Unit 2

Branch of biology that studies how organisms interact

with their environment and other organisms
Survivorship Curve
K Selected

1) Explain the shape of the K-

selected species
Mortality
R
Constant
Selected
1) Explain the shape of the R-
selected species
R Selected
Exam Review Questions
1. What is the definition of a species?
2. What is competition?
3. What factors impact where biomes are located?
4. What are bioaccumulation and biomagnification?
5. What is zonation? What are some factors that can cause zonation?
6. What is the difference between primary and secondary succession?
Significant ideas:

1. A species interacts with its abiotic and biotic

environments, and its niche is described by these
interactions.
2. Populations change and respond to interactions with the
environment.
3. Any system has a carrying capacity for a given species
Key Terms:
Pandas live in forests high in the mountains of
southwest China (habitat) and eat bamboo (niche)
Key Terms:
Biotic: living factors (bacteria, plants, animals, protists,
fungi)

Abiotic: non-living factor (pH, temperature, sunlight,

rocks)

Habitat: environment where an organism usually lives

Niche: role an organism plays in an ecosystem

 Horse + Donkey = Mule
One key definition:
Species:
organisms that can share
common characteristics and can
reproduce and produce fertile
offspring

X
In ecology when we talk about anything...
WE HAVE TO BE SUPER SPECIFIC!!!

For example, when it comes to species.

Scientific name Genus species

● Homo sapiens
● Giraffa camelopardalis
In ecology when we talk about anything...
How is an ecosystem organized?
How do we talk about ecosystems?

5. Biome

4. Ecosystem

3. Community

2. Population

1. Individual
Levels of Organization
Level 1: Individual
One individual (organism) of one species
Levels of Organization
Level 2: Population
Groups of one species living in an area and interacting
Levels of Organization
Level 3: Community
All the populations of different species that live in the same area and interact
 Levels of Organization
Level 4: Ecosystem
All the living things in an area interacting with all of the nonliving parts of the environment
Levels of Organization
Level 5: Biome
Large areas on the Earth with animals and plants adapted to specific abiotic conditions
Levels of Organization
Level 5: Biome
Large areas on the Earth with animals and plants adapted to specific abiotic conditions
Levels of Organization
Levels of Organization
Levels of Organization
Levels of Organization
How is an ecosystem organized?
How do we talk about ecosystems?

5. Biome

4. Ecosystem

3. Community

2. Population

1. Individual
T+A
What are the 5 levels of ecosystem
organization? (2)

Distinguish between species and

population (2)
Let’s focus on the
population level….
Population Density
Average number of individuals in a stated area
Factors that impact population numbers

● Natality

● Mortality

● Migration
○ Immigration
○ emigration
KEY: while species share
habitat (environment where species normally
lives) no two will share the same

niche
Niche

● Role that an organism plays within an ecosystem

○ what relationship it has with other organisms

○ where it lives and how it alters where it lives

○ how it responds to resources

Difference between niche and habitat (EXAMPLE)
● Same habitat (ponds), different niches.

Feeds on small living Feeds on decaying

organisms vegetation
KEY: when we talk about
niches, we can do this in a
hypothetical and real world
way
 Fundamental vs Realized Niche

Full range of conditions and resources

KEY: no two species can occupy the same niche in the same place at the same

time
Fundamental vs Realized Niche
What does this
graph suggest?

(interaction
between different
barnacle types)?
Fundamental vs Realized Niche
What can be inferred about the niche of…?
● P. caudatum
● P. aurelia
 Fundamental niche

Full range of conditions and resources

KEY: area in which an organism could live, if there was no competition.

