DOHA MODERN INDIAN SCHOOL
GRADE 12 PHYSICS
Alternating Current
Important Concepts
Alternating Current
The current which changes its magnitude continuously and direction
periodically is called alternating current. It can be represented as 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡.
Alternating voltage can be represented as 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. Where ′𝑖𝑚 ′ is called
peak value of current ,‘ 𝑖’ is called the instantaneous value of current and ′𝜔′ is
called the angular frequency of a.c.
Advantages and Disadvantages of AC over DC:
Advantages:
• Generation, transmission and distribution of AC is more economical than that of
DC
• The alternating voltage can be stepped up or stepped down easily.
• AC can easily converted in to DC
Disadvantages:
• AC can be more dangerous than DC maximum value of AC is √2 times more
than the effective value.
• AC cannot be used in electrolysis process.
R.M.S value of current ( 𝒊𝒓𝒎𝒔 )
Root mean square value of a.c is defined as the value of steady current,
which would generate the same amount of heat in a given resistance in a given time,
as is done by a.c, when passed through the same resistance for the same time. It is
also called effective value of a.c or virtual value of a.c.
2
𝑖 +𝑖 …+𝑖 2 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ 1 2 𝑛
𝑛
𝑖𝑚
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707 𝑖𝑚
√2
1
𝑨. 𝑪 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒔
1. Pure Resistive A.C circuit
Let an a.c source of e.m.f 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 is connected to a resistor ‘R’. As per ohm’s
𝑉 𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
law, i = = 𝑚 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑚
Where, 𝑖𝑚 = is called the peak value of alternating current. From the equations of
𝑅
voltage and current it is clear that the voltage and current are in phase with each other.
The wave diagram and phasor diagram of the pure resistive circuit are shown in the
figure.
Average Power dissipated across a resistor
The instantaneous power dissipated in resistor is given by 𝑝= 𝑖 2 R= 𝑖𝑚
2
𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 . So
2
the average power is obtained by 𝑝̅ =〈𝑖𝑚 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉= 𝑖𝑚2
𝑅〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉
1 1 𝑇
Since 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉 = 〈 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡〉 and 〈𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡〉 = ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 = 0
2 𝑇
1 𝑖
Ie;P = 𝑝̅ = 𝑖𝑚 2 𝑅 = ( 𝑚 )2 𝑅 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
R
2 √2
2
2. Pure Inductive A.C circuit
Let an a.c source of e.m.f 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 is connected to an inductor ‘L’. The
𝑑𝑖
induced e.m.f across the inductor 𝜀 = −𝐿 , which opposes the growth of current in
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
the circuit. The applied e.m.f, 𝑣 = 𝐿 ⟹ 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡. 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝐿
𝑣𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑣𝑚 𝜋
𝑖= [− ]=− cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑖𝑒; 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
𝐿 𝜔 𝐿𝜔 2
𝑉
Where, 𝑖𝑚 = 𝑚 is called the peak value of alternating current. From the equations of
𝐿𝜔
voltage and current it is clear that the current lags behind the voltage by an angle of
𝜋/2. The wave diagram and phasor diagram of the pure inductive circuit are shown in
the figure.
𝑉 𝑉
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑚 = 𝑚, where 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔 is the inductive reactance, which is the opposition offered
𝐿𝜔 𝑋𝐿
by the inductor to the a.c.
𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿2𝜋𝑓 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑. 𝑐 𝑓 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑋𝐿 = 0
Ie, pure inductor offers no opposition to the flow of d.c. Hence d.c can flow easily
through an inductor. For an a.c f is finite, so which has a finite value of inductive
reactance.
Therefore inductor offers finite opposition to the flow of a.c.
Average power supplied to an inductor:
• The instantaneous power supplied to an inductor is given by
𝑝=𝑖v
𝜋
= 𝑖𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ) x vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
2
= −𝑖𝑚 vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑖 v
𝑝 = − 𝑚 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡
2
So the average power is obtained by
𝑖 v
𝑝̅ = 〈− 𝑚 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 〉
2
𝑖𝑚 v 𝑚
=− 〈 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 〉
2
As 〈 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 〉 = 0; P = 𝑝̅ = 0
3
Thus, the average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is zero
3. Pure Capacitive A.C circuit
Let an a.c source of e.m.f 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 is connected to a capacitor ‘C’. The
capacitor periodically charged and discharged when alternating voltage is applied to it.
