FORENSIC BALLISTICS

The word "forensic" comes from the Latin word "forensis," meaning " of the forum” or “market place” where people gather for public
discussion. Today forensic refers to the application of scientific principles and practices to the adversary process where specially
knowledgeable scientists play a role.

Ballistics- refers to the science that deals with the study of the motion of projectiles and the conditions affecting such motion. The
study of Ballistics covers from the time the gunpowder explode, the time the projectile leaves from the barrel of the gun and the time it
strikes the target.
It is derived from the Greek word “ballo” or “ballein” which means to throw. It was also derived from an early Roman
machine known as “ballista” which means a gigantic bow or catapult which used to hurl missiles or large objects at a particular
distance.

Projectile
 refers to the metallic or non-metallic object propelled from the firearm by means of heated gas coming from the burning
gunpowder.

Ballistic fingerprinting
 involves analyzing firearm, ammunition and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used
in the commission of a crime.

Brief History
Before the mass manufacturing of guns began, barrels and bullet molds were handmade by gunsmiths. Thus, the exclusivity
of each firearm was unavoidable. This meant that the bullets fired always bore some exclusive impressions which were unique to a
specific firearm.
The first case of forensic firearm examination to be documented was in 1835. That was when Henry Goddard applied ballistic
fingerprinting to link a bullet recovered from the victim to the actual culprit.
Important Person in the History of Firearms

Firearm – is any weapon that uses gunpowder to fire a bullet or shell. Generally, the term used for light firearms, such as rifles,
shotguns and pistols. They are often called as Arms. Heavier firearms are generally called as artillery. Any firearm, large or small, has
four essential parts:
1. Barrel
2. Chamber
3. Breech Mechanism
4. Firing Mechanism
Handgun.Short Arms
1. Pistol – handgun that is magazine feed, it is said that pistol were invented in the Italian City of “PISTOIA”, where handguns
are made as early as the late 15th Century.
2. Revolver - from Latin revolvere (“to turn over, to roll over”), from re- (“back, again”) + volvō (“roll”). A handgun with a
corresponding cylinder that revolves before the barrel which consist of different chambers.

Parts of a Handgun
1. Frame – main body of the gun that connects the other parts
2. Grip – handle of the gun
3. Barrel – metal tube through which the bullet is fired
4. Sights – used to line up the handgun with the target
5. Action – main working parts of the handgun such as the trigger, the hammer and the cartridge chamber
6. Safety – mechanism that prevents the gun from being fired unintentionally
Three Main Parts of Firearms
Revolver
1. Barrel assembly
2. Cylinder assembly
3. Frame or receiver

Pistol
1. Barrel assembly

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 2. Slide assembly
3. Frame or receiver
Rifle
1. Barrel assembly
2. Magazine assembly
3. Stock group
Shotgun
1. Barrel assembly
2. Magazine assembly
3. Stock group
Calvin H. Goddard
 known today as the Father of Modern Ballistics. He invented the Bullet Comparison Microscope.
Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson
 founders of the great firm Smith and Wesson and pioneered the making of the breech loading rifles as well as revolvers.
John M. Browning
 Known as the Wizard of Modern Firearms. He pioneered the breech loading single shot rifle.

David Carbine Williams

 the person who invented the carbine firearm. Alexander John Forsyth- he is known as the father of Percussion ignition.
Samuel Colt- the first person who produced the first practical revolver.
Sir Hiram Maxim
 an American inventor of the machine gun or the maxim gun. Richard Gatling - inventor of the Gatling gun, a machine
gun with a six barrel capable of firing 200 rounds per minute at the earliest stages of development.
Gatling Gun
 a hand driven, crank operated multi barrel machine gun.

