STATISTICS

- is a branch of Mathematics that deals with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis,
and interpretation of data.
- is defined as a set of numerical
or quantitative data
- is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and interpret numerical
data. From these analyses and interpretations, inferences or conclusions may be drawn

IMPORTANACE OF STATISTICS
The different departments of the Government
- statistics is used to improve the economic status of the country.
• The Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE)
- uses the data for unemployment rate in determining the number of jobs that need to be created
for the unemployed.
• The Department of Agriculture
- researches on the different farming strategies to prevent shortages on certain nutritional needs
such as the supply of rice.
• The National Statistics Office
- records the population of the country, particularly the birth rate and death rate.
• In education
- statistics is used to keep information about school profiles such as enrollment rates, drop-out
rates, number of facilities, manpower count and budget.
These data provide guidance to school administrators regarding the optimal management of their
respective educational institutions.
• In Business.
- to predict the profitability of a company for the next given number of years.
- what kind of business is a good investment and when is the best time to set up that particular
business.
• In Psychology
- the results of personality tests can provide feedback to different experts in line with
understanding human behavior.
• Students are exposed to statistics when they monitor their achievement in class.
• Teenagers check surveys about their favorite celebrity, favorite food and trendy fashion.
LANGUAGE OF STATISTICS
Nominal
The simplest measurement scale we can use to label variables is a nominal scale.
Nominal scale: A scale used to label variables that have no quantitative values.
Some examples of variables that can be measured on a nominal scale include:
• Sex: Male, female
• Eye color: Blue, green, brown
• Hair color: Blonde, black, brown, grey, other
• Blood type: O-, O+, A-, A+, B-, B+, AB-, AB+
• Political Preference: Republican, Democrat, Independent
• Place you live: City, suburbs, rural
Variables that can be measured on a nominal scale have the following properties:
• They have no natural order. For example, we can’t arrange eye colors in order of worst to best
or lowest to highest.
• Categories are mutually exclusive. For example, an individual can’t have both blue and brown
eyes.
Similarly, an individual can’t live both in the city and in a rural area.
• The only number we can calculate for these variables are counts. For example, we can count
how many individuals have blonde hair, how many have black hair, how many have brown hair,
etc.
• The only measure of central tendency we can calculate for these variables is the mode. The
mode tells us which category had the most counts.
For example, we could find which eye color occurred most frequently.
• The most common way that nominal scale data is collected is through a survey.
For example, a researcher might survey 100 people and ask each of them what type of place they
live in.
• Question: What type of area do you live in?
• Possible Answers: City, Suburbs, Rural.
Using this data, the researcher can find out how many people live in each area, as well as which area is
the most common to live in.

ORDINAL
Ordinal scale: A scale used to label variables that have a natural order, but no quantifiable difference
between values.
Some examples of variables that can be measured on an ordinal scale include:
• Satisfaction: Very unsatisfied, unsatisfied, neutral, satisfied, very satisfied
• Socioeconomic status: Low income, medium income, high income
• Workplace status: Entry Analyst, Analyst I, Analyst II, Lead Analyst
• Degree of pain: Small amount of pain, medium amount of pain, high amount of pain
Variables that can be measured on an ordinal scale have the following properties:
• They have a natural order. For example, “very satisfied” is better than “satisfied,” which is
better than “neutral,” etc.
 • The difference between values can’t be evaluated. For example, we can’t exactly say that the
difference between “very satisfied and “satisfied” is the same as the difference between
“satisfied” and “neutral.”
• The two measures of central tendency we can calculate for these variables are the
mode and the median. The mode tells us which category had the most counts and the median
tells us the “middle” value.
• Ordinal scale data is often collected by companies through surveys who are looking for feedback
about their product or service.
For example, a grocery store might survey 100 recent customers and ask them about their overall
experience.
• Question: How satisfied were you with your most recent visit to our store?
• Possible Answers: Very unsatisfied, unsatisfied, neutral, satisfied, very satisfied.
• Using this data, the grocery store can analyze the total number of responses for each category,
identify which response was most common, and identify the median response.

