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MMW Module 1-3 - Lecture notes 1-2

BS Mathematics (StuDocu University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE 1

I. TOPIC: PATTERN, PATTERNS IN NATURE & TRANSFORMATION

II. OBJECTIVE(S):

1. Familiarization of patterns;
2. Discuss the patterns in nature;
3. Identify different type of patterns;
4. Enumerate & discuss the different types of transformation.

III. INTRODUCTION:

Patterns exist in different variety of forms. The petals of a flower, arrangement of leaves reveals a
sequential pattern. Natures are bounded by different colors and shapes – the rainbow mosaic of a
butterfly’s wings, the undulating ripples of a desert dune. But these miraculous creations not only
delight the imagination, they also challenge our understanding. How do these patterns develop?
What sorts of rules and guidelines, shape the patterns in the world around us?

Some patterns are molded with a strict regularity. At least superficially, the origin of regular
patterns often seems easy to explain. Thousands of times over, the cells of a honeycomb repeat
their hexagonal symmetry. The honeybee is a skilled and tireless artisan with an innate ability to
measure the width and to gauge the thickness of the honeycomb it builds. Although the workings
of an insect's mind may baffle biologists, the regularity of the honeycomb attests to the honey bee's
remarkable architectural abilities.

IV. DISCUSSION:

1. A pattern is something which helps us anticipate what we might see or expect to happen next.
It may also help us know what may have come before or what we are seeing currently. There are
four types of patterns; (1) logic patterns, (2) number patterns, (3) geometric patterns and (4) word
patterns.

A. Logic pattern is the ability to discover meaningful patterns in strange and

unpredictable situations. When you enter a strange space, like a new job, you
spontaneously search for patterns to influence how you think and act and speak in
the new space.

Example of logical patterns:

B. Number pattern is a sequence of number that are formed in accordance with a definite
rule. We can often describe number patterns in more than one way. To illustrate this,
consider the following sequence of numbers {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …}. Clearly, the first term of
this number pattern is 1; and the terms after the first term are obtained by adding 2 to the
previous term. We can also describe this number pattern as a set of odd numbers.

Example of number patterns:

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C. Geometric pattern is a pattern that represented by geometrical figures such as polygons

and isometric shapes.

Examples of geometric patterns:

D. Word pattern are represented by jumbled words and analyzed the hidden logic in it.

Example of word pattern:

Patterns are
part of our everyday life and are visible in shapes, color, number and object repetition. Below are
some of the patterns in nature;

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1. Arrangement of trees covered by snow

2. A
still lake reflects sky and trees

3. Scales from butterfly wings radiate from a glass-shelled diatom.

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4. Rippled pattern observed on the desert sand.

5. Honeycomb structure

A pattern has symmetry. Isometry of the plane that preserves the pattern. It is a way of transforming
the plane that preserves geometrical properties such as length. There are four types of isometries
according to Euclidian isometry of plane transformation (1) Translation (2) Reflection (3) Rotation
(4) Dilation. Moreover, we have to consider sometimes the combination of Reflection, translation
and rotations makes another isometry called rigid transformation which leave the dimensions of
the object and its image unchanged.

TRANSFORMATION
is a process which shifts points of the plane to possibly new locations on the plane.

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1. Translation or slide moves a shape in a given direction by sliding it up, down, sideways or
diagonally.

2. A reflection (or a flip) can be thought of a getting a mirror image. It has a line of reflection
or mirror line where the distance between the image and the mirror line is the same as that
between the original figure and the mirror line.

3. Rotation (or a turn) has a point about which the rotation is made and an angle that says how
far to rotate.

4. A dilation is a transformation which changes the size of an object.

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(5). Rigid Transformation

Note: An isometry of the plane is a mapping that preserves distance (and therefore shape):
d ( f (x) , f (y) ) = d (x,y)

by studying patterns in mathematics, humans become aware of patterns in our world. Pattern
observation makes an individual develop their ability to predict future behavior of natural organism
(biology) and phenomena. Civil engineers can use their observations of traffic patterns to construct
safer cities. Meteorologist use patterns to predict thunderstorms, tornadoes and even hurricanes.
Seismologist use patterns to forecast earthquakes and landslides. Mathematical patterns are useful
in all areas of science.

FRACTALS
A fractal is an object or quantity that displays self-similarity, in a somewhat technical sense, on
all scales. Fractals need not exhibit exactly the same structure at all scales, but the same "type" of
structures must appear on all scales.

What do we mean by dimension? Consider what happens when you divide a line segment in two
on a figure. How many smaller versions do you get?

Consider a line segment, a square and a cube.

SELF-SIMILARITY

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An object is self-similar if it can be formed from smaller versions of itself (with no gaps or
overlap). A square is self-similar, a circle is not. Many objects in nature have self-similarity.

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SELF-SIMILAR FRACTALS
Start with some basic geometrical object like a line segment or triangle and perform some
operation. Then repeat the process indefinitely (this is called iterating). Each iteration produces a
more complicated object.
The fractal dimension D can be found by considering the scaling at each iteration, where r is the
scaling amount and N is the number of smaller pieces.
rD = N so D = ln N/ln r

CANTOR SET
Start with the line segment of length 1 between 0 and 1. Remove the middle third segment.
Repeat this process to the remaining two line segments. At each iteration you scale down by
3 to get 2 new pieces. What is the fractal dimension?

SIERPINSKI GASKET
Start with an equilateral triangle. Divide each side in half and remove the middle triangle.
Repeat this process indefinitely.

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1. What happens to the perimeter as you do more iterations?