Inventors And Manufacturers

Armalite
 occasionally, the home of manufacturing company becomes almost a generic term. It happens with the colt produced M16,
which has been designed and develop at Armalite. The Armalite business was form by Charles Dorchester and George
Sullivan in 1950. Armalite employed Eugene Stoner, Chief Engineer and one of the top designer of the country.
Browning, J.M.
 born in 1855. Started the production of single shot rifle that was adopted by Winchester
Col. Samuel Colt
 was born on July 1814 and was instrumental in making the revolver, a practical type of pistol.
Derringer, Henry
 born in the beginning of 19th century. Worked at Philadelphia where he manufactured Pocket Pistol.
Garand, John C.
 was born in North Carolina in 1818. Developed the hang-ranked machine gun. A development of Duver Gatling type of
machine gun.
Luger, George
 was born in Australia in 1849. he did lasting designed that work in connection with 9mm Parabellum cartridge.
Marlin, Jonh Mahlon
 New Haven, Connecticut manufacturer of lever action rifle, 1800’s.
Mauser
 Paul and Wilhelm brothers produced parts of the rifle which had been adopted by the German government in 1871.
Mossin, Sergei
 Colonel of Russia Army. Designated in Russian Service Rifle in 1891.
Mossberge, Oscar
 born in Sweden in 1866 and went to the United States. The maker of high quality .22 rifles. Sporting rifles and pump action
shotguns.
Sig (Schweizerische Industrie Cesselshalf)
 adopted by the Swiss government as their standard service weapon. The company started to produced railway engines and
carriage in 1853.
Smith And Wesson
 Horace Smith and Daniel B. Wesson formed a partnership in 1852. They manage by producing what is probably the best
double-action revolver in the world. (Daniel Wesson left the company to set up his own firearm business).
Thompson, John
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  born in 1860 in Newport, Kentucky. Designed the Thompson submachine gun in 1920.
Tokarev, Fedor
 born in Egorlikshaya in 1971. Designed the service pistol of the Soviet forces.
Winchester, Oliver
 he led the formation of the Winchester Company.

Branches of Ballistics
 Interior/Internal Ballistics- It is the study of the motion of the projectile while still inside the gun barrel, this
covers from the time the firearm is loaded with the cartridge, the explosion and the movement of the bullet
towards the muzzle end of the gun.

Subjects of Study under Interior Ballistics

1. Firing Pin striking the primer
2. Ignition of the priming mixture
3. Combustion of gunpowder
4. Expansion of heated gas in the chamber
5. Pressure developed
6. Energy generated
7. Recoil of the gun
8. Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
9. Rotation of the bullet in the barrel
10. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet
Misfire Vs Hang-Fire

Misfire refers to the failure of the cartridge to explode after the firing pin strikes the primer while Hang-fire
refers to the delay of explosion of the gunpowder after the firing pin hits the primer.

Gyroscopic Stability
It is the stability of the flight of the bullet within the effective range due to the twist of the lands and grooves from the
breech end to the muzzle end. The rifling is a combination of lands and grooves.

Terms to know
Yaw – the unstable rotation of the bullet
Ricochet – bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal path) after striking a resistant surface.
Gallery Range – indoor target range
Shocking power – power of the bullet that result in the instantaneous death of the victim.
Stopping power – power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly.

 Exterior/ External Ballistics- It is the study of the motion and traits of projectiles, after it has left from the muzzle of the gun,
which includes the condition of the bullets movement and flight up to the target.

Terms to know
1. Muzzle Blast- a sound or noise created at the muzzle end of the gun.
2. Muzzle Energy- energy generated at the muzzle end whenever the cartridge explodes from the firearm.
3. Trajectory- refers to the curved path in the horizontal flight of the bullet which usually occurred a few
meters away from the muzzle of the firearm.
4. Range- is the straight distance from the muzzle of the gun to the target.
5. Velocity- it is the speed of the bullet per unit of the time, which is expressed in foot per second.
6. Air resistance- the resistance encountered by the bullet in flight which is early experience by the bullet few
meters away from the muzzle of the gun.
7. Pull of gravity- it is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth center due to its weight.
8. Penetration- is the point where the bullet hits the target.
Classifications:
a. Accurate/effective range - refers to the distance within which the shooter or the firer has control of his
shot.
b. Maximum Range - refers to the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm up to the
final vertical drop to the ground.

 Terminal Ballistics- This refers to the study of the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target.

Subjects of Study of Terminal Ballistics

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 1. Terminal Accuracy-Refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.
2. Terminal Energy- the energy of the bullet when it strikes the target. This refers to the fatal equivalent of a bullet
when it struck the victim.
3. Terminal Velocity- this refers to the speed of the bullet upon hitting the target which is express in foot per second
4. Terminal penetration- refers to the depths of the entry of the bullet on the target.
Forensic Ballistics- This refers to the investigation and identification of firearms by means of ammunitions fired
from the submitted suspected firearms.