INTERVAL
Interval scale: A scale used to label variables that have a natural order and a quantifiable difference
between values, but no “true zero” value.
Some examples of variables that can be measured on an interval scale include:
Temperature: Measured in Fahrenheit or Celsius
Credit Scores: Measured from 300 to 850
SAT Scores: Measured from 400 to 1,600
• Variables that can be measured on an interval scale have the following properties:
• These variables have a natural order.
• We can measure the of these variables. mean, median, mode, and standard deviation
• These variables have an exact difference between values.
Recall that ordinal variables have no exact difference between variables – we don’t know if the
difference between “very satisfied” and “satisfied” is the same as the difference between “satisfied” and
“neutral.”
For variables on an interval scale, though, we know that the difference between a credit score of 850 and
800 is the exact same as the difference between 800 and 750.
These variables have no “true zero” value.
For example, it’s impossible to have a credit or SAT score of zero. For temperatures, it’s possible
to have negative values (e.g. -10° F) which means there isn’t a true zero value that values can’t go below.
The nice thing about interval scale data is that it can be analyzed in more ways than nominal or
ordinal data.
For example, researchers could gather data on the credit scores of residents in a certain county
and calculate the following metrics:
• Median credit score (the “middle” credit score value)
• Mean credit score (the average credit score)
• Mode credit score (the credit score that occurs most often)
• Standard deviation of credit scores (a way to measure how spread out credit scores are)
RATIO
Ratio scale: A scale used to label variables that have a natural order, a quantifiable difference between
values, and a “true zero” value.
• Some examples of variables that can be measured on a ratio scale include:
• Height: Can be measured in centimeters, inches, feet, etc. and cannot have a value below zero.
• Weight: Can be measured in kilograms, pounds, etc. and cannot have a value below zero.
• Length: Can be measured in centimeters, inches, feet, etc. and cannot have a value below zero.
• Variables that can be measured on a ratio scale have the following properties:
• These variables have a natural order.
• We can calculate the mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and a variety of other descriptive
statistics for these variables.
• These variables have an exact difference between values.
• These variables have a “true zero” value.
For example, length, weight, and height all have a minimum value (zero) that can’t be exceeded.
It’s not possible for ratio variables to take on negative values.
For this reason, the ratio between values can be calculated. For example, someone who
weighs 200 lbs. can be said to weigh two times as much as someone who weights 100 lbs.
Likewise someone who is 6 feet tall is 1.5 times taller than someone who is 4 feet tall.
• Data that can be measured on a ratio scale can be analyzed in a variety of ways. For example,
researchers could gather data about the height of individuals in a certain school and calculate the
following metrics:
• Median height
• Mean height
• Mode height
• Standard deviation of heights
• Ratio of tallest height to smallest height
Example. You are asked to present the performance of your classmates in your section in the Statistics
test. The following are the test scores in your class:
Another Example
• Of the 150 samples interviewed, the following complaints were noted: 27 for lack of reference,
25 for lack of gadgets to use, and 70 for poor signal.
III. Graphical Form
• perhaps the most effective device for attracting people’s attention
• readers who look for comparisons and trends may skip statistical tables but may pause to examine
graphs
• construction of a good graph requires more skill, more time, and occasionally, more expense than
does a statistical table
• like a table, a graph must have a title and if necessary, a source note
Pie Chart on The Water Consumption (in thousand m') of Baguio City for 2016

• Pie Chart
• Students in an Adult School were surveyed about the type of transport they use to travel to
school.
The results were:
walking 9, train 10, tram 6, car 12, bicycle 3.
Construct a pie chart with this information.
Pie Chart

Transport Number of Percentage of students Angle size for PieChart

Type Students preferring transport
type
walking 9 22.5% of 360° = 81°

train 10 25 % of 360° = 90°

tram 6 15 % of 360° = 54°

car 12 30 % of 360° = 108°

bicycle 3 7.5 % of 360° = 27°

Total Student Population = 40

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

To further describe a set of data, a single summarizing value maybe

computed, known as Measure of Central Tendency. Though tabular and
graphical summaries convey general impressions on the data, measures of
central tendency or location give information about a single value in which
the data set of observations tends to cluster to. Some of the popular and
commonly used measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and
the mode.

MEAN
 μ = usually used for population mean
x = Usually used for sample mean

Ungrouped Data

a. Arithmetic mean
- Is the average value of the data set; it is denoted by μ, defined as
the sum of all the obsercations divided by the total number of
observations. In symbols, if we let X=the value of the i thobservation
and N= number of observation, then the mean is given by:
N

∑ Xi
μ= i=1 i=1 , 2 , … . N
N
∑ = summation (sum of)

Example: Find the average of the scores: 80, 82, 76, 78, 82, and 91.
Solution:
N

∑ Xi 80+82+76+78+ 82+91
μ= i=1 = =81.5
N 6

b. Weighted mean
This value is obtained by summing up the product of each score by its
corresponding weight, divided by the sum of the weights.

x w=
∑ Xi W i =
∑ X i f i = ∑ fx
∑Wi ∑ fi N
Where:
x w = weighted mean
= the ith observation/case
f = frequency
wi = weight of ith case/observation
N = number of cases
= the sum of the product of each observed value and
its corresponding weights.