Let ‘q’ be the charge on the capacitor at any instant. Then the potential difference
𝑞
across the capacitor at any instant is given by, v= = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡.
𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑑 (𝑣𝑚 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡) 𝑉𝑚
𝑞 = 𝑣𝑚 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 = = = 𝑉𝑚 𝐶 (cos 𝜔𝑡)𝜔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1/𝑐𝜔
𝜋 𝜋
Since;cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ) ie; 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
2 2
𝑉𝑚
Where, 𝑖𝑚 = is called the peak value of alternating current. From the equations
1/𝑐𝜔
of voltage and current it is clear that the current leads the voltage by an angle of 𝜋/2.
The wave diagram and phasor diagram of the pure capacitive circuit are shown in the
figure.
𝑉 𝑉 1
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑚 = 𝑚, where 𝑋𝑐 = is the capacitive reactance.
1/𝑐𝜔 𝑋𝑐 𝐶𝜔
1
𝑋𝐶 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑. 𝑐 𝑓 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑋𝑐 = ∞
𝐶2𝜋𝑓
Ie, pure capacitor offers infinite opposition to the flow of d.c. Hence d.c can’t flow
through a capacitor. For an a.c f is finite, so which has a finite value of capacitive
reactance.
Therefore, capacitor offers less opposition to the flow of a.c.
The variation of capacitive reactance with frequency is represented as,
4
Average power supplied to a capacitor:
• The instantaneous power supplied to a capacitor is given by
𝑝=𝑖v
𝜋
= 𝑖𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ) x vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
2
= 𝑖𝑚 vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑖 v
𝑝 = 𝑚 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡
2
So the average power is obtained by
𝑖 v
𝑝̅ = 〈 𝑚 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 〉
2
𝑖 v
= 𝑚 𝑚 〈 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 〉
2
As 〈 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 〉 = 0, then P = 𝑝̅ = 0
Thus, the average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is zero.
4. L-C- R series A.C circuit
Phasor diagram Solution
Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit and VL , VR , VC , and V
represent the voltage across the inductor, resistor, capacitor and the source,
respectively.
we know that VR is parallel to I, VC is π/2 behind I
and VL is π/2 ahead of I.
respectively.
The length of these phasors are
vRm = im R, vCm = im XC , vLm = im XL, im and vm
From the fig (b),
the resultant voltage is
V = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2
By substituting the magnitudes, we get
2
vm = √v𝑅𝑚 + (v𝐶𝑚 − v𝐿𝑚 )2
vm = √i2𝑚 𝑅2 + (i𝑚 𝑋𝐶 − i𝑚 𝑋𝐿 )2 vm = im√𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
v𝑚 v𝑚
im = =
√𝑅2 +(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )2 𝑍
5
Where, Z = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳 )𝟐 is called the impedance of the circuit, which is the
opposition offered by the LCR series circuit to the a.c
From fig (b),
v𝐶𝑚 −v𝐿𝑚
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 =
v𝑅𝑚
i𝑚 (𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 ) (𝑿𝑪 −𝑿𝑳 )
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = ⟹ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝓 =
i𝑚 𝑅 𝑹
Special cases:
1
Case-1 When𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 𝑜𝑟 = 𝐿𝜔, the given LCR circuit is equivalent to a pure
𝑐𝜔
resistive circuit.
The impedence of the LCR circuit becomes Z=R and is independent of the frequecy
of the alternating current.
1
Case -2 when 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 𝑜𝑟 > 𝐿𝜔, 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = +𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 ∅ = +𝑣𝑒
𝑐𝜔
It means that the current leads the voltage by an angle of ∅. Such an LCR ciruit is
known as capacitance dominated circuit.
1
Case -3 when𝑋𝐶 < 𝑋𝐿 𝑜𝑟 < 𝐿𝜔, 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = −𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 ∅ = −𝑣𝑒
𝑐𝜔
It means that the current lags behind the voltage by an angle of ∅. Such an LCR
ciruit is known as inductance dominated circuit.