Scope Of Forensic Ballistics

Field Investigation
 the job of the field investigator
 includes recognition, collection, markings, prevention, packing and transmittal of ballistics exhibit
Technical Examination of the Ballistics Exhibit
 job performed by a firearm identification examiner
 includes markings of evidence, test-firing evidences, photomicrography, and preparation of reports
Legal Proceeding
 the most critical part in the field of firearm identification
 the firearm examiner goes to court to testify as an expert witness
Phases:
 Field Investigation
 Preparation for court trial

Legal definition of Firearms or Arms

 refers to any handheld or portable weapon, whether a small arm or light weapon, that expels or is designed to
expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any projectile, which is discharged by means of expansive force of gases
from burning gunpowder or other form of combustion or any similar instrument or implement. For purposes of this
Act, the barrel, frame or receiver is considered a firearm.
 … includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot
shell or other missile may be discharged of by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also include air rifles except
such as being of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete
firearm for all purposes hereof.” provided by Sec 877, Revised Administrative Code and Sec 290, National Internal Revenue
Code

Technical Definition of Firearm

 an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of expansive force of gases coming from the
burning gun powder
Low-Powered Firearm
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity of less than 1850 ft/sec

High-Powered Firearm
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity between 1925 and 2500 ft/sec
High-Intensity Firearm
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity of over 2500 ft/sec
Automatic
- when the mechanism is so arranged that it will fire continuously while the trigger is depressed

Republic Act 10591 - "Comprehensive Firearms and Ammunition Regulation Act".

Note: Airsoft Rifle/Pistol includes battery operated, spring and gas type powered rifles/pistol which discharge plastic or
rubber pellets only as bullets or ammunition. This differs from replica as the latter does not fire plastic or rubber pellet
(PNP Circular No. 11).
• Registration- One time registration. In case of transfer of ownership to a qualified citizen, the
required procedure in the transfer of regular airgun shall apply.
• Transport- A Permit To Transport (PTT) airsoft rifle/pistol shall be required for the transport of all airsoft
rifles/pistols from the place of residence to any game or exhibition site.
• Firearm shall refer to the “firearm” as defined in existing laws, rules and regulations. The term shall
include airguns, airsoft guns, and replicas/imitations of firearms in whatever form that can cause an
ordinary person to believe that they are real (Resolution 9561-A, COMELEC). This definition only applies
during election season.
General Classes of Firearms
I. Firearms according to the Mechanical Internal Constructions of Gun Barrel
a. Rifle Bore Firearms – are those types of firearms wherein the bore is cut longitudinally with a number of spiral grooves
from the breech end to the muzzle end of the barrel, a combination of the lands grooves inside the barrel is called rifling.
Lands- the elevated portions inside the bore of the barrel.
Grooves- the depressed portions inside the bore of the barrel.
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 b. Smooth Bore Firearms - firearms which do not have rifling, but just plain bore from the breech end up to
the muzzle end. Examples: Musket and Shotguns
II. Firearms according to the Projectiles Propelled
a. Artillery - are those types of firearms that propel projectile that is more than one inch in diameter.
Examples: Mortar, Cannon, Bazooka, M203 Grenade Launcher
b. Small Arms - any firearms designed to fire projectiles that is less than one inch in diameter.
Examples: .45 cal. Firearm, revolver,
III. Firearms According to Mechanical Constructions
a. Single Shot Firearm - those firearms designed to fire only one shot for every loading which have to be
reloaded for each shot.
b. Repeating Firearm - firearm designed to fire several rounds of cartridges in one loading
c. Automatic Firearm - are those firearms in which the mechanisms are so arranged that it will reload fresh
cartridge and unload fired cartridge case after firing. Automatic firearms can be full automatic or semi-
automatic.
d. Bolt Action Type - firearms that are provided with a box magazine under the bolt but some of them have
tubular magazine like a trombone action firearm.
e. Automatic Loading Type - firearm in which after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding in the
chamber takes place as long as the trigger is squeezed by the firer.
f. Slide/Pump Action Type - this type of firearm can be opened by grasping the forearm which is usually a
wooden part of the gun, located under the barrel. This firearm is designed to slide back and forth.
g. Lever Action Type - the trigger guard of this type of firearm is hinged at the front end, which is connected
with the breech mechanism. After firing, the finger lever is moved downward so as to cause the trigger
guard to pivot on its hinged and its forward extension is to move back.
In the history, the so called “German Gustav Gun” is the largest gun ever used in combat.

Zip Gun- a name applied to all homemade guns. This class of gun found to have a clever mechanism most are effective
weapon/ammunition/cartridge

Paradox Gun – a shotgun having the last few inches of the muzzle rifled so that it will impart a spin to the slug or shots.
.
Origin of the word Cartridge
 derived from the word, CHARTA, the Latin for paper
 derived from the word, CARTOUCHE, French for rolling paper.