Example:
1. Angel has the following grades and the equivalent credit units for
each grade. Determine her GWA (General Weighted Average)
Subject Units (wi) Grade (xi) wi(xi)
Filipino 2 3 87 261
English 3 84 252
Math 1 3 85 255
P.E 1 95 95
Chem 1 (Lec) 3 82 246
Chem 1 (Lab) 1 82 82
Philo 1 3 85 255
17 1446

Solution: x w =
∑ X i W i ¿ 1446 =85.06
∑ W i 17
Thus, the weighted mean is 85.06

2. 3. Find the average age of the 50 respondents by first organizing the data
in a frequency distribution table
17 15 16 15 14 14 12 12 16 16 15 14
15 13 14 14 14 13 14 14 13 14 14 14
14 13 14 13 14 13 13 13 14 13 13 13
13 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
14 14

Solution: x w =
∑ Xi W i =
∑ Xi f i =
12 ( 2 ) +13 ( 13 ) +14 (27 ) +15 ( 4 )+ 16 ( 3 ) +17(1)
=13.92
∑Wi ∑ fi 50
Answer: the average age of the students enrolled in statistics is 14.

4. Computing mean from Likert scale

4 3.26 – 4:00 Extremely Aware
3 2.51 – 3.25 Moderately Aware
2 1.76 – 2.5 Slightly Aware
1 1.00- 1.75 Not Aware

Responses from 32 male respondents

Indicators 4 3 2 1 Weighted mean
1. Intake of food high in salt
9 10 10 3 9(4)+10(3)+10(2)+3(1) =2.78
32
c. Grand Mean
- This value is obtained by summing up the mean of each group
multiplied by the number of scores in the group, divided by the sum
of the number of scores in each group.
n

∑nx where, x = mean of each group

x G= k=1
∑n
n= # observation in the group.

Example:
1. In a P. E. class, there are 25 freshmen, 30 sophomores, and 10
juniors. If the freshmen averaged 89 in a practical test, the
sophomores averaged 85, and the juniors averaged 82, find the
mean grade of the entire class.
Solution
25 ( 89 ) +30 ( 85 ) +10( 82) 5.595
x̅ G = 65
= 65 = 86.08
Answer: the entire class has a mean grade of 86
2. A researcher conducted a survey involving three groups of
respondents. The mean of the first group with 24 respondents was
4.32. The mean of the second group with 30 respondents was 4.05.
The mean of the third group was 3.80 and had 18 respondents.
What is the overall mean of the three groups combined?
Solution
 n1 x̅ + n2 x̅ +n3 x̅ 24 ( 4.32 ) +30 ( 4.04 ) +18(3.80)
x̅ G = 1 2 3

= = 4.0775
n 1+n +¿ n ¿
2 3
24+30+18

Answer: The overall mean is 4.078.

THE MEDIAN (Md, ~

x)
The median is a single value which divides an array of observations into
two equal parts such that half of the observations fall below it and the other
half fall above it. It is the middlemost value in the array.
Properties of Median
1. It is a positional value and hence is not affected by the presence of
extreme values unlike mean.
2. The sum of the absolute deviations the median is minimum.
3. The median is not suitable to be used for further computations and
hence medians of subgroups cannot be combined in the same manner
as the mean.
4. The median of grouped data can be used to calculate even with open-
ended intervals provided that the median class is not open-ended.

Ungrouped Data
1
Formula : Md= ( N +1 ) th item
2
Example:
1. Find the median of the scores 7, 2, 3, 7, 6, 9, 10, 8, 9, 9, 10.
Solution:
Arrange the scores in increasing magnitude or ascending
order
2, 3, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10, 10

With these eleven scores, the number 8 is located in the

exact middle, so 8 is the median.

2. Find the median of the scores 7, 2, 3, 7, 6, 9, 10, 8, 9, 9

Solution:
Again, arrange the scores
2, 3, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10

The two centermost scores are 7 and 8. So, we find the

7+8
mean of these two scores =7.5 Thus, 7.5 is the median
2
of the given scores.

THE MODE (Mo, ^x )

The mode is the value which occurs most frequently in the given
data set.

