFCs operate at temperatures between 100ºC and 250ºC (212ºF and 482ºF).  More-recent
AFC designs operate at lower temperatures of roughly 23ºC to 70ºC (74ºF to 158ºF).  The charge carrier in AFC is OH–
 Like other low-temperature FCs, AFC works with hydrogen and oxygen  CO and CO2 poison AFCs and reduce
considerably the efficiency of an AFC, so it needs external reformer to provide pure hydrogen
PAFC is the first type of FC that has been commercialized  Commercially available in hotels, houses, hospitals, and
some power stations in a range from 50 kW to 11 MW  The electrolyte in this FC immobilizes liquid phosphoric acid in
SiC (Silicon carbide)  The operating temperature is near to 220°C  It can work under higher temperature.  Similar to
PEMFC, electrodes and catalysts of both models are carbon and platinum, respectively. In addition, the charge carrier in a
PAFC is H+ , exactly like a PEMFC.  Like other low-temperature FCs, the PAFC works with hydrogen and oxygen, it
does not have a problem with CO2 and can tolerate
MCFC: Has a wide range of stationary scale and outdoor uses  Due to high operating temperature, nickel and nickel
oxide are applied in anode and cathode, respectively.  It needs no expensive materials like a PAFC or a PEMFC.  With
a 600–700°C operating temperature, is categorized as a high-temperature FC.  Heat is a by-product of a MCFC that has
myriad uses in industry.  As opposed to low temperature FCs, MCFC has an internal reformer instead of an external
reformer to use more hydrocarbons as fuel MCFC can work with some hydrocarbons such as CO or CH4 as well as H2 .
 Hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be injected directly to a MCFC while methane needs reformer.  The charge
carrier is CO̿3  The electrolyte of this FC is immobilized liquid molten carbonate in LiAlO2 .  CO2 is needed in the
cathode reactions to stabilize the concentration of carbonate in the electrolyte
SOFC is more similar to the MCFC. But, it has a higher operating temperature and can apply more hydrocarbons as fuel.
 From sub MW to 100 MW, SOFCs have been commercialized.  Commonly used in power plants and hybridized with
a gas turbine.  Due to the high operating temperature, Co-ZrO2 (cobaltzirconium dioxide) or Ni-ZrO2 (nickel-zirconium
dioxide) cermet and Sr-doped LaMnO3 (Lanthanum manganite) are applied in anode and cathode, respectively.  The
SOFC, with 600–1000°C operating temperature, has the highest operating temperature among all kinds of FCs.  Like
other high-temperature FCs, the SOFC is convenient for power plants and DGs.  The electrolyte of this FC is nonporous
metal oxide (ceramic)
SOFC (like MCFC) works with some hydrocarbons, has an internal reformer, and does not need an external reformer 
The charge carrier in this type of FC is O̿  The electrolyte of this FC is nonporous metal oxide (ceramic)  H2 , CO
without reformer, and CH4 with reformer are injected to the SOFC
Hydrogen Production: 1- Oil or Gas==Reformer==hydrogen bottle, 2- Solar panel==Electrolyzer==hydrogen bottle
Advantages of FCs  Environmental pollution of FCs is near zero  For the remote telecommunication stations. Diesel
generators need maintenance  Variety of fuel supplies and approaches to extract fuels that are appropriate for FCs. Fuel
from coal, oil, natural gas, an electrolyzer, etc.  Efficiency of FCs is reasonable and when they are used as CHP can even
reach to around 80% efficiency  Hydrogen can be generated with the electrolyzer in any place, so it has a good
decentralized potential to provide the fuel.  Operating time and endurance of FCs are much longer and better than
conventional or even advanced batteries  Installation and operation of FCs are cost-effective  They can combine heat
and power to increase efficiency, especially in hightemperature FCs.
Disadvantages of FCs  If a FC uses a fuel excluding hydrogen, the efficiency of the FC will be reduced because of
electrolyte decomposition and catalyst poisoning.  Fuel reforming technology is expensive.  FCs have noble materials
to tolerate corrosion, poisoning, and so on, while they must have good conductivity traits. So, they are pricy and it is very
difficult to find alternative materials for them.  Output of FCs is DC, so FC systems need inverters to convert DC to AC.
But, inverters inject harmonics to the system. So, to overcome this problem, filters (usually low-pass filters) or power
factor correction capacitors are applied. However, these power electronic devices make FC units more expensive.  FCs
need cutting edge and costly technologies to integrate into a network precisely and efficiently.  Fuel storage of FCs is
still critical as they need advanced storage
Block Diagram:

Hydropower system is a practical method for generating electrical energy In hydroelectric unit, the movement of water
results in power production by driving a hydro turbine Hydroelectric power plants make 16 % of the world’s power
production Hydro plants can be classified in different categories based on their power generation capacity: Large hydro
(more than 1000 kW) Small hydro (500 to 1000 kW) Mini hydro (100 to 500 kW) Micro hydro (less than 100 kW)
Large HPPs: Need large dams Generate large quantities of electrical energy and Can be usually feed into large
electrical network Small HPPs: Suitable for DG Eliminates cost of transmission line and power loss Increment of
network stability Reduces peak load Less influence on environment and no gas emissions Suitable option for energy
production in developing countries
Small HPP site can be selected on Canals Dams created for irrigation purposes Running rivers
Generation Basics of Hydroelectric Energy SystemsImpoundment: A large hydro power system in which river water
is store in a reservoir by utilization of a dam. Electricity generation is accomplished by using water stored in the reservoir.
Run-of-river: This hydro power system has few requirements or no impoundment, and utilizes the water flow for
electricity generation
Most of SHPs are run-of-river with no or limited requirement to dam or store water Two general components of runof-
river SHPs are: Civil works Electromechanical equipment
The civil works include: Diversion weir and intake Desilting chamber Head race channel Forebay Penstock
Powerhouse building Tail race channel
 Electromechanical equipment: Turbines with a governing system Generators with excitation systems Switchgear
Control Protection equipment Electrical and mechanical auxiliaries Main transformers and switchyard equipment
Components of a SHPs scheme: Fundamental components include Penstock Power house Tailrace Generating plant
Allied equipment
Based on the head, run-ofriver SHPs are classified in three types: Low head (3 – 20 m) Medium head (20 – 60 m)
High head (greater than 60 m
Dam: A dam is utilized for holding back water, which is a large water reservoir. It is usually constructed across a river or
a channel for utilizing as water storage.
Penstock:A cavity or pipeline with a large diameter, in which conduction water is done by opening the gates on the dams
Turbine: The blades of turbines are stroked by a high-pressure conduction of water, which turns the turbine. The turbine
is attached to an electrical generator by a shaft. Two general types of turbines are: Impulse turbines Reaction turbines
Tailrace:After working of high pressure water on the turbine, a channel carries water away from the turbine and the water
re-enters to the river downstream, which is called tailrace. The water surface in the tail-race is also referred to as tailrace.
Generator: By turning the blades of the turbine, the rotor inside the generator is turned. As a result, electric current is
produced by rotating magnets inside the fixed-coil generator
Hydroelectric Power Calculation The basic operation of SHPs is the conversion of water pressure to mechanical

head Volume flow rate The gross hydraulic power and energy can be calculated as: 𝑃0 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 𝐸0 =
power The mechanical power drives an electrical generator Essential components of generated power are: Pressure

𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻∆𝑡
P0 (kW) = gross hydraulic power E0 (kW h) = gross hydraulic energy over the time interval Δt (h) H(m) = pressure head