Legal Definition of Ammunition

 a loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missile
may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives
Technical Definition of Ammunition
 a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and primer; single round
Parts of a Cartridge Case
Base
 the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp containing the caliber, manufacturer, and in some
cases, the date, trade name and batch number
Rim
 the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge to chamber
Extracting Grooves
 the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case from the chamber
Primer Pocket
 the part which provides the means for the primer to be put in the central position
Body
 the cylindrical part of the shell which houses the gunpowder
Shoulder
 supports the neck of the cartridge
Cannelure
 the cylindrical groove formed in the outer surface of the cartridge case designed to secure the shell to the chamber as well as
prevent the bullet from being pushed down to the powder charge
Neck
 the part actually occupied by the bullet
Crimp
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  the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed to hold the bullet and prevent it from being pulled out from the shell
Vent Or Flash Hole
 the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket serving as the passage way for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the
propellant charge.

1. Boxer – one flash hole. Invented by Col Edward Munier Boxer in the USA (1869)
2. Berdan – two flash holes. Invented by Hiram Berdan in New York (1850)
Primer
 the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly sensitive chemical compound that would
easily ignite or burst into flames when struck by the firing pin
 also known as the percussion cup
Origin
1807 – Alexander John Forsyth, conceived the percussion ignition system. First successful priming mixture was composed of
potassium chlorate

Bullet - a projectile propelled

through the barrel of a firearm by
means of an expansive force of gases coming from a burning gunpowder. It is also called as ball, or shot.
Originated from the French word “BOULLETE” meaning a small ball. In police parlance, a bullet may be called “slug”

Classifications of Bullet
a. Lead Bullets - those made of lead or alloy of metals, tin and antimony which is slightly harder than pure
lead.
b. Jacketed Bullets - those made of lead core covered with jacket of harder material.
Principal types of Bullet
a. Ball bullets - have soft lead core inside a jacket and are used against person. This is the original
terminology for bullet.

b.

Armor piercing bullets - have hardened steel core, and are

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 fired at vehicles and other armoured targets. It is pointed flat base bullet with gliding metal jacket. The core
is of pointed, boat-tailed shape and is made of harden tungsten, chrome steel and has a blackened tip.
Used to penetrate armored cars and vehicles.

c. Tracer Bullets - sets on fire when the bullet is projected. The flash of light and smoke from burning,
permits flight of the tracer bullet to be seen, especially at night time. Its path continues its light enabling the
shooter to fixed his target at a particular distance. When fired, emit a light red flame from its base, there by
showing the gunner the trace of flame, the path as well as the striking point of the bullet, the flame
continuing to burn and trace about 600 yards. These are intended primarily for machine gun use and can
be seen by day and night. The tip of the bullet colored red is for identification.

d. Incendiary bullets - contain a mixture such as phosphorous or other materials that can be set on fire by impact. These
are used on targets that will readily burn such as aircraft and gasoline depot

e. Explosive/fragmentary bullets - contain a high charge of explosive.

f. Dum-Dum Bullet - this word and type of bullet were invented by British Ordinance force stationed at their
arsenal at Dum-Dum, India. The British army was engaged in extensive Punitive expedition on the
Northwest Frontier of India, fighting against Afghan and Pathan tribesmen. It soon developed that such a
full jacketed bullet was of no practical effect against primitive natures. So the English made some of these
bullets expanding by grinding of the nose of the jacketed bullet. These are now known as Hallow Point
bullet and Soft Point Bullet.

g. Gas Check Bullet - to prevent the melting of the base, lead bullets intended to be fired at higher velocity
have their gases protected with a small copper cups. The bullet is casts with a slightly tape-ring base, and
the copper gas chock is then pressed lightly on the
bore, the cup
remaining on the
bullet when it
is fired.

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 h. Wad Cutter Bullet – a cylindrical bullet design having a sharp shouldered nose intended to cut target paper clearly to
facilitate easy and accurate soaring.

i. Wax Bullet - a bullet made from paraffin and other wax preparation usually used for short range indoor
target shooting.