2. What about area?
3. What is the fractal dimension of the gasket? Does this
make sense?

KOCH SNOWFLAKE
Start with equilateral triangle. Iteration rule:

1. What happens to the perimeter? Area?

2. What is the fractal dimension?

TOPOLOGY
Suppose we could study objects that could be stretched, bent, or otherwise distorted without
tearing or scattering. This is topology (also known as “rubber sheet geometry”).
Topology investigates basic structure like number of holes or how many components.

Topologically equivalent
• A donut and a coffee cup are equivalent while a muffin and coffee cup are not.

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Interesting Topological Surfaces

Moebius Strip

Klein Bottle

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ORIENTABILITY AND GENUS

A topological surface is orientable if you can determine the outside and inside.
Any orientable, compact (finite size) surface is determined by its number of holes (called the
genus).

SIERPINSKI RELATIVES
The Sierpinski Gasket (right triangle version) can be obtained via the three maps which map the
unit square to three smaller squares, and repeating those maps ad infinitum:

Could include symmetries of the square:

4 rotations (a = 0, b =90, c=180, d= 270)
4 reflections (e = horizontal, f = vertical, g = diagonal top right, h = diagonal top left)

FRACTAL TREES
Compact, connected subsets that exhibit some kind of branching pattern. There are different types
of fractal trees. Many natural systems can be modeled with fractal trees.

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Rat Lung Model

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SYMMETRIC BINARY FRACTAL TREES

T(r,) denotes tree with scaling ratio r (some real number between 0 and 1) and branching angle 
(real-valued angle between 0º and 180º). Trunk splits into 2 branches, each with length r, one to
the right with angle  and the other to the left with angle .
Level k approximation tree has k iterations of branching.

A symmetric binary tree can be seen as a representation of the free monoid with two
generators
Two generator maps mR and mL that act on compact subsets
Addresses are finite or infinite strings with each element either R or L.

Examples:

T(.55, 40º)

T(.6, 72º)

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T(.615, 115º)

T(.52, 155º)

SELF-CONTACT
For a given branching angle, there is a unique scaling ratio such that the corresponding symmetric
binary tree is “self-contacting”. We denote this ratio by rsc. This ratio can be determined for any
symmetric binary tree.
If r < rsc, then the tree is self-avoiding.
If r > rsc, then the tree is self-overlapping.

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OVERLAPPING TREE

T(rsc, 120°)
What is the self-contacting scaling ratio for the branching angle 120°?
It must satisfy:

1-rsc-rsc2=0

Thus

rsc= (-1 + √5)/2

THE GOLDEN TREES

Four self-contacting trees have scaling ratio 1/Φ
Each of these trees possesses extra symmetry, they seem to “line up”
The four angles are 60°, 108°, 120° and 144°

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GOLDEN 60

GOLDEN 108

GOLDEN 120

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GOLDEN 144

V. SUMMARY

Patterns exist in nature with different types, either in color, shape, number and object repetition.
There are four types of pattern namely; Logic patter, number pattern, geometrical pattern and word
pattern. Isometry is a way of transforming the plane that preserves geometrical properties such as
length. There are also four types of isometry or transformation according to Euclidian isometry;
translation, reflection, rotation and dilation. Sometimes rigid transformation is added if there is a
combination of three transformation that is translation, reflection and rotation.

VI. ENRICHMENT VIDEOS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J7An1mcFHBU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o68FAFj04Vg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ax8mLKp6ouU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gB9n2gHsHN4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XwWyTts06tU

VII. REFERENCE:

http://www.learner.org/teacherslab/math/patterns/number.html

http://www.scottcamazine.com/personal/DesignNature/

Natures Number – Ian stewart

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE 1.1

I. TOPIC: FIBONACCI SEQUENCE AND THE GOLDEN RATIO

II. OBJECTIVE(S):

1. Familiarized the Fibonacci’s number;

2. Discuss the patterns in nature using Fibonacci’s number;
3. Discuss the golden ratio and its applications.

III. INTRODUCTION:

Pattern in nature exist with number sequence. It is very essential to understand that nature is not
just an appreciation of the eye, but if you more closely understand the science you will also
understand mathematics. Number of petals in a flower, rotation of leaves in a plant, number of
seeds in a sunflower and even a spiral nautilus shells exhibit number sequence pattern. That is
Fibonacci’s number or Fibonacci sequence.

There are lots of available names for Fibonacci, some are Leonardo of Pisa, Leonardo Pisano and
Leonardo Bonacci. All of them are considered name for Fibonacci. But who is Fibonacci? He was
a mathematician, born in Pisa, Italy in 1175 AD, wrote different books (with essential contribution
to mathematics) and an inventor of the famous sequence called “The Fibonnacci Sequence”.

IV. DISCUSSION:

Fibonacci sequence begins with one. Each of the subsequent number is the sum of the two
preceding numbers;

Fib(n) = Fib(n-1) + Fib(n-2) ; Fib(n) = 1

Thus, the sequence begins as follows:

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144…………

Fibonacci applied the sequence he found to a problem involving the breeding of rabbits. Given at
a certain condition, Fibonacci mapped the family tree of a group of rabbits that initially started
with only two members. Surprisingly, he found out that the number of rabbits at any given time
was always in the Fibonacci number. The Fibonacci sequence have numerous naturally occurring
applications, ranging from the very basic to the complex geometric shapes.

Example 1: The number of petals on a flower tend to be a Fibonacci number.

Example 2: Branching plants always branch off into groups of Fibonacci numbers.

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EXAMPLE 3: Leaf Orientation also exhibits Fibonacci numbers

Note: You have, 5 fingers on each hand, 5 toes on each foot, 2 arms, 2 legs, 2 eyes, 2 ears, 1 nose
with 2 nostrils. These are on Fibonacci Sequence.

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144……………….

Fibonacci numbers have geometric application in nature as well. The most prominent of these is
the Fibonacci spiral on a nautilus shell.

