Chapter -1 Introduction to Man Made Fibre Technology

Basic on: Cotton, Jute, Wool, Silk, hydrophobic and Hydrophilic fibre, Amorphous and Crystalline, MMF,
Chemical FIbre, MR%, Functional group of Fibre
Fibre: The materials which consists fibrous structure and whose length is thousand times higher than its width is
called fibre.
Textile fibre:
The materials which consist fibrous structure and length is thousand times higher than its width/diameter and
can be spun into yarn, suitable for weaving or knitting and easily colored by suitable dye stuff are known as
textile fibre
MMF: The term MM or manufactured fibres means any fibre derived by a process of manufacture from any
substances which at any point in manufacturing process is not a fibre.

Natural fibres are replaced by man-made fibres due to following reason:

• The strength of MMF is greater than n.f.
• The production of n.f. depends upon natural condition. But the properties of MMF do not depend on n.f.
• Man made fibre processing is easy than natural fibre.
• The properties of MMF i.e. strength, appearance, action of acids, elasticity etc can be changed but not
incase of n.f.
• Man-made fibre is cheaper than n.f.
• Floods, droughts, natural calamity has no effect on man made fibre.

Forms of Man Made fibre: MMF are produced in three types –

1. Filament
2. Staple
3. Filament tow.
1. Filament: Filament fibres are spun from spinnerets with 350 holes or less is determined by the size of
the yarn to be made. The number of holes in the spinneret determines the no of filaments in the yarn
filaments are of two types:
Mono filament
Multi filament
Monofilament: This filament is made only of a single filament.
Multifilament: These filaments are made of more than one filament.
2. Staple fibre: Staple fibre is of limited and relatively short length .Staple fibres are made from filaments
which are spun from large spinnerets with as many as 3000 holes. The length of the staple fibre depends
on its use. Staple fibre is a unit of matter which is usually at least 100 times longer than its thick.
3. Filament Tow: The product of 100 or more spinnerets is collected into a large rope of fibres called Tow.
This rope or tow is crimped and then made into staple by cutting or breaking.
Differentiate between Natural fibre & MMF:
Natural Fibre Man Made fibre
1. The fibre which we get from nature are natural fibre. 1. The fibres made by regeneration system.
2. Number of molecular wt is not limited. 2. Limited.
3. Hygenic fabric made from N.F. 3. Non-hygenic.
4. Comfortable to wear. 4. Uncomfortable.

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5. It can not be made as our expected form. 5. It can be made.
6. The no of molecules controlled by nature. 6. The no of molecules controlled by man.
7. Dependent on climatic condition. 7. Independent production from climatic
condition.
8. Limited length 8. Unlimited length
9. Lower strength 9. Higher strength
10. NF are biodegradable 10. Non biodegradable
11. Costly 11. Cheap

Properties required for Fibre forming polymer:

 Molecular weight should be high.
 Crystallinity – high not suitable.
 Resistance to different chemical.
 Orientation – Physical and chemical symmetry.
 Straight chain structure.
 Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) – Should be near to Room Temp.
 Crystalline Melting Point (Tm) - 200o – 300o c is suitable.
 Polymer should be soluble in some solvent from which it can be spun.
 Hygroscopic nature – Should be hydrophobic
 Should be Linearity.
Chemical and Physical Modification of MMF:
1. Adding substance to the polymer or to spgn solution:
I) Delusturant agents. ie. Titanium oxide a white pigment.
II) Optical brightening agents. ie. Derivatives of stilbene, paraxoline, dibenzophenon.
III) Light stabilizer. ie. Polyhydroxy benzophenone.
2. Changing size and Shape of spinneret holes:
I) For carpet fibres – heavy denier from 15 – 24 den.
II) For dilobal fibres – Silk like.
III) For trilobal fibre – straw like or high lustures.
IV) For Multilobal fibres – bulk.
3. Varying conditions of extrusion and solidification.
I) Thick and thin – Slub yarns and multi color effect.
II) Hollow filaments.
4. After treatments – high tenacity fibres are produced by drawing either during or after spgn.