Shots or Pellets- these are projectiles designed for shotguns. A single projectile propelled from a firearm is called a slug.
1. Cartridge Case- the tubular metallic container for gunpowder. It is called also as shell or casing. It holds
together the primer, gunpowder, and bullet. It is also called as shell or casing.
2. Gunpowder- a propellant or powder charge which when ignited by the primer flash, is converted into
heated gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shots through the barrel.
Roger Bacon did not invent gunpowder; it was invented in China in the 9th century under the Tang Dynasty.
However, Roger Bacon is credited with being the first Western intellectual to produce gunpowder after
witnessing at least one demonstration of explosives from the Mongol Empire. In 1886, Paul Vieille, a
French Chemist, invented Smokeless Gunpowder.
Discovery of the Black Powder
1. First developed by Chinese Alchemist
2. The first explosive used to propel missiles for military use
Historical Background
 10th Century AD, China - used for military purpose in the form of rockets and explosive bombs fired from
catapult.
 1126 AD – first cannon appeared, Chinese soldiers used oiled bamboo tubes in killing enemy at great distances.
 1242 AD - Roger Bacon, English philosopher, the first to describe its preparation.
 1304 – Arabs produced the first gun, a bamboo tube reinforced with iron that used a charge of black poweder to
shoot an arrow.
Note: the weight of the gunpowder in a cartridge is expressed in grains in English speaking countries, but in countries
which used the metric system, the weight is expressed in terms of grams.

Note: The standard ingredients of black powder are:

1. Potassium Nitrate 75%,
2. Sulfur 10%,
3. Charcoal 15%.
Primer- the metal cup containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical compound which when hit by a firing pin
would ignite or detonate. It is the complete assembly of priming mixture, paper disk, anvil and vent.
The Composition of a PRIMER

1. Potassium Chlorate - 45%

2. Antimony Sulfide - 23%
3. Fulminate of Mercury - 32%

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Parts of the Primer
Primer Cup
 the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the disc and the anvil
Priming Mixture
 the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing pin
Anvil
 that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the firing pin causing friction that would initiate
ignition
Disc
 a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it from moisture attack

Classification of Cartridge according to Rim

1. Rimmed Type - the diameter of the rim is greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
e.g. caliber .38 and caliber .22.
2. Semi-Rimmed Type - the diameter of the rim is slightly greater than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case. e.g. caliber .25. 32 auto. Super .38.
3. Rimless Type - the diameter of the rim is equal to the body of the cartridge case. e.g. caliber .5.56mm,
.30, .9mm, .45.
4. Rebated Type – the diameter of the rim is smaller than the body of the cartridge case, e.g. caliber 8mm x
59
5. Belted Type- there is a protruding metal around the body of the cartridge case near the rim. e.g. caliber
338 magnum 13.9 x 39
Three Systems of Measuring Caliber
a) English system – expressed in thousandths of an inch (cal. 380)
b) American system – expressed in hundredths of an inch (cal. 38)
c) European or continental system – expressed in millimeter
Caliber - the bore diameter measured between two opposite lands

Types of Cartridge Case According to Location Of Primer

1. Pin-Fire Cartridge - the pin extent radially through the bead of the cartridge case into the primer. This type of
cartridge is no longer use

2. Rim-Fire Cartridge - the priming mixture is place in the cavity formed in the rim of the head of the cartridge case

3. CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE - the primer cup is force to the middle portion of the head of the cartridge case.

4. PERCUSSION - a means of ignition of propellant change

by a mechanical blow against the primer or percussion
cap.

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 a. Low power- a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of less than 1850 ft/sec.
b. High power- a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of between 1925 and 2500 ft/sec.
c. High intensity- a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity over 2500 ft/sec.

Function Of Cartridge Cases

1. It holds the bullet gunpowder and primer.
2. It serves as a water proof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of gases to the rear.

Different Tests for Gunshot Residue (GSR)

1. Paraffin- Diphenylamine Test- used to determine the presence of GSR by pouring a paraffin wax in the
hands of the suspected shooter and allowed to cool. The cast is pulled off the hands and the adhering
residue is subjected to diphenylamine reagent.
2. Sodium Rhodizonate- a chemical test used to determine the presence of lead styphnate.
3. Walker Test- a chemical test for the presence of nitrites in unburned or partially burned propellants. This
may also give the investigator the valuable information about the range which the weapon was fired.
4. Marshal and Tiwari Test- used to determine the firearm distance, both tests are for the detection of
nitrites.

Marking of Fired Bullet

Fired Bullet
The investigator should mark his initials or the initials of the victim in the ogive or nose or on the base of the bullet together
with the corresponding date of recovery. The markings can be done by the use of an instrument known as Stylus.

Note: Do not use ‘X” in marking evidences, because X is a universal mark.

For Test Firing: Example T-28-1
T = Test
28 = refers to the last digit of the serial no. Of the original firearm used in the test fire.
1 = refers to the number of cartridge to be tested.