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The Fibonacci spiral is constructed by placing together rectangles of relative side lengths equaling
Fibonacci numbers. A spiral can then be drawn starting from the corner of the first rectangle of
side length 1, all the way to the corner of the rectangle of side length 13.

GOLDEN RATIO

One of the Significant applications of the Fibonacci sequence is a number that mathematician refer
to as Phi (Φ). It refers to a very important number that is known as the golden ratio.

Phi (Φ)is define as the limit of the ratio of a Fibonacci number n and its predecessor, Fib (n-1).
√"
Mathematically this number is equal to : 1 + or Approximately 1.618034. A remarkable
#
property of the sequence is that the ratio between two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence
eventually approaches the “Golden ratio” as a limit.

1/1 = 1, 2/1=2, 3/2 = 1.5, 5/3 = 1.6667, 8/5 = 1.6, 13/8 = 1.625, 21/13 = 1.6154, 34/21 = 1.619,
55/34 = 1.618, 89/55 = 1.618, 144/89 = 1.618, 233/144 = 1.618, 377/233 = 1.618, 610/377 = 1.618
and so on.

V. SUMMARY

The Fibonacci sequence is a set of numbers that starts with a one or a zero, followed by one, and
proceeds based on the rule that each number (Fibonacci number) is equal to the sum of the
preceding two numbers. The Fibonacci sequence is related to the golden ration, a proportion
(1:1.618) that occurs frequently throughout the natural world and is applied across many areas of
human endeavor. Both the Fibonacci sequence and the golden ration are used to guide design for
architecture, websites, and many more.

VI. ACTIVITY

Open the activity folder.

VII. Enrichment Websites

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mVO2dcuR7P0
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=keLN89CWZ-A
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RNEXfJ2hIcM

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VIII. REFERENCE:

http://www.learner.org/teacherslab/math/patterns/number.html

http://www.camiweb.com/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=223&Itemid=
108
https://www.fq.math.ca/Scanned/10-4/advanced10-4.pdf
https://tue.iitm.ac.in/teaching-and-presentations/teaching/undergraduate%20courses/vy305-
molecular-architecture-and-evolution-of-functions/presentations/presentations-2006/P7.pdf

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE 2

I. TOPIC: MATHEMATICAL LOGIC & PROPOSITION

II. OBJECTIVE(S):

1. Provide a formal language for mathematical statements that is easily translatable into
the natural language and that allows compact and convenient notation;
2. Understand the different symbols used in math logic;
3. Describe the importance & application of math logic.

III. INTRODUCTION:

Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. The
invention of logic is attributed to the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC). George Boole
(1815-1864) wrote the Laws of Thought where logic was developed into an abstract mathematical
system like algebra. He, together with Augustus de Morgan (1806 - 1871), founded symbolic
logic.

Logic examines:
(a) general forms which arguments may take,
(b) which forms are valid, and
(c) which forms are fallacies.

The initial motivation for the study of logic was to learn to distinguish good arguments from bad
arguments.

IV. DISCUSSION:

In studying mathematical logic, we need first to understand the meaning of a proposition or

statement. A proposition or statement is defined as a declarative sentence that is either true or
false, but not both simultaneously.

Which sentence is a proposition?

1. Two is an even number.
2. R is a vowel.
3. 3 + 2 = 5
4. My dress is beautiful.
5. The dog is smart.
6. 3X = 12

Statement 1 is true, statement 2 is false, Statement 3 is true, Statement 4 & 5 are vague so it is not
a proposition and statement 6 depends upon the value of X. Therefore, 1,2,3 are propostions, while
4,5 & 6 are not proposition.

Arguments are made up of propositions. The reasoning used in an argument may be correct or
not.
Example:
John is a Filipino, therefore John is generous.
In symbols, this argument is simplified into: P ∴Q

If John is a Filipino, then he is hospitable.

If he is hospitable, then he is generous.
Therefore, if John is Filipino, then he is generous.

In symbols, this argument is simplified into:

If P then Q
If Q then R
∴ If P then R

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A propositional variable represented by a lowercase or capital letter in the English alphabet

denotes an arbitrary proposition with an unspecified truth value. An assertion which contains at
least one proposition variable is called a propositional form.

In the preposition:
“if I study the lesson, Then I will pass the test”

In a condition hypothetical proposition, the truth does not rest on the truth of every statement taken
singly. Rather, it depends on valid sequence between members of the proposition. In the example
given, we don’t assert, “I study the lesson” nor we assert, “I will be able to pass the test”. We ae
going to simply declare the fact that the statement “I study the lesson” is dependent on the other
statement which is “I will pass the test” and vice versa.

Note:
The word “then’ as part of the consequent maybe omitted.
“IF I study the lesson, I will pass the test”
The consequent may also be written ahead of the antecedent and the word “then” is omitted.
“I will pass the test, IF I study the lesson”
We omit both “if and then” provided that we follow the proper statement ordering.
“I study the lesson, AND I will pass the test”

Sometimes, conditional proposition are considered aside from “If-Then” other accepted words are:
given that, in the event that, provided that, unless, in case that and only if.

Examples:

1. A politician may win in the election ONLY IF the people will vote in his favor. TRUE
2. IN CASE THAT the basketball player plays well, he will not be charge with a technical.
TRUE
3. UNLESS you submit your resume, then you won’t be hired.” TRUE

The tables represents the symbols for logical operators:

Symbol Operator Words commonly used

 Negation Not

 Conjunction And

 Disjunction Or

→ Conditional If, then

 Biconditional If and only if

Example 1:
The art show was enjoyable, and the room was presentable.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: The art show was enjoyable.
Q: The room was presentable.
Step 2: Write the following in symbolic form.
P^Q

Example2:
I will leave the party unless you let me stay
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: I will leave the party.
Q: you let me stay.