Modifying the spinning solution:

The following modification arte made by the addition of substance to the spgn solution:
1. Delusturing agent: TiO2, it prevents the reflection of the surface of the fibre. Variation in the amount of
pigment will control the degree of lusture to produce semi dull or dull fibres.
2. Solution dyeing: Addition of colored dyeing / pigments or certain dyes to the spgn solution or to the resin
polymer. It is also called spun dyeing or dope dyeing.

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 3. Whitening agent: To resists the yellowing and to make whiter fibre fluorescent whitening compounds
(dyes) added to the solution. This whiteness is permanent to washing and dry cleaning.
4. Light stabilized: To make lightly resistant.

Spinneret: A nozzle or plate provided with fine holes or slits through a fibre forming solution or melt is extruded
in fibre manufacturing is called spinneret. This is the most important part of a MMF producing m/c. The number
of holes, sizes and shapes vary with the filament desired.

Spinneret is made of Platinum, Iridium, Stainless steel, Tantalum.

Shape of spinneret hole:

Features of Spinneret:
1. Spinneret holes are slightly wider at the entry than the exit.
2. The denier of filament extruded through a hole does not depend upon its size, but it has some significance on
the efficient extrusion depending on melt delivery speed.
3. Special spinnerets are required for the production of hollow fibres and bicomponent fibres.
4. After long use the spinnerets get checked and it is essential to clean them.
5. The spinneret holes may be broken spotted.
6. Spinneret length: 10-25 mm (max 2m)
7. Spinneret diameter: 30-200 mm
8. Spinneret thickness: 3 mm
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9. Hole dia: 0.1-0.8 mm
Problems:
 Breaking (On account of high pressure and temp)
 Clogging (The holes can be blocked for solid particles mix with polymer solution).
Remedies:
 For breaking problem: the spinneret is to be changed.
 For clogging: the spinneret should be cleaned after some days.
Spinneret cleaning process:
I) Salt bath method
II) Solvent cleaning method
Flow chart of MMF production:
1. Manufacture of the fibre forming polymer.
2. Spinning ( extrusion through spinneret)
3. Stretching/Drawing ( improving strength and crystallinity)
4. Texturing/Crimping ( developing natural fibre properties)
5. Intermingling/Interlacing( applied instead of twisting)
6. Heat setting( made dimensionally stable)
1. Manufacturing of the fibre forming polymer:
All man made fibres are composed of long chain molecules known as polymer which are formed by chemical
processing. The polymer manufacturing process is the determining factor for many basic characteristics such
as density, melting point, dyeing behavior moisture absorption etc.
Common groups in polymers –
- Amide or Peptide groups ( -CO-NH-)
- Benzene ring
- Ether linkage( -C-O-C-)
- Ester linkage(-C-O-O-)
- Hydroxyl group (-OH)
- Nitrile group (-C-N-)
2. Spinning:
The conversion of polymer into fibre is called spinning. The fibre forming substance is made temporarily
fluid, extruded through spinneret and then returned to solid state (by solidification) in fibre form.
Three types of spinning process:
1. Melt spinning (Synthetic).
2. Wet spinning.
3. Dry spinning.
1. Melt spinning:
The process of spinning by which fibre or filament is produced from melted polymer chips by extruding through
spinneret continuous filament produced here. Number of filament depends on number of holes in spinneret. It is
the most critical operation is the production of nylon polyester, and polyolefin, poly propylene fibres as number of
fibre properties such as uniformity, crystallinity, and orientation are imparted to the yarn during processing.
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Melt spgn process: Synthetic polymer spgn:
I) At first the fibre forming polymer/polymer chips are fed into a hopper then to the melter.
II) At the melter the polymer is heated over melting point.
III) The full chamber is filled by N2 or inert gas.
IV) The polymer solution is pumped to the filter to removing impurities.
V) The polymer is then extruded through the spinneret holes.
VI) Cold air is passed over the filament to bring solid form.
VII) Then the Solid filaments are converted by converging guide to give a slight twist.
VIII) Apply spin finish.
Requirements:
4. The polymer should not be volatile.
5. The melting point of polymer should be 30oC less than its decomposition temp.
Advantage:
1. Can be used for both staple and continuous filament.
2. Direct and simple process.
3. No environment pollution.
4. No solvent required.
5. Non toxicity and no risk of explosion.
6. High production speed (2500 – 3000 ft/min)
7. Low investment cost.
Disadvantage:
1. Required more proper maintenance of the m/c.
2. For flat yarn separate stretching operation is reqd.
3. Heat of input is high.
Typical melt spinning:
Polymer Melting point
Nylon – 6, 6 264oC
Nylon – 6 220oC
PET 264oC
Polypropylene 167oC
Poly ethylene 125oC