Fired Shells
 marked by the recovering officer with his initials and the date of recovery
Marks may be made in any of the following parts:
1. inside, near the open mouth
2. outside, near the open mouth
3. on the body of the shell
 never place the marks at the base
 never use the letter “X”
Suspected Firearm
 marked by the recovering officer with his initials
 markings should be made on all of the three main and inseparable parts:
1. barrel
2. cylinder (if revolver) or slide (in pistol)
3. frame
 a tag should be made with the following information:
1. type of firearm
2. make or model
3. caliber
4. serial number (very important)
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 5. date of recovery
6. name of victim (if known)
7. name of suspect (if known)
8. other features of value
 always put your markings on the parts that can never be replaced
 never use the letter “X”
Class Characteristics vs Individual Characteristics

Class Characteristics - are those characteristics marking that are determinable even prior to the manufacture of the
firearms. These are factory specifications and within the control of man.
a. Bore diameter/calibre - the diameter of the bore measured from land to land
b. Number of lands
c. Number of grooves
d. Width of lands
e. Direction of the twist
f. Pitch of the riflings - the distance advanced by the rifling in one. complete turn or a distance traveled by the
bullet in one complete turn.
g. Depth of the grooves

Pitch of Rifling - it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to the number of inches or distance
advance by the rifling in one complete turn.

Example of Class Characteristics from Firearm

Manufacturer 4R-G3X
4 = 4 lands and 4 grooves
R =right hand twist of the rifling
G3X =the width of the grooves are 3 times wider than the width of the lands.

Types Of Rifling
1. Steyr Type - four lands, four grooves, right hand twist and lands or equal widths (4-R-G=L) used in earlier self-
loading pistols.
2. Smith And Wesson Type - five lands and five grooves, right hand twist and lands of equal width (5-R- G=L)
3. Browning Type - six lands, six grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broad grooves. (6-R-G-2x)
4. Colt Type - six lands and six grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and broad grooves. (6-L-G-2x)
5. Webley Type - seven lands, seven grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broad grooves. (7-R-G3x)
6. Army Type - four lands and four grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broad grooves. (4-R-G3x)
Individual/Accidental Characteristics- are those characteristics marking which are peculiar in a particular striation and
do not appear in all other firearms.

Marks/Striations on Fired Bullet

1. Rifling Marks - marks caused by the lands and grooves.

2. Skid Mark – it is caused by worn out of the barrel

.

3. Stripping/Shaving Marks - this is caused by bullet jumping towards the forcing cone or breech end of the
barrel. Usually it is caused by the misalignment of the chamber of the revolver and the breech end of the barrel.

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 4. Slippage marks- it is caused by the rotating resistance of the bullet upon entering in the rifling of the breech
end.

Marks/Striations on Fired Cartridge Case

1. Firing Pin Marks - found on the primer of the primer cup which is the central area of the base of the cartridge.
But it would be different in rim fire cartridges, the firing pin strikes in any portion of the rim where the priming
mixture is located.

2. Breechface markings - are found on the base or the shellhead of the cartridge case and also found in the

primer.

3. Extractor marks - are marks cause by the extractor which grasp the extracting grooves by force to remove the
shell from the chamber of the firearm.

4. Ejector Mark – are located in the rim. The purpose of ejector is to throw out the shell from
the ejector port in preparation for the next empty shell.

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 5. Shearing marks - are sometimes called secondary firing pin marks which are found in the primer near the firing
pin mark. It is just a rebound or duplication of the firing pin marks.

6. Chamber marks - are found in the body of the cartridge case. It is caused by the irregularities, imperfection,
roughness, and scratches, inside the chamber of the firearm

7. Magazine lips marks - are markings of two parallel lines on the rim or on the body of the empty shell. These
are caused by the magazine lips during the loading and dragging of the cartridges by the slide from the
magazine to the chamber of the firearm for firing.

8. Pivotal marks-marks caused by the break type revolver. After firing, in order unload the empty shell it must be
folded downward from the portion of the breech end and the hand.
How The Barrel Is Made
All barrels, regardless of the type of weapon for which they are being manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The
metal from which the is made is carefully selected for tits chemical and metallurgical structure, thus, assuring a high
quality product after the various machine operations and heat treatment are completed.
The first step is the drilling operation. This operation results in a longitudinally rough hole of uniform diameter from
one end of the barrel to other. The next step consists or reaming the drilled hole. This removes some of the scars and
scratches left by the drilling operation. If the barrel is to be rifled, it is done by means of several rifling methods. Some of
the rifling methods used to make the rifling inside the gun barrel are the following:
1. Broach, Gang – A tool having a series of cutting edges of slightly increasing height used to cut the spiral
grooves in a barrel. All groves are cut with a single pass of the broach.