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Step 2: Write the statement in prepositional form.

PQ

Example 3:
If I can buy a gift, then I will attend his birthday party.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: I can buy a gift.
Q: I will attend his birthday party.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
P→Q

Example 4:
My mother will buy me a new cellphone if and only if I pass all of my subjects.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P:My mother will buy me a new cellphone
Q: I pass all of my subjects
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ

Example 5:
If I will not pass my exam or will not submit my project on time then I will not pass my subject.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
A: I will pass my exam.
B: I will submit my project on time
C: I will pass my subject
Notice that statements A, B and C are worded as positive statements. Remember that basic
statements, as a rule, don't use the word "not".
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
(A v B) → C

NOTE: A logical operator may be like the negation of a proposition. It involves only one
proposition and is governed by a rule which can be illustrated in the truth table.
a. The truth value of a statement is the classification as true or false which denoted by T or F.
b. A truth table is a listing of all possible combinations of the individual statements as true or
false, along with the resulting truth value of the compound statements.
c. Truth tables are an aide in distinguishing valid and invalid arguments.

Definition of “not P”
The negation of not P is written as  P
Example: A is a consonant --- P
A is not a consonant ----  P

p p

T F

F T

A negation is a statement that is a refusal or denial of some other statement.

Example:
Statement: Anna has a beautiful dress.
Negation: Anna does not have a beautiful dress.

The negation of a true statement is false, and the negation of a false statement is true.

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Example:
Statement: The number 6 is even
Negation: The number 6 is not even.

Definition of P  Q
The proposition “P and Q” denoted by P  Q is called the conjunction of P and Q. The proposition
P and the proposition Q are called conjuncts. Other words that can be used in place of “and” are
moreover, although, still, furthermore, also, nevertheless, however, yet, and but.

A comma or semicolon between two statements may also stand for and.
Example: “I am here, you are there.”
Can be taken to mean “I am here and you are there.”

When is the proposition “P and Q” false? When is it true?

The proposition “P and Q” is false when at least one of the conjuncts P or Q is false. When
both P and Q are true, then their conjunction is true.

The table below are the rules for conjunction:

P Q PQ

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Since there are two variables or two statement, there are four rows in the table (two raised to the
power of two). There are three columns; two for the variables and one for the conjunction.

Example 1:
6 is an even number and 8 is an odd number.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P : six is an even number .
Q: eight is an odd number.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ
If P is T and Q is F, then the proposition is…

P Q PQ

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Example 2:

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(3 + 4 = 7) and (8 > 7)
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: (3 + 4 = 7)
Q: (8 > 7)
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ
If P is T and Q is T, then the proposition is…

P Q PQ

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

______________________________________________________________________________

Definition of P  Q
The proposition “P or Q or both” denoted by P Q is called the disjunction of P and Q. The
proposition P and Q are called disjuncts. P unless Q is another expression of disjunction. The
proposition P Q is true when at least one of the propositions P or Q is true. It is false when both
P and Q are false.

Disjunction rule are give below:

P Q PQ

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Example 1:

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I will leave the party unless you let me stay

Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: I will leave the party.
Q: you let me stay.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ
If P is T and Q is F, then the proposition is…

P Q P Q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Example 2:
Either Pedro or Juan will be the next mayor of our town.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: Pedro will be the next mayor of our town.
Q: Juan will be the next mayor of our town.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ
If P is F and Q is F, then the proposition is…

P Q P Q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Definition of P → Q
The proposition “P implies Q” denoted by P → Q is called an implication or a conditional
statement. P is called the antecedent, premise or hypothesis whereas Q is called the conclusion
or consequent. Other ways of expressing “P implies Q” are:

• If P then Q
• P only if Q
• P is sufficient condition for Q
• Q is a necessary condition for P
• Q if P
• Q follows from P
• Q provided P
• Q whenever P
• Q is a logical consequence of P
Example:

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If I will get my promotion, then I will treat you to a travel vacation.

Consider the following statements:
1. I will get my promotion, then I will treat you to a travel vacation.
2. I will get my promotion, then I will not treat you to a travel vacation
3. I will not get my promotion, then I will still treat you to a travel vacation.
4. I will not get my promotion, then I will not treat you to a travel vacation.

Question: which statement above the premise is broken? 1,2,3 or 4?

Answer: The promise is broken in situation 2 where the premise is satisfied but the conclusion of
the statement is not fulfilled. Only then will the implication become false.

Truth Table for p q

Recall that conditional is a
compound statement of the P Q P→Q
form “if p then q”.
Think of a conditional as a
promise.
If I don’t keep my promise, T T T
in other words q is false,
then the conditional is false
if the premise is true.
If I keep my promise, that is T F F
q is true, and the premise is
true, then the conditional is
true.
When the premise is false F T T
(i.e. p is false), then there
was no promise. Hence by
default the conditional is
true. F F T

In short, if the promise is not broken then it is true.

Example:
If you participate in the class, then you get extra points.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: You participate in the class.
Q: You get extra points.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
P→Q
If the promise of the teacher is broken…then the statement of the teacher is…..

P Q P→Q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

Definition of P  Q

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The proposition “P if and only if Q” denoted by P  Q is called the material equivalence or

biconditional of two propositions P and Q. This can be expressed by P is a necessary and
sufficient condition for Q, and by P is materially equivalent to Q. The abbreviation iff is used
for if and only if. We note that the biconditional statements puts together the implication P → Q
and Q → P in one statement P  Q. Thus the material equivalence can also be written in
propositional form as (P → Q)  (Q → P).