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 Flow Chart
Feed

Melting

Metered
extrusion

Cooling &
solidification by
cold air.
Moisture
conditioning
Lubrication
Yarn driving
Packaging

2..Dry spinning:
n
In dry spg , the fibre forming polymer dissolved in a volatile solvent is introduced into a heated drying chamber
where the solvent is evaporated and solid fibre is obtained through spinneret. This process is used for Acetate and
some polyacrylonitrile fibre.
Dry spinning process:
1. Firstly the Solid polymer and suitable solvent is dissolved together in a solution vessel.
2. The solution vessel is filtered and stored to a feed vessel.
3. The solution is slightly heated by a heat exchanger.
4. Then it is pumped to the filter and to spinneret at specific rate of pressure.
5. Hot N2 gas is passed through the spgn cabinet
6. The evaporated gas is passed to the solvent recovery plant
7. Solid filament is treated to spin finish and then wound on a suitable package.
Dry spinning solvent:
Fibre Solvent
I) Cellulose - Acetone + (2-6) % water
II) Triacetate - Methylene chloride (40%) + Methanol (10%)
III) Poly acrylonitrile - Di-methyl formamide or Dimethyl acetamide.
IV) Spandex - DMF, DMAC.
V) Modacrylic - Acetone.
Advantage:
- Suitable for producing fire denier fibres.
- No need of wash of fibre.
Disadvantage:
- Investment cost is high.

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 - Toxic and risk of explosion.
- Heat input is very high.
- Can not be used for staple fibre production.

Feed

Metered extrusion
Solidification by solvent

Evaporation

Lubrication

Yarn driving

Packaging

Flow Chart
Properties of solvent:
- Solvent should not be volatile.
- It should be organic.
- It should have low boiling point.
- It should be comparatively cheap.
- It should have low latent heat of evaporation.
- It should be thermally stabilized.
- It should be non toxic.

3..Wet spinning:
In wet spinning a suitable solvent is used to prepare fibre forming solution and another coagulant is used in
coagulating bath. Solution is extruded through spinneret and in contact of coagulant cellulose is regenerated.
Process:
Wet spinning is carried out by the following steps:
1. Dope preparation
2. Extrusion
3. Spgn
4. Stretching
5. Spin finish
6. Drying & steaming
Procedure:

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 I) At first solic polymer and suitable solvent is dissolved in a solution vessel.
II) The solution is then heated in heat exchanger.
III) The solution is passed/extruded to spinneret which immersed in a coagulation bath/spin bath by pump.
IV) The polymer is then precipeted or is chemically regenerated and it is converted into the filament of
solid form.
V) The filament is converged and wound on bobbin.
VI) The wended filament is then drawn and finally it is washed & dried and is also wound on suitable
package.

Wet spgn solvent & coagulant:

Fibre Solvent Coagulant
Viscose Alkaline water Dill H2SO4 + Na2SO4 + ZnSO4
PVA Water Aqueous NaOH
PAN DMF/DMC +60% ZnCl2 Aq DMF/DMC + 40% ZnCl2

Advantage:
1. Suitable for staple fibre.
2. Both organic and inorganic solvent can be used.
3. Low temp reqd.
4. Higher production due to continue spgn.
5. Softener process.
6. Investment cost is low.
Disadvantage:
1. Slow spgn speed.
2. Washing and bleaching of fibres are needed.
3. Toxic.
Differentiate between melt, dry and wet spinning:
Parameter Melt spgn Dry spgn Wet spgn
1. Investment cost Low High Low
2. Hazard Non toxic Toxic Toxic
n
3. Heat of spg High Very high Low
4. Spinneret hole 2 – many thousands 300 – 900 20000 – 75000
n
5. Spg speed 2500 – 3000 ft/min 2500 – 3000 ft/min 150 – 300 ft/min
6. Productivity High Low High
7. Application Filament o Filament Filament or staple
r staple
8. Solvent Not required Only volatile Both organic and
organic solvent inorganic solvent
can be use.