Efficiency is the ratio of useful work performed in a process to the total energy expended 𝜂 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑢𝑡/𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Q(kg/sec3 ) = volume flow rate ρ(kg/m3 ) = water density g(m/s2 ) = acceleration due to gravity

in
The hydraulic power and the corresponding energy will be (𝑃 = 𝜂𝑃0) (𝐸 = 𝜂𝐸0)
Modern turbines have an energy conversion efficiency of 90% and for micro-hydro is in a range of 60% - 80%
Turbine The turbine operation convert the water pressure to mechanical energy Two main kind of hydro turbines are:
Impulse turbines Reaction turbines Head and flow rate at a specific site determine the kind of turbine Efficiency and
cost are two other effective factors in turbine selection
Impulse turbines Utilize the momentum of flowing water for obtaining energy The kinetic energy of water drives the
runner of Imp. Turb. The runner operates in air and moved by a jet of water Application is in sites with high head and
low flow rate Three common types of impulse turbines Pelton Cross-flow Turgo
Pelton Turbine Includes a wheel with a series of split buckets set around its rim High pressure jet of water is directed
tangentially at the wheel which hits each bucket and is split in half
Cross-Flow Turbine Consists of a drum-like rotor, which includes a solid disk at each end The two disks are joined
with gutter-shaped slats A jet of water enters the top of the rotor through curved blades For sites with head of 5-200 m
Efficiency is low
Turgo Turbine Similar to Pelton which differs in shape of buckets and design Strikes the plane of the runner at a
typical angle 20, resulting in entrance of water on one side and exit from other side Operates with large water heads,
which ensures high efficiency
Reaction Turbines Generate electrical energy by using the mutual action of pressure and moving water The rotor is
completely filled in the water and is enclosed in a pressure casing The water is discharge through the draft tube
Applied in sites with lower heads and higher flow rates Two main kinds of reaction turbines are: Propeller turbines
Francis turbines.
Propeller Turbine Has an axial flow runner with three to six blades on the water head Applied in low water heads
Types of propeller turbines are: bulb, Kaplan, Straflo, and tube Kaplan turbines are mostly used in sites with low
pressure head and large flow rate
Francis Turbine  The most well-known type of reaction turbines  Has a radial flow runner or a mixed/axial flow
runner  Wicket gates and draft tube are two other main elements  Suitable for medium head size
Design of Small Hydro Power Systems Evaluation of the pressure head and flow are the primary steps in designing
SHPs Calculation of head and flow rate determines the turbine category, size of the system pipeline, size of the
generator and other components
Head measurement The difference in the height of the intake of the pipeline and the turbine results in existence of
water pressure, defined as HEAD An automatic calculation of height and distance can be obtained by modern electronic
digital levels. GPS can be also used for head measurement.
Head measurement  Net head can be determined from gross head by subtracting losses such as losses of open channel,
trash rack, inlet of the penstock, friction of the penstock, and gate or valve
Flow measurement Volume of water per second or minute is defined as flow rate Measurement of flow rates of water
at various times of the year is necessary Three concepts are involved in water flow measurement: Container Float
weir
Container fill method: • Works for only very small systems • Build a temporary dam that forces all the water to flow
through a single outlet pipe • Using a bucket or larger container of a known volume • Using a stopwatch to time how long
it takes to the container (Container = 5 gallon Time to fill = 8 second 5 gallons/8 seconds = 0.625 gallons per second (gps
Measuring with a float:  Step 1: Measure the average depth of the stream  6 ft wide, average depth 1.5ft  Step 2:
Compute the area of the cross section you just measured Cross section area = 9 ft2  Step 3: Measure the speed 10ft/5sec
= 2 ft/sec (2ft/sec) (60) = 120 ft/min Flow = (120 ft/min)(9ft2 ) = 1080 cubic ft per minute Step 4: correct for friction The
stream bed creates friction against the moving water, the bottom of the stream tends to move a little slower than the top.
This means actual flow is a little less than what we computed. By multiplying our result by 0.83, we get a closer
approximation of actual flow.
Switchgear:The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and equipment is known as
switchgear. • Switchgear can include circuit breaker, current transformers, potential transformers, protective relays,
measuring instruments, switches, fuses, MCBs, surge arrestors, isolators, and various associated types of equipment.