Example:
I will treat you to a travel vacation, if and only if I will get my promotion.
Consider the following statements:
1. I will get my promotion, then I will treat you to a travel vacation.
2. I will get my promotion, then I will not treat you to a travel vacation
3. I will not get my promotion, then I will still treat you to a travel vacation.
4. I will not get my promotion, then I will not treat you to a travel vacation.
: The statements that do conform to the original statement are 2 and 3

Truth Table for P  Q

P Q P Q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

P Q P→ Q Q→ P (P → Q)  (Q → P)

T T T T T

T F F T F

F T T F F

F F T T T

Thus P  Q can also be written in propositional form as (P → Q)  (Q → P).

SUMMARY OF THE TRUTH TABLE

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p p

T F

F T

P Q PQ P Q P→Q P Q

T T T T T T

T F F T F F

F T F T T F

F F F F T T

TYPES OF PROPOSITION
There are many ways of classifying propositions. For instance, an implication can be classified in
terms of its relation with another conditional statement.
Definition of the Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse of an Implication.

Definition of the Converse, contrapositive, and inverse of an implication

Let P and Q be propositional variables.
1. The conditional statement Q →P is called the converse of the implication P →Q
2. The conditional statement Q →P is the contrapositive of the implication P →Q
3. The conditional statement P →Q is the inverse of the implication of P →Q

Example:
Given the statement “If x = 1, then x3 = 1.”
• The converse of the implication is “If x3 = 1, then x = 1”
• The contrapositive of the given is “If x3 ≠ 1, then x ≠ 1.”
• The inverse of the given is “If x ≠ 1, then x3 ≠ 1.”

Does the truth of the implication P → Q guarantee the truth of its converse? What about its
contrapositive? What about its inverse? Set up the truth table to justify your answer.

P → Q Q → P Q →P P →Q
T T T T T T F T F F T F

T F F F T T T F F F T T

F T T T F F F T T T F F

F T F F T F T T T T T T

The truth of P → Q does not guarantee the truth of its converse and inverse. If you look at the third
row of the table below, the implication is true but the converse and inverse are false. However, the
contrapositive is always true, though. In fact, the implication has the same truth values as the
contrapositive.

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Definitions of Tautology, Contradiction or Absurdity, and Contingency.

1. A tautology is a proposition that is true under all circumstances.

The truth table for P P shows that it is a tautology:

P P P P
T F T
F T T

2. A contradiction or an absurdity is a proposition that is always false.

The truth table for P P shows that it is a contradiction:

P P P P
T F F
F T F
The third column shows that the given proposition is always false.

3. A contingency is a proposition which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

The truth table for P →P shows that it is a contingency:
P P P →P
T F F
F T T
Since the third column has two values, then this proposition is a contingent.

______________________________________________________________________________
Logically Equivalent Propositions
Two propositions are logically equivalent if they are materially equivalent under all
circumstances. The biconditional of these two proposition is a tautology.
Example: The proposition (P  Q) and (P Q) are logically equivalent. This can be proven
by showing that the biconditional (P  Q) (P Q) is a tautology

P (P  Q) 
P Q P Q P Q (P Q)
Q (P Q)
T T F F T F T T

T F F T F T F T

F T T F F T F T
F F T T F T F T

Example:
If the tire is flat, then I will have to remove it and take it to the gas station.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: The tire is flat.
Q: I have to remove the tire.
R: I have to take the tire to the gas station.
Step 2: Write the compound statement in symbolic form.
P -> (Q ^ R)

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TRUTH TABLE OF: P→ (Q  R)

P Q R (Q  R) P→ (Q  R)

T T T T T

T T F F F

T F T F F

T F F F F

F T T T T

F T F F T

F F T F T

F F F F T

The conditional is false if the premise is true but the conclusion is false.

V. SUMMARY
1. Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct
reasoning.
2. A proposition or statement is defined as a declarative sentence that is either true or false,
but not both simultaneously.
3. Arguments are made up of propositions. The reasoning used in an argument may be
correct or not.
4. A tautology is a proposition that is true under all circumstances.
5. A contradiction or an absurdity is a proposition that is always false.
6. A contingency is a proposition which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

VI. ENRICHMENT VIDEOS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=itrXYg41-V0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCBu8PD4Lls
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRMC-ttjhwM

VII. REFERENCE:

https://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/aspnes/classes/202/notes.pdf
https://www2.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~krajicek/mendelson.pdf
http://www.mathematik.uni-muenchen.de/~schwicht/lectures/logic/ws03/ml.pdf

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE 3

I. TOPIC: MATHEMATICS OF FINANCE

II. OBJECTIVE(S):

1. To understand the basic concept of consumers mathematics.

2. To know the application of the formula of consumers mathematics in real world.

III. INTRODUCTION:

Consumers mathematics is a branch of math that uses basic math skills in real life situations like
shopping, calculating taxes, estimating monthly budget, calculating interest rate for a loan, etc. By
learning this, you will know how to spend your money wisely, saving money as well and other
aspects of “money math” will prepare you to make better financial decisions.

IV. DISCUSSION:

MARKUP is the amount added to the cost price of goods to cover overhead (operating
expenses) and profit

Businesses buy products at a cost price and then markup the products to cover the expenses
(overhead) of running the business and the desired profits. The sum of cost plus markup gives
the selling price, as shown below. Markup is also referred to as margin or gross profit.

The formula is:

Cost + Markup = Selling Price à SP = C + M

Markup = Selling price – Cost à M = SP – C
Cost = Selling price – Markup à C = SP - M

Example1:
If an item sells for $20 and has a markup of $12, what is the cost of the item?

Solution: C = SP – M

Cost = $20 – $12

Therefore the cost is $8

Example 2:
If an item costs $16 and is sold for $20, what is the markup of that item?