4..Special spinning method:

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 1. Reaction spgn.
2. Emulsion/dispersion spgn.
3. Film splitting fibrillation.
i. Reaction Spinning: Chemical spgn:
The fibre forming polymers that do not melt, not soluble in suitable solvent or cross – linked during
polymerization are usually polymerized in this technique.
First pre polymer is made, then is spun in the bath of reagent. Polymerization and spun happen simultaneously.
Example – Spandex.

Advantage:
 Spgn is integrated with polymerization.
 Simple solvent may be need.
Disadvantage:
 Not suitable for higher denier.
 Skin contains polymer of higher molecular wt. than the care.

ii. Emulsion spinning:

This spun method is applied for those polymers which have very high melting point and difficult to solubilised.
PTFE poly Tetrafluoro ethylene is produced by this method.
nCF2 = CF2 [- CF2 – CF2 -]
The grind polymer is dispersed in water containing a water soluble polymer. Matrix is then spun into filament.
When the filament is sintered (heated to near Tm). Polymer particle join together. Then the matrix polymer is
removed by dissolving or evaporating.

iii. Fibrillated spinning:

Filament yarn may also be prepared by the extrusion of a thin film which is slit or fibrillated.
Fibrillated yarns are formed when a polymer film is passed through a line of rotary knives, usually spaced 2 – 4
mm apart. Fibrilate4d yarns are made by stretching a narrow sheet film longitudinally until it is highly oriented
and then cracking it into thousands of fine filaments called fibrils by stretching laterally.
Factors of spinning:
The spinning process depends on –
- Melting point of fibre.
- Decomposition temp of fibres.
When decomposition temp is higher than melting point of fibre then fibre is spun by melt spgn.
When fibre forming polymer is decomposed (components breakdown) at melting point then the dry spgn is used.
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3.. Drawing: The process by which the yarn/ fibre is elongated by passing it through a semi series of pair of
rollers, each pair moving faster than the previous one is called drawing. Drawing is always carried out in a plastic
condition. It is a system which removes stable, weak and brittle properties of filament.
Object:
- To increase strength.
- To reduce elongation at break.
- To reduce creep property.
- To increase orientation and crystallinity.
- To remove brittleness and instability of the filament.
Drawing process:
1. Drawing unplasticized condition
2. Drawing in plasticized condition
3. Wet stretching (during wet spgn)
1. Un plasticized condition:
In cold un plasticized condition- If the Tg of fiber is about room temperature , then no extra heat is used. At first,
un drawn yarn are

passed between two control roller and then arranged into snubber pin and stretched through the draw roller. In hot
un plasticized condition-A heater is used between the pin and draw roller and heated at suitable temperature. As
for example, for Polyester (Terylene)and Acrylic the draw temperature is 800C
2. Plasticized condition:
In this process, at first the un drawn yarn is passed through the two pair stretching roller which is taken in a
plasticizing bath . Then it is rinsed and wound in a bobbin.

Condition:
Three factors are considered for drawing –

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 a) Draw ratio: During drawing the ratio of speed of front(out put)roller to the back(in put)roller is called
draw ratio.
Draw ratio=V2/V1. Where V2>V1
b) Draw speed.
c) Draw temperature.

Effect of drawing on fiber properties:

The effect of un drawn fiber structure on the structure and properties of drawn and finished mtl is due to the fact
that the original structure is not completely destroyed in case of drawing. The more pronounced the crystalline
structure in un drawn fibers, the stronger the effect on properties of drawn fibers.
Properties of highly oriented fibres:
- High tenacity.
- Low elongation.
- Brittleness.
- Increased lusture.
- Low moisture absorption.
- High chemical stability.
- Low dyeing affinity.
- Unattractive handle.
The skin effect:
The molecules in the skin of the fibre are more highly oriented than those in the middle. The extra resistance
encountered by the spgn solution in contact with the edge of the orifice lines up the long molecules and increases
orientation or crystallinity.