 Realized Niche

Actual conditions due to biotic interactions

KEY: no two species can inhabit the same niche in the same place at the same

time
True or False:
Populations grow to
infinite numbers of
individuals
Limiting Factors

● Anything that prevents a community, population, or

organism from growing larger

● Competition: food, space, mates

● Environmental conditions: limit water, low temperature

● Human interference → pollution, habitat destruction

● Natural Disasters
Limiting Factors: Density Dependent
factors that affect the per capita growth rate of a population differently

depending on how dense the population already is (BIOTIC FACTORS)

Competition Predation Disease or Parasites

Limiting Factors: Density Independent
factors that affect the per capita growth rate of a population INDEPENDENT

of how dense the population already is (ABIOTIC FACTORS)

Natural Disasters Pollution

TOLERANCE RANGE (species die outside that range)

Carrying Capacity

● maximum number of individuals that an ecosystem

can sustainably support in a given area

LIMITING FACTORS + CARRYING CAPACITY
● LIMITING FACTORS: things that limit the growth of
populations

● CARRYING CAPACITY: max number of species that

can be sustainably supported by a given area
KEY: we will be looking at
population growth curves, BUT,
we must remember these curves
are IDEALIZED
What type of curve is this?
…. Mathematical description?
NUMBER of
Bacteria

TIME
If there are no limiting factors….
…. Then there is exponential growth
NUMBER of
Bacteria

TIME
With Limiting Factors …. We will have to contend with the
carrying capacity

J-CURVE
NUMBER of

**KEY: carrying
capacity can be
Bacteria

exceeded in the short

term!

TIME
With Limiting Factors …. We will have to contend with the
carrying capacity

Overshoot Dieback
Carrying capacity
NUMBER of
Bacteria

**KEY: carrying
capacity can be
exceeded in the short
TIME term!
 With Limiting Factors …. We will have to contend with the
carrying capacity

S-CURVE
NUMBER of
Bacteria

Carrying capacity
Environmental
Resistance

TIME
KEY: because resources are in
limited supply there is
competition between
organisms
Competition
Intraspecific Interspecific

● Competition within ● Competition between

the same species for different species for
limited resources the same resource
● End:
○ Sharing
○ Competitive
exclusion
Types of Interaction
Competition
Both species are disadvantaged
Types of Interaction
Predation, Parasitism, Herbivory
One species benefits -- One is disadvantaged
Types of Interaction
Commensalism
One species benefits -- One is unaffected
Types of Interaction
Mutualism
Both species benefit
Ecological interactions (compare and contrast).
● PREDATION ● PARASITISM
- Two individuals from different species - Two individuals from different species
involved. involved.
- Predator/prey relationship. - Parasite/host relationship
- One is negatively affected. - One is negatively affected.
- Two independent organisms. - Parasites live inside (endoparasite) or on
- Limits population size. the (ectoparasite) host.
- MAIN GOAL: kill prey to feed on it. - Parasite takes nutrients and shelter from
- Density dependent factor. host.
- Not beneficial for the parasite to kill a host.
- Density dependent factor
Ecological interactions (compare = similarities only!).
● PREDATION ● PARASITISM
Ecological interactions (contrast = differences only!).
● PREDATION ● PARASITISM
Types of Interaction
T+A
1) State the definition of a limiting factor.

2) Provide an example of:

a) Density dependent factor

b) Density Independent Factor

c) Commensalism

d) Mutualism

e) Intraspecific competition

f) Interspecific competition
T+A 1) What is the type of ecosystem

interaction shown in this

graph?

2) What kind of feedback loop do

we see between the

populations?
T+A 1) Calculate the percent change

of wolves between year 1 and

year 4.

2) Calculate the percent change

of rabbits between year 4 and

year 6.
T+A

1) Calculate the percent change of wolves

between year 1 and year 4.

2) Calculate the percent change of rabbits

between year 4 and year 6.

T+A

3) Calculate the percent change of wolves

between year 4 and year 8.

4) Calculate the percent change of rabbits

between year 5 and year 10.

Which curve describes the survivorship of each
species?
Which curve describes the survivorship of each
species?

K-strategist

r-strategist
 DESCRIPTION??