Solution: M = SP -C

Markup = $20 - $16

Therefore, the mark up is $4

Find the percent of markup based on the cost when the cost and selling price are known.
When the markup is based on cost, the rate of cost is always 100%.

RATE OF MARKUP
The markup can be expressed as a percentage of the (1) cost or (2) selling price. This is known as
the rate of markup.

(1)Rate of markup based on cost is denoted by mc

mc= Markup/Cost = M/C (multiply by 100 to get the percentage)

(2) Rate of markup based on selling price is denoted by ms

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ms = Markup/Selling price = M/S (multiply by 100 to get the percentage)

Example 1: The cost of a new hoodie is $30. The selling price is $45. Find the rate of markup
based on cost.
Solution: S = C + M
M = S – C = 45 – 30 = $15
Now we can solve for the rate of markup based on cost,
mc = M/C = 15/30 = 0.50 = 50%

Example 2: A skateboard is bought at cost for $45. The rate of markup based on cost was 25%.
Find the selling price and markup.
Solution: First we find the markup since we are given the rate and cost,
mc = M/C
M = mc × C
M = (0.25)×45 = $11.25
Now we plug into the selling price equation and find S = 45 + 11.25 = $56.25

Example 3: The cost of a new pair of headphones is $94. The rate of markup based on selling
price is 40%. Find the selling price and markup.
Solution: S = C + M
S = 94 + 0.4S ß ms = M/S = 0.4 ; so M = 0.4×S
0.6S = 94
S = $156.67
Now we can easily determine the markup:
M = S – C = 156.67 – 94 = $62.67

MARKDOWN
A markdown is a reduction in the regular selling price of a product. The Sale Price is the reduced
price as shown below.

Sale price = Regular selling price – Markdown

The rate of markdown (md) is ALWAYS BASED ON THE REGULAR SELLING PRICE.
md = MD/S

Markdown on selling prices occurs in response to market conditions (e.g. competitor pricing)
and often leads to less-than-desired profit levels. While a business might be willing to have zero
profit, they don’t want to lose money handling the product. The total cost of the product includes
the cost of buying the product and the expenses involved.

Total Cost = Cost + Expenses

TC = C + E

If the product is sold at a price that equals the total cost (break-even point), the business does not
make any profit nor does it suffer a loss. We can rewrite the selling price equation in terms of
profit and total cost.

S=C+E+P
S = TC + P
P = S – TC

The difference between selling price and total cost is the operating profit (or loss). If the selling
price does not even cover the cost of buying the item, the business suffers an absolute loss.

Example: The Beermaker sells kits for $24.50. The store’s overhead expenses are 50% of cost
and the owners require a profit of 25% of cost.
(i) What is the cost of the kits?
(ii) What is the price needed to cover all of the costs and expenses?
(iii) What is the highest rate of markdown at which the store will break even?

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Solution:
(i) S=C+E+P
S = C + 50% of C + 25% of C = C + 0.5C + 0.25C
S = 1.75C
24.50 = 1.75C C = (24.50/1.75) = $14.00

(ii) TC = C + E = C + 0.5C
TC = 1.5C = 1.5($14.00)
TC = $21.00

(iii) To break even, the maximum markdown is $24.50 – 21.00 = $3.50

Rate of markdown = MD/S = 3.50/24.50 = 0.143 = 14.3%

SIMPLE INTEREST
When you borrow money from a bank, you pay interest for the use of the bank’s money. When
you deposit money into a savings account, you are paid interest. Simple interest is one type of
fee paid for the use of money.

Formula: I=PxRxT

Where;

I = Simple Interest
P = Principal
R = Rate of Interest
T = Time (annually)

Example 1: Finding Interest and Total Payment on a Loan

To buy a car, Jessica borrowed $15,000 for 3 years at an annual simple interest rate of 9%. How
much interest will she pay if she pays the entire loan off at the end of the third year? What is the
total amount that she will repay?

Solution:
First, find the interest she will pay.
I = P =r = t Use the formula.
I = 15,000 = 0.09 = 3 Substitute. Use 0.09 for 9%.
I = 4050 Solve for I.

Example 2:
Jessica will pay $4050 in interest.
You can find the total amount A to be repaid on a loan by adding the principal P to the interest I.

Solution:
P+I=A principal + interest = amount
15,000 + 4050 = A Substitute.
19,050 = A Solve for A.

So, Jessica will repay a total of $19,050 on her loan.

Example 3:
To buy a laptop computer, Elaine borrowed $2,000 for 3 years at an annual simple interest rate
of 5%. How much interest will she pay if she pays the entire loan off at the end of the third year?
What is the total amount that she will repay?

Solution:
First, find the interest she will pay.
I = P =r = t Use the formula.
I = 2,000 = 0.05 = 3 Substitute. Use 0.05 for 5%.
I = 300 Solve for I.

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Example 4: Determining the Amount of Investment Time

Nancy invested $6000 in a bond at a yearly rate of 3%. She earned $450 in interest. How long
was the money invested?

Solution:
I = P =r = t Use the formula.
450 = 6,000 = 0.03 = t Substitute values into the equation.
450 = 180t
2.5 = t Solve for t.

So, the money was invested for 2.5 years, or 2 years and 6 months.

Example 5: Finding the Rate of Interest

Mr. Johnson borrowed $8000 for 4 years to make home improvements. If he repaid a total of
$10,320, at what interest rate did he borrow the money?

Solution:
P+I=A Use the formula.
8000 + I = 10,320 Substitute.
I = 10,320 – 8000 = 232 Subtract 8000 from both sides.

He paid $2320 in interest. Use the amount of interest to find the interest rate.

I = P =r = t Use the formula.