2. Broach, Single – a non-adjustable rifling cutter which cuts all the grooves simultaneously, and is in a series of
increasing dimensions until the desired groove depth is achieved.

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 3. Button – a hardened metal plug, called a button, with a rifled cross section configuration. It is pushed or pulled
through a drilled and reamed barrel so as to cold form the spiral grooves to the desired depth and twist. When
the carbide button was first introduced it was described as a SWAGING PROCESS or SWAGED RIFLING.

4. Hook – a cutting tool which cuts has hook shape and only cuts one grooves at a time.

5. Scrape – a cutting tool which cuts two opposing grooves at a time.

6. Swage – an internal mandrel with rifling configuration which forms rifling in the barrel by means of the external
hammering. Also known as HAMMER FORGING.
Principles Of Identification of a Bullet
1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surfaces of their bores all possess individual and
characteristics on their own.
2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the riflings and this engraving will vary I its
minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that the engravings on the bullet fired from one barrel
will be different from that on a similar bullet fired from another barrel. And conversely the engraving on bullets
fired from the same barrel will be the same.
3. Every barrel leaves its thumb marks on every bullet which is fired through it, just as every breech face leaves its
thumb marks on the base of every fired cartridge case.

Principles Of Identification Of Shells

 The breech face and striker of every single firearm leave microscopically individualities of their own.
 The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb mark” on every cartridge case which it fires.
 The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the breech face of every weapon must be individually
distinct, the cartridge cases which it fires are imprinted with this individuality. The imprint on all cartridge cases fired from the
same weapon are always the same, those on cartridge cases fired form different weapons must always be different.

Type Of Problems: There are six (6) types of problem in Forensic Ballistics, namely:
 Given a bullet to determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it was fire.
 Given fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it was fired.
 Given a bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
 Given a fired cartridge case a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the cartridge was fired from the suspected
firearm.
 Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from only one firearm.
 Given two or more cartridge cases, to determine whether or not they were fired.

Important Notes in a Shooting Crime Scene

1. The investigator should ascertain if the victim is dead and if not, summons medical aid or bring to the
hospital. Otherwise, the body should not be disturbed.
2. Immediate clear the premises of all by-stander and under no circumstances allow anyone to touch or
remove anything in the vicinity.
3. Use every effort and means to identify the deceased.
4. Take the names and addresses of all witnesses and take written on the statement of as many persons as
practicable.
5. Measure with type the exact distance of the body with the relaxation to the previously mentioned fixtures of the
premises.
6. Examine the ceiling, floors and furniture for bullet holes, blood stains fired bullets, fired shells or shotgun
wadding.
7. If there is a firearm at the scene, he should note in writing the following observation:
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 a. Exactly where found.
b. Type of weapon-automatic pistol or revolver, rifle or shotgun, caliber or gauge designation.
c. Make a serial number and that time he should mark his initials on the butt or frame of the weapon for future
identification.
8. at the crime scene, note down where the empty shells, bullets and/ of firearms were found and make a diagram
to illustrate the same to show their relative distances from the body of the victim. Photograph if possible
9. Mark the empty cartridge cases inside or near the mouth by scratching the initials of the investigator or the
initials of the victim.
10. Mark the bullet at the give (or nose) by scratching the investigators initials or initials of the victim, but
definitely not at the rifling marks (land marks or grooves marks).
11. Mark the empty shotgun shells with indelible ink at the body.
12. The barrel of the firearm must mark too.
13. After marking the empty shells and bullets, wrap them with separately and individually with soft tissue paper and
note down on the wrapper where each was found, the time and date. The purpose of wrapping them separately
is to avoid being scratch.
14. When an empty shell is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is an automatic pistol or automatic
weapon was used.
15. When no empty shell is found at the scene of the crime, the presumptions is a revolver was used.
16. in the bore of a barrel the depressed portion or the grooves and raised portions are the lands.
17. on a fired bullet, it is the reverse, the landmarks are depressed portions, and the grooves marks are the raised
portions.