Examples: Find the mode of the following:

a. The scores 1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 7, 9, 2 have a mode of 2.
b. The scores 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9 have no mode since no score is repeated
c. The scores 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 2, 5, 6, 6, 7, 9, 6 have the modes 2 and 6
since they both occur with the same highest frequency (we refer to
such data as bimodal)
d. The scores 3, 4, 5, 1, 3, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10 have the modes 3, and 4, and
5. (multimodal)
Additional Examples

1. The mean salary for a small company that pays monthly salaries to its
employees as shown in the frequency distribution
Salaries frequency xf
7,000 8 56,000 mean salary is 9, 488
8,000 11 88,000
9250 14 129,000
10,500 9 94,500
17,000 2 34,000
25,000 1 25,000
TOTAL 45 427,000

2. The yearly salaries of workers in a small business

Salaries worker
10,500 Mr. A Mean = 75,000 (not advisable)
20,000 Mr. B
22,500 Mr. C Median=27,000(more appropriate)
24,000 Mr. D
26,000 Mr. E Mode = none
28,000 Mr. F
36,000 Mr. G
43,000 Mr. H
65,000 Mr. I
475,000 (owner) Mr. J

Lesson 3 (MEASURES OF VARIABILITY)

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

a. find the range, the variance, the Standard
Deviation, and the Coeffiient of Variation for both
grouped and ungrouped data; and
b. compare sets of data based on their variability.

The measure of central tendency tells us only the typical or the

average value of a set of measurements in the given data set but fails to
describe how spread these measurements are about their average values.

For instance, given the three sets of data, the mean, the median, and the
mode are :

Set A: 3, 3, 3, 3, 3=> μ=3; Md= 3; Mo=3

Set B: 2, 3, 3, 3, 4=> μ=3; Md= 3; Mo=3
Set C: 1, 3, 3, 3, 5=> μ=3; Md= 3; Mo=3

Definitely, the three sets of data differ, particularly in the spread of

variability of the observations in each data set. But such difference could not
be shown by using the three measures of central tendency.

The Measures of Variability or Dispersion is a value that measures the

spread or variability of the observations of the observations in the data
set. Some measures of variability are the range, the variance, the standard
deviation and the coefficient of variation.
RANGE- the range is the difference between the highest value and the
lowest value in the ungrouped data set. In the grouped data set, the range is
the difference between the upper limit of the highest class interval and the
lower limit of the lowest class interval. In symbol,

Ungrouped data:
R= HV – HL

Grouped data:
RG= Upper limit of the highest Cl – Lower limit of the lowest Cl.

VARIANCE (σ 2 , s 2 , v 2 ¿ - the variance is the mean of the squared deviation of

the observations from their arithmetic mean. In symbol, the variance is given
by
N

∑ ( X−μ )2 for ungrouped data (Population)

σ 2= i =1
N
N

∑ f ( X−μ )2
σ 2= i =1 k for grouped data (Population)
∑f
i=1

STANDARD DEVIATION- the standard deviation, denoted by σ ∨s is the

positive root of the variance. In symbol,

√
N

∑ ( X−¿ μ)2 for ungrouped data (Population)

2 i=1
σ =√ σ = ¿
N

√
N

∑ f (X−¿ μ)2
σ =√ σ 2= i=1
¿ for grouped data (Population)
k

∑f
i =1

√
N

∑ ( X−¿ μ)2 for ungrouped data (Sample)

s=√ s2= i=1
¿
N −1

√
N

∑ f ( X −¿ μ)2 for grouped data (Sample)

s=√ s2= i=1
¿
N−1

Standard Deviation is a measure of the dispersion of a set of data from its

mean. It is determined by calculating the positive root square of variance. A
large standard deviation indicates that the data points are far from the mean
(heterogeneous) and a small standard deviation indicates that they are
clustered closely around the mean (homogeneous). It measures the
compactness, consistency and strength of things.

Ungrouped Data:
1. Consider the weights of 4 female college students (in Kgs): 49, 57, 49,
50.

Range: HV-LV => 57-49= 8

Variance, with mean μ=51.25

N

∑ ( X−μ )2
σ 2= i =1 for Ungrouped Data
N

2 {( 49−51.25 )2 + ( 57−51.25 )2+ ( 49−51.25 )2+ (50−51.25 )2 }

σ =
4
2 5. 0625+33.0625+5.0625+ 1.5625
σ =
4
2
σ =11.1875∨11.19

Standard Deviation:
σ =√ σ 2=¿ √ 11.19=3.3451 ≈ 3.35