2320 = 8000 = r = 4 Substitute.
2320 = 32,000 = r Simplify.
2320/32,000 = r Divide both sides by 32,000.
0.0725 = r

Mr. Johnson borrowed the money at an annual rate

of 7.25%, or 7 & 1/4%.

COMPOUND INTEREST
It is when the interest is computed on the principal and any previously earned interest.

Formula:

Where:

A = the future value (P + I)

r = the yearly interest rate in decimal form
n = the number of times per year the interest is compounded
t = the term of investment in years

Example 1:
Find the interest on Php7,000 compounded quarterly at 3% for 5 years.

Solution:
*Quarterly means 4 times a year, So n=4
P= 7000, r=3% t=5

= Php8,128.29
*To find the interest, subtract the principal from the future value
I = 8,128.29 – 7,000

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= 1,128.29

Example 2: Time needed to reach an investment goal

If you want to save 5,000 before buying your first new car, and you have 3,000 on hand to invest
at 3% interest compounded monthly. How long will you have to wait?

Solution:
A = 5000 P = 3000 r = 3% n = 12

So, you have to wait for 17 years!

EFFECTIVE RATE
The effective rate is also known as the Annual Yield à this is the simple interest rate which
would yield the same future value over 1 year as the compounded interest rate.

Formula:

Where:
E = effective rate
n = number of periods per year the interest is calculated
r = interest rate per year (stated rate)

Example 1:
Find the effective interest rate when the stated rate is 4% and the interest is compounded
annually.

Solution:
r = 4% n = 2 (compounded semiannually)

E = 0.0404 or 4.04%
*The effective rate is 4.04%*

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MATURITY VALUE
Maturity value: the total amount of money due by the end of a loan period; the amount of the
loan and interest. Take note that If the principal and the interest are known, add them.

Formula:

MV = P + P x R x T

Where:
MV = Maturty Value
P = Principal
R = Rate
T = Time

Thus,

MV = P (1+RT)

Example 1:
Camilla can purchase furniture on a 2-year simple interest loan at 9% interest per year. What is
the maturity value for a ₱ 2,500 loan?

Solution:
MV = P (1 + RT) Substitute known values.
MV = ₱ 2,500 ( 1 + 0.09 x 2)
MV = ₱ 2,500 (1 + 0.18)
MV = ₱ 2,500 (1.18)
MV = ₱ 2,950
Camilla will pay ₱ 2,950 at the end of two years.

Example 2:
To save money, OJ Laure invested ₱ 2,500 for 45 months at 3 ½ % simple interest. How much
interest did he earn?

Solution:
45 months = 45/12 = 3.75
I=PxRxT
I = ₱ 2,500 x 0.035 x 3.75
I = ₱ 328.13
OJ Laure will earn ₱ 328.13

ANNUITY
Let’s say you want to save money to go on a vacation, or you want to save money now for your
baby’s college education.
A strategy for saving a little bit of money in the present and having a big payoff in the future is
called an annuity.
An annuity is an account in which equal regular payments are made.
There are two basic questions with annuities:
– Determine how much money will accumulate over time given that equal
payments are made.
– Determine what periodic payments will be necessary to obtain a specific amount
in a given time period.

Example: Calculating short-term Annuities

Claire wants to take a nice vacation trip, so she begins setting aside $250 per month. If she
deposits this money on the first of each month in a savings account that pays 6% interest
compounded monthly, how much will she have at the end of 10 months?
Solution:
Claire’s first payment will earn 10 months interest.
So, F = 250(1 + .06/12)12(10/12).

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Note that the time t is 10/12.

Therefore F = 250(1.005)10 = $262.79.

• Claire’s second payment will earn 9 months interest.

• Thus F = 250(1.005)9 = $261.48.

Then continue to compute up to 10 months.

The table below shows the computation for future values.

Payment Future Value

1st 250(1.005)10 = $262.79

2nd 250(1.005)9 = $261.48

3rd 250(1.005)8 = $260.18

4th 250(1.005)7 = $258.88

5th 250(1.005)6 = $257.59

6th 250(1.005)5 = $256.31

7th 250(1.005)4 = $255.04

8th 250(1.005)3 = $253.77

9th 250(1.005)2 = $252.51

10th 250(1.005)1 = $251.25

ORDINARY ANNUITY AND ANNUITY DUE

There are two types of annuity formulas.

One formula is based on the payments being made at the end of the payment period. This called
ordinary annuity.
The annuity due is when payments are made at the beginning of the payment period.
We will derive the ordinary annuity formula first.

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CALCULATING LONG TERM ANNUITIES

The previous example reflects what actually happens to an annuity. The problem is what if the
annuity is for 30 years.
Future Value of the 1st payment for an ordinary annuity is
F1 = PMT(1+r/n)m-1
The future value of the next to last payment is
Fm-1 = PMT(1+r/n)
The future value of the last payment is
Fm = PMT.
The total future value
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + … + Fm-1 + Fm
Thus, The future value formula is

F = pmt + pmt (1 + r
n
) + pmt (1 + )
r 2
n
r m -1
n + ! + pmt (1 + )
Now multiply the equation above by (1+r/n). it will give you the equation;
F (1 + nr ) = pmt (1 + nr ) + pmt (1 + nr ) + pmt (1 + nr ) ! + pmt (1 + nr )
2 3 m

Take Eq2 – Eq1

F (1 + nr ) - F = pmt (1 + nr ) - pmt
m

Note that m = nt. Simplifying gives the ordinary annuity future value formula

F= pmt
(1 + nr ) - 1
nt

r
n

Formula for Ordinary Annuity:

F = pmt
(1+ ) r nt
n -1
r
n
ANNUITY DUE – receives one more period of compounding than the ordinary annuity so the
formula is

F = pmt
(1+ ) r nt
n -1
(1 + nr )
r
n

Example:
Find the future value of an ordinary annuity with a term of 25 years, payment period is monthly
with payment size of $50. Annual interest is 6%.
(1 + .1206 )(12)( 25) - 1
F = 50
.06
12

F = $34,649.70
à Note: We only put in $15,000. This means that interest earned was $19,649.70!