Impedance Triangle
• The impedance triangle is a right-triangle with
Z as its hypotenuse.
Resonance : LCR series circuit
Electrical resonance in LCR series circuit takes place when XC = XL . Under this
condition the impedance of the circuit is minimum and current amplitude of the circuit is
maximum
The frequency at which resonance occurs is known as Resonant frequency (𝜔𝑜 )
We know that for an LCR circuit, the current amplitude is
𝑣𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑖𝑚 = =
𝑍 √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
1
Where, XC = and XL = L 𝜔
𝐶𝜔
6
So if 𝜔 is varied, then at a particular frequency 𝜔𝑜 , XC = XL and the impedance is
minimum (Z = √𝑅2 + 02 = R). This frequency is
called the resonant frequency:
Expression for Resonant Frequency:
At resonating frequency, XC = XL
1
= ωo L
ωo C
𝟏 𝟏
on simplifying, we get 𝛚𝐨 = or 𝐟𝐨 =
√𝐋𝐂 𝟐𝛑√𝐋𝐂
vm
And at resonant Frequency, im = imax
m =
R
The series LCR circuit is used in radio and T.V receivers to tune the desired
frequency or filter unwanted frequencies.To receive the particular frequency of
a particular station, the frequency of the tuning circuit of the receiver is changed
by changing the capacitance of the tuning circuit till the resonant frequency of
the circuit becomes equal to the frequency of the desired broadcasting station.
At this stage, electrical resonance takes place.
Power in AC circuits:
Let in a series LCR circuit, the phase difference between the current and the voltage be
∅.The instantaneous values of voltage and current in LCR circuit are given by
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑣𝑚 𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
Where, 𝑖𝑚 = and ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑍 𝑅
Therefore, the instantaneous power p supplied by the source is
p = v i = (vm sinω t) × [im sin(ω t + ∅)]
=vmim sinωt sin(ω t + ∅)
1
By using Sin A SinB = [cos (A-B) – cos (A+B)], we get
2
vmim
p= [cos ∅ - cos (2ω t + ∅)]
2
vmim
p= [cos ∅ - cos (2ω t + ∅)]
2
The average power over a cycle is given by
7
vmim
P=⟨ [cos ∅ - cos (2ω t + ∅)] ⟩
2
vmim vmim
P= cos ∅ - ⟨ cos (2ω t + ∅) ⟩
2 2
As ⟨ cos (2ω t + ∅) ⟩ = 0, we have
vmim v𝑚 i𝑚
P= cos ∅ = cos ∅
2 √2 √2
P = Vrms Irms cos ∅
2
P = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 Z cos ∅
So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and current but also
on the cosine of the phase angle ∅ between them. The quantity cos ∅ is called the
power factor.
Special Cases:
Case (i): Resistive circuit: If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called resistive. In
that case ∅ = 0, cos φ = 1. There is maximum power dissipation.
2
i.e., P = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R
Case (ii): Purely inductive (or) capacitive circuit: If the circuit contains only inductor
𝜋
or capacitor, then ∅ = and cos φ = 0. Hence no power is dissipated.
2
Case (iii): LCR series circuit: ∅ is non zero, even in such cases the power is
dissipated only in the resistor.
2
P = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 Z cos ∅
As Z cos ∅ = R from impedance triangle.
2
i.e., P = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R
Case (iv): Resonant LCR series circuit:
𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿
We know that, ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅
In resonance 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 ; thus ∅ = 0; cos ∅ =1 and also Z =R
2
P = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R
Thus maximum power is dissipated in the circuit (through R) at resonance.
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Transformers:
• Use: It is a device used for converting low alternate voltage into high alternate
voltage or vice versa
• Principle: It works on the principle of Mutual induction [if two coils are
inductively coupled and when current/magnetic flux associated with one coil
changes, them emf is induced in other coil]
Construction: A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other.