Orientation effect:
1. The molecules align them-self parallel or nearly so to the fibre axis.
2. The molecules because of their improve alignment are able to pack themselves in a more orderly
manner so that the fibre becomes more crystalline.
3. In some cases the molecules unfolds particularly incase of Nylon.
4. The molecule slide over each other.
5. As a result of the improved packing there is more opportunity for interatomic attractive forces to be
exerted in particular hydrogen bonds.
4. Texturisation:
Textured yarn:

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Texturisation is the process by which flat filaments are distorted to have crimps, coils, curls or loops along their
length to achieve bulk and greater absorbency.

Basic principle of Texturisation:

Texturisation is performed in 3 steps:
1. To heat the yarn .
2. To impart the required shape of filament.
3. To cool it to retain the shape.
Advantage:
 Crease resistance, dimensionally stable.
 Better appearance, softer handle.
 Higher absorbency and better perspiration Process of Texturisation:
conductivity.  False twist method.
 Better air permeability.  Stuffer box method.
 More flexibility.  Gear box method.
Disadvantage:  Knit – de knit method.
 Create problem in laundering.  Stress – curled method.
 Reduce strength.  Knife – edge crimping method.
 Decrease abrasion resistance.  Physical/ chemical crimping method.
 Creates hairiness of fibre.  Air Jet method
False Twist method:
The false twist method is the most important and the most widely used technique for producing textured Yarn.
The false twist method combines all three stages –
 Twisting
 Heat setting
 Untwisting in one continuous operation
The false twist type yarn m/cs currently used for manufacturing stretch and modified stretch yarn. The false twist
process consist of softening a continuous filament yarn by heating it make more pliable deforming the softened
yarn by twisting, cooling the yarn .In the twisted state to set deformation and then removing the inserted twist by
reverse twisting, a typical arrangement is shown below:

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 Due to the combined thermal and mechanical force a
considerable amount of secondary valency bond are broken ,
on cooling this bonds are reformed. The productivity of false
twist m/c depends on spindle speed provided the twist is kept
const.
Nylon, Polyester, Viscose, Acetate and Poly propylene is used.
Air Jet Method:
 Most widely used.
 Incase of polyester, Nylon, Air steam is passed over the untextured yarn.
 Incase of viscose only air is passed because water (steam) reduces strength of viscose.
Classification of Textured yarn:
After texturisation yarn can classified into three classes:
I) Stretch yarn.
II) Modified stretch yarn.
III) Bulk yarn.
1. Stretch yarn:
Property: High extensible, less bulk.
Process of Texturisation: False twist method, edge crimping.
End use: Socks, swimming costume.
2. Modified stretch yarn:
Property: Intermediate between stretch and bulk yarn.
Process of Texturisation: False twist method, edge crimping, heat treatment.
End use: Carpet, Upholstery.
3. Bulk yarn:
Property: High bulk, less extensible.

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 Process of Texturisation: Air Jet, stuffer box, false twist method.
End use: Carpet, Garments.
5. Intermingling:
The process which can be made the synthetic yarn smooth by adding additives or spot welding to protrude
filament ends is called intermingling.
It is very hard and costly to twist the man made fibre.
Ways of intermingling:
I) Spot welding: Heat treatment/ Adhesive s are used.

II) Air Jet: Composed air at high pressure.