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SINKING FUNDS
A sinking fund is when we know the future value of the annuity and we wish to compute the
monthly payment.
For an ordinary unity this formula is
r
n
pmt = F
(1 + ) r nt
n -1
For an annuity due the formula is
r
n
pmt = F
(1 + )([ 1 + nr )nt - 1]
r
n

Example 1:
Suppose you decide to use a sinking fund to save $10,000 for a car. If you plan to make 60
monthly payments (5 years) and you receive 12% annual interest, what is the required payment
for an ordinary annuity?

Solution:

.12
12
pmt = 10000 (12 )( 5 )
= $122.45
(1 + ) .12
12 -1

Example 2:
In 18 years you would like to have $50,000 saved for your child’s college education. At 6%
annual interest, compounded monthly, what monthly deposit must be made to accomplish this
goal?
The question does not specify when the payments will be made so we use both formulas for
comparison.

For the ordinary annuity:

Solution:
.06
12
pmt = 50000 = $129.08
.06 (12 )(18 )
(1 + ) 12 -1

For the annuity due:

Solution:
.06
12
pmt = 50000
(1 + )((1 + )
.06
12
.06 (12 )(18 )
12 ) = $128.44
-1

V. ENRICHMENT VIDEOS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyiiqUQgEeA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mSyZAmjBt0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ed-sdtGpiYU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EyNoXCPETIk

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VI. REFERENCE:

http://www.mysmu.edu/faculty/christophert/QF101/businessMaths.pdf
http://unipub.lib.uni-corvinus.hu/3842/1/pfi-briefings.pdf
http://www.cimt.org.uk/cmmss/F2/Text.pdf
http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~jitse/math1510/notes-ch2.pdf

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE 3.1

I. TOPIC: MATHEMATICS OF FINANCE (Exact time & Ordinary time)

II. OBJECTIVE(S):

1. Understand the basic concept of consumers mathematics.

2. Know the application of the formula of consumers mathematics in real world.

III. INTRODUCTION:

Consumers mathematics is a branch of math that uses basic math skills in real life situations like
shopping, calculating taxes, estimating monthly budget, calculating interest rate for a loan, etc. By
learning this, you will know how to spend your money wisely, saving money as well and other
aspects of “money math” will prepare you to make better financial decisions.

IV. DISCUSSION:

Ordinary time: time that is based on counting 30 days in each month.

Exact time: time that is based on counting the exact number of days in a time period.

Example 1:
The ordinary time from July 12 to September 12 is 60 days.
To find the exact time from July 12 to September 12, add the following:

Days in July (31 -12 =) 19

Days in August 31
Days in September +12
62 days

Example 2:
Find the exact time from May 15 on Year 1 to March 15 in Year 2.
365 – 135 = 230
230 + 74 = 304 days
The exact time is 304 days.
Note: If Year 2 is a leap year, the exact time is 305 days.

Example 3:
A loan made on September 5 is due July 5 of the following year.
Find: a) ordinary time
b) exact time in a non-leap year
c) exact time in a leap year.
Ordinary time = 300 days
Exact time (non-leap year) = 303 days
Exact time (leap year) = 304 days

______________________________________________________________________________
Find the ordinary interest rate per day and the exact interest rate per day.

Ordinary interest: a rate per day that assumes 360 days per year.
Exact interest: a rate per day that assumes 365 days per year.
Banker’s rule: calculating interest on a loan based on ordinary interest and exact time which
yields a slightly higher amount of interest.

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For ordinary interest rate per day, divide the annual interest rate by 360.

Ordinary interest rate per day =

Interest rate per year
360

For exact interest rate per day, divide the annual interest rate by 365.

Exact interest rate per day =

Interest rate per year
365

Example 1: Use ordinary time to find the ordinary interest on a loan.

A loan of ₱ 500 at 7% annual interest rate. The loan was made on March 15 and due on May 15.
(Principal = ₱ 500) I = P x R x T
Length of loan (ordinary time) = 60 days
Rate = 0.07/360 (ordinary interest)
Interest = ₱ 500 x 0.07/360 x 60
Interest = ₱ 5.83

Example 2: Find the ordinary interest using exact time for the previous loan.
A loan of ₱ 500 at 7% annual interest rate. The loan was made on March 15 and due on May 15.
(Principal = ₱ 500) I = P x R x T
Length of loan (exact time) = 61 days
Rate = 0.07/360 (ordinary interest)
Interest = ₱ 500 x 0.07/360 x 61
Interest = ₱ 5.93

Example 3: Find the exact interest using exact time for the previous loan.
A loan of ₱ 500 at 7% annual interest rate. The loan was made on March 15 and due on May 15.
(Principal = ₱ 500) I = P x R x T
Length of loan (exact time) = 61 days
Rate = 0.07/365 (exact interest)
Interest = ₱ 500 x 0.07/365 x 61
Interest = ₱ 5.84

V. ENRICHMENT VIDEOS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyiiqUQgEeA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mSyZAmjBt0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ed-sdtGpiYU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EyNoXCPETIk

VI. REFERENCE:

http://www.mysmu.edu/faculty/christophert/QF101/businessMaths.pdf
http://unipub.lib.uni-corvinus.hu/3842/1/pfi-briefings.pdf
http://www.cimt.org.uk/cmmss/F2/Text.pdf
http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~jitse/math1510/notes-ch2.pdf

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