They are wound on a soft-iron core, either one on top of the other as in Fig. 7.20(a) or
on separate limbs of the core as in Fig. 7.20(b). One of the coils called the primary coil
has Np turns. The other coil is called the secondary coil; it has Ns turns. Often the
primary coil is the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the transformer.
Working:
Assumptions in the case of ideal Transformer:
1. The primary resistance is small
2. the same flux links both the primary and the secondary as very little flux escapes
from the core, and
3. The secondary current is small (or) It is an open circuit.
Let ∅ be the flux in each turn of primary and secondary. vP and vs, be the voltage
across primary and seconadary respectively.
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current produces an
alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces an emf in it.
𝑑∅
The induced emf in the secondary is given by 𝜀𝑠 = −𝑁𝑠
𝑑𝑡
The alternating flux ∅ also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary.
𝑑∅
𝜀𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃
𝑑𝑡
As resistance of primary is negligible, 𝜀𝑃 = vP
As secondary is open circuit, 𝜀𝑠 = vS
𝑑∅
• Thus vS = −𝑁𝑠 ------------ (1)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅
vP = −𝑁𝑃 --------------(2)
𝑑𝑡
Dividing the above equations on both sides, we get
vs 𝑁𝑠
= ------------ (3)
v𝑃 𝑁𝑃
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The above equation is known as voltage transformation ratio.
If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input is
equal to the power output, and since p = i v,
i𝑃 vs
iPvP = isvs ⇒ = ------- (4)
i𝑠 v𝑃
Combining the above two equations, we can write
vs 𝑁𝑠 i𝑃
= =
v𝑃 𝑁𝑃 i𝑠
𝑁𝑠 𝑁
Also we can write vs = vP( ); i𝑠 = i𝑃 ( 𝑃 )
𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑠
𝑁𝑠
Case (i): If secondary has more number of turns than primary (NS > NP) , then >1
𝑁𝑃
Hence vs > vP and i𝑠 < i𝑃
Low voltage high current is converted to high voltage low current.
This is known as step – up transformer.
𝑁𝑠
Case (ii): If secondary has less number of turns than primary (NS < NP) , then <1
𝑁𝑃
Hence vs < vP and i𝑠 > i𝑃
High voltage low current is converted to low voltage high current.
This is known as step – down transformer
The equations obtained above apply to ideal transformers (without any energy losses).
But in actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due to the following reasons:
(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage due to poor design of the core
or the air gaps in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and
secondary coils one over the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some
resistance and so, energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I2R). In high
current, low voltage windings, these are minimised by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy current losses: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the
iron core and causes heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
(iv) Hysteresis losses: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the
alternating magnetic field. This result in the expenditure of energy in the form of
heat and is mininised by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis
loss [Ex: Soft iron]
A.C GENERATOR
Use- It is a machine used to convert mechanical
energy in to electrical energy.
Principle- It works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
Construction- It consists of an armature coil
consists of large number of turns of copper wire
wound on a soft iron core and is placed in
between the poles of a strong field magnet. It
provides a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the coil. The
10
ends of the coil are attached with two brass slip rings which rotates along with the
coil. Two carbon brushes are pressed against the slip rings. The brushes remain
fixed while the slip rings rotate along with the armature. These brushes are
connected to the load through which the output is obtained.
Working and theory
When the armature coil rotates in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux linked with
the coil changes which creates an induced emf and current in the coil. The current
flows out through the coil, changes its direction in every half rotation. So the emf
produced is of alternating nature.
Consider the coil is rotated with an angular velocity ′𝜔′, the angle between the
normal to the coil and B at any instant is given by 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡.
The component magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the coil is given by =
𝐵 cos 𝜔𝑡
The magnetic flux linked with one turn of the coil= 𝐵 A cos 𝜔𝑡
The total magnetic field linked with the coil is given by = NBA cos 𝜔𝑡.
𝑑∅
By Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, 𝜀 = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑( NBA cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝜀= − = - 𝑁𝐵𝐴 ( −𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡) = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 ω sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
The induced emf so obtained will be maximum when sin 𝜔𝑡 = 1
The maximum value of emf is given by 𝜀0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 ie; 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜀
Instantaneous current is given by 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼0 = 0
𝑅
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