Notes:
 To determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a rifled barrel, peep through the barrel place a land or
groove on the top and look away form you. If the land or the groove inclines to the right, then it has a right twist
and if it incline to the left, then the rifling twist is left.
 To determine the direction of the twist of the bullet, look on the bullet in an elongated position. If the land and
grooves inclined to the right, then the rifling twist is right. If the inclination is left, then it is left.
 It is the rifling of the bore that marks a fired bullet.
 A fired bullet will acquire the class characteristic of the bore the bore of the barrel form which it was fired.
Therefore if a bore has class characteristics of a .45 caliber, 6 lands, 6 grooves, right twist, groove wider than
the eland such characteristics will be mark on the bullet it fires.
 So, if a fatal bullet will have the same class characteristics as the bore of the suspected gun, then it is possible
that the bullet could have been fire from the suspected firearm or gun.
 To determine definitely if the bullet above was fired or not from the suspected gun, then the case must be sent
to a forensic ballistic expert who will conduct the proper examination.
 If two bullet do not have the same class characteristics, definitely and conclusively the bullets were not fired
from the barrel.
Equipment used in Ballistics Laboratory
1. Comparison Microscope
This valuable instrument is specially designed to permit the firearm examiner to determine the similarity and
dissimilarity between two fired bullets or two fired cartridge cases by simultaneously observing their magnified
image. It is actually two microscope couple together with a single or two eye piece, so that when one looks through
this comparison eye piece, he is seeing one half of what is under the other – in other words, half of the evidence
bullet and half of the test bullet.

2. Stereoscope Microscope
This is generally used in the preliminary examination of fired
bullets and fired shells. To determine the location of the extractor marks and ejector marks for orientation purposes.
It can be used also in one close-up examination of tampered serial numbers of firearms.

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 3. Comparison Projector- CP6
This is similar to the comparison microscope. Two fired bullets or two fired shells can be compared in one setting of
the firearm examiner. A magnified image appears on the large screen and can be in a comfortable viewing distance.
No mental strain because comparison of evidence is faster, easier and less tiresome, thus, allowing a more efficient
and productive used of investigative time in the criminal laboratory.

4. Bullet Recovery Box - For obtaining best fired bullet or test fired cartridge cases from the suspected firearms submitted to the
ballistics laboratory. In test firing suspected firearms, it is standard procedure to used ammunition that are of the same caliber, make or
brand and manufactured in the same year with that of the evidence bullet or shell.

Water is one of the means to obtain test bullets and test shells because the microscope marks on the cylindrical or
peripheral surface of the bullets are preserved for good used. The same is true with cotton.

5. Measuring Projector (MP6) - This projector determines the width of the lands, width of grooves, diameter and twist
of fired bullets.

6. Verneir Calipers - This instrument determines the bullet diameter and barrel length.

7. Analytical Balance - This more or less determines the weight of the bullets, shots and pellets for possible type, caliber and
make for firearm from which they were fired.

8. Taper Gauge - Used for determining the diameter of the bore of the firearms.

9.Onoscope – for studying the interior surface of the barrel.

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10. Helixometer - For measuring the pitch of the rifling. Pitch of rifling is the distance advanced by the rifling in one
complete turn or a distance traveled by the bullet in one complete turn.

11. Chronograph - For determining the speed of the bullet or the muzzle velocity of the bullet.

Intermarriage - Is the position of both evidence bullet and test bullet, wherein half of the same image of evidence bullet
and half of the same image is a test bullet of the same direction, the same magnification and the same level of plane, are
merge into one image.

Juxta Position – Is the critical side by side comparison of evidence bullet and test bullet through the bullet comparison microscope, to
find the same feature, structures of striation or markings from the base portion, up to ogive or nose portion of fired bullet, created by the
same tool of firearm.

Tool Marks Identification - Is a discipline of a forensic science which has, as its primary concern to determine if a tool
mark was produced by a particular tool.

The Two (2) general type of Tool Marks:

1. Impression Type - which as his name implies a little more than a bent. A pry-bar may leave an impression
type-mark on a window frame to which is applied. The shape and the size of the mark, plus irregularities
cause by nicks or breaks in the pry-bar, may be such as to permit a positive statement as to its source.

2. Striated Toolmark - is left by a tool scrapping over an object or surface softer than him. Thus, a pry-bar
which slips during the application may scraped over the jamb of a door, leaving striate. Tin Snips or Bolt
Cutter have blades which frequently leave striate on the edges of metal cut. An axe will leave striate on
wood chips, as well as the auger or blade of a plane. Mechanical tool as a planner, joiner, and lathe all
have blades and edges which leaves striate on chips, shaving and stock being worked. Many examples
should be given but these are typical if the tool most commonly encountered in the criminal investigations.
Striated marks are often referred to a “friction marks”, abrasion marks or “scratched marks”.

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