Advantage:
 Cheap
 More effective
 Easy process
 Very quick

6. Heat setting:
The process of imparting dimensional stability to  The fibres become very stiff.
fibre, yarns, fabrics or garments with successive  Uneven shade due to uneven heat set.
heating and cooling in dry and moist conditions is  If heat set is done after dyeing then
called heat setting. elimination of dyes as a result of patchiness.
The different levels of heat setting may be defined 7. Spin finish:
as: Spin finishes are the lubricant which provides
I) Temporary set. surface lubricating, plasticizing and static protection
II) Semi – permanent set. to man made fibre. It is applied in fluid condition
III) Permanent set. just before wind up.
Objects: Objects:
 To make the yarn, fabric, fibre  To lubricate yarn.
dimensionally stable.  To reduce static electricity.
 To remove shrinkage of fabric.  To increase the cohesion of the yarn.
Disadvantage:  To plasticize the fibre.
II) Plasticizers: Plasticizers make the fibre
Different type of spin finishes: more flexible by reducing the glass
I) Lubricants: Used to control the friction of transition temp and also reduce brittleness.
the fibre. Example: Dibutyl, Silicate esters, Silicate.
Example: Oils, polyglycols, ester of fatty III) Antistatic agents: Antistatic agents are
acid. hygroscopic chemicals which can conduct
the static charge from fibre to air or earth to

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 improve dielectric const and to reduce co- 3. It must be provided with cohesiveness to
efficient of friction. the filament.
Example: Inorganic salt (such as lithium 4. It should not be oxidized in the air.
chloride) 5. It should give stable emulsion.
Ester of fatty acid (Butyl stearate) 6. It should not be carcinogenic.
Alcohols, amide (NN-dihydroxy ethyl 7. It should have good wetting property.
stearamide) 8. It should be non- toxic.
Poly oxyethylene derivatives etc. 9. It should be cheap and easily available.
10. It should not affect dyeing or finishing
Properties/ Requirements of spin finishes: process.
1. To lubricate the filament for controlling 11. It should be chemically inert.
the friction. 12. It should not object able color or odor.
2. It should have anti static properly.
8. Additives:
Additives are chemical compound which are added to fibre forming polymer before polymerization reaction or
before spgn to change the properties of fibre and improve its performance. Additives can cot be used when
filaments come out from the spinneret.
Classification of additives:
1. Delusturing agent:
These arte used to reduce transparency increase whiteness and to prevent undesirable lusture in the fibre
Titanium oxide (TiO2) is widely used as delusturing agent. TiO2 is a white pigment having very fine molecules.
Substances having large through the spinneret and can not disperse well within fibre.
Its characteristics —
 Chemically inert, not affected by wet processing.
 Available in fine form of molecules and uniform particle size.
 Resistant to sunlight.
 Its in corporation reduces fibre strength.
2. Mass pigmentation: Pigments for mass coloration:
Addition of color pigments or certain dyes to the spgn soln or to the resin polymer is Mass pigmentation. In this
process maximum inorganic pigments are used.
Advantage:
 High evenness.
 Pigment dyeing.

3. Optical Brightener agent (OBA):

There are colorless dyes. They absorb invisible ultra violet radiation and reflect this in range of visible blue light.
This causes the textile mtl to reflect more blue light and makes the mtl whiten and brighter. Any organic
compound having alternate double bond can be used as brighter agent. e.g. Derivatives of Stilbene, Paraxiline,
Dibenzophenon, Benzamidozole.
4. Light stabilizer: Polyhydroxy benzophenone.

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5. Heat stabilizer: Tris (2, 3 dibromo propyl phosphate) salt of Cu and Mn as phosphate or phosphoties.
6. Special additives (To increase dye take up): N – alkyl diperzine.
7. Solution dyeing: Addition of colored pigments or certain dyes to the spgn soln or resin polymer called dope
dyeing.
8. Whitening: Fluorescent,To resist yellowing. This is permanent to washing and dry cleaning.
Principles of the spgn process:
The manufactures of fibres from synthetic or modified natural polymers involves technical operation:
 Preparation of spgn fluid from solid polymer (or directly from monomers).
 Spgn i.e. extrusion of the spinning fluid through spinneret, extension of the emerging fluid jets into
filaments of required thickness, accompanied by solidification of polymer mtl and collection of the
obtained filaments on a suitable mechanical device ( rotation bobbin).
 Mechanical, thermal and chemical treatment of the fibres to improve their properties.

Name spgn process following fibre:

Melt spgn: polyester (PET), Nylon-6, Nylon-6,6, PET, Polypropylene, and Polyethylene.
Dry spgn: Cellulose, Acetate, Triacetate, PAN, PVA, Modacrylic, Spandex, Polyacrylonitrile.
Wet spgn: Viscose rayon, PVA, PAN.

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