Explain the shape of the curve

Proportion of individuals
surviving to each age for a
given species or group
Proportion of individuals
surviving to each age for a
given species or group

K-selected: low juvenile

mortality, with most individuals
living to old age.

r-selected: High juvenile

mortality, most individuals
have very short lifespans
Significant ideas:

1. The interactions of species with their environment result

in energy and nutrient flows.
2. Photosynthesis and respiration play a significant role in
the flow of energy in communities.
3. The feeding relationships of species in a system can be
modelled using food chains, food webs and ecological
pyramids.
VOCABULARY
● community ● producer
● ecosystem ● consumer
● respiration ● decomposer
● photosynthesis ● ecological pyramids (numbers,
● primary producer biomass, productivity)
● biomass ● bioaccumulation
● trophic level ● biomagnification
● autotroph ● food chain
● heterotroph ● food web
How is an ecosystem organized?
How do we talk about ecosystems?

5. Biome

4. Ecosystem

3. Community

2. Population

1. Individual
T+A
1) Identify 1:
a) primary producer
b) primary consumer
c) secondary consumer
d) tertiary consumer

2) What do the arrows signify in this

food web?

3) Extract one food chain from the food

web
Let’s focus on communities and ecosystems…
https://youtu.be/0glkXIj1DgE
Take notes on each trophic level from the video:
● Trophic Level: is the position
that an organism occupies in a
food chain
ALMOST ALL ENERGY
THAT DRIVES
PROCESSES ON
EARTH COMES
FROM….
Living systems
are DEPENDENT
on the amount
of solar
insolation
reaching the
GROUND
 HOW IS ENERGY
INTRODUCED INTO
AN ECOSYSTEM?
PRIMARY PRODUCERS
(autotrophs)

Produce their own energy

 Phototrophs:
LIGHT ENERGY → CHEMICAL ENERGY
Autotrophs → Chemotrophs (bacteria)
 CONSUMERS
(heterotrophs)

Must consume other organisms for energy

FOOD CHAIN
● Food chains show feeding patterns within an ecosystem, but more important, they

show the flow of energy

FOOD CHAIN
● Identify autotrophs and heterotrophs
Food Chain Roles
Trophic Level Source of Energy Function
Primary Autotrophs Provide
Producers ● the energy for all other trophic
SUN → PHOTOSYNTHESIS
levels
● Habitat
● Supply nutrients to soil
● Stop erosion
Food Chain Roles

Trophic Level Source of Energy Function

Primary Heterotrophs
Consumers ● Disperse seeds
Herbivores
● Pollinate Flowers
Food Chain Roles

Trophic Level Source of Energy Function

Secondary Heterotrophs
Consumers ● Disperse seeds
Carnivores and Omnivores
● Pollinate Flowers

Tertiary or ● Remove old and diseased

Quaternary members of populations
Consumers
Food Chain Roles
Trophic Level Source of Energy Function
Decomposers Dead organic material
(bacteria +
fungi) Secrete enzymes
● Release the nutrients back
into the cycle
Detritivores Eat detritus or decomposing
(snails, slugs, material (dead material or
vultures) feces/parts of organisms)
T+A
1) Is the length of food chains restricted?
Why?
Trophic Level: is the position that an organism occupies in a food chain
Food Chain Roles
Identify the trophic level for each organism.
Food Chain Roles
Identify the primary producers, primary-secondary-tertiary-decomposers-detritivores
Energy transfer in ecosystems
Which is a better model? Why?

VS

A Food Chain
Food Webs
IT IS EXTREMELY UNLIKELY TO FIND A FOOD CHAIN IN NATURE… food webs show
complex networks of interrelated food chains
Food Webs
Identify a food chain:
Food Webs

1) Extract two food chains from the food web.

Food Webs

1) What is the longest food chain in the food web?

2) Name a species that is found at two trophic levels.
3) Extract a food chain from the food web.
4) If all kestrels die, what may happen to a) voles and b) short eared owls
5) If there is a great increase in the rabbit population, what happens to a) rabbit predators and b) the vegetation
Food Webs

1) What is the longest food chain in the food web?

Food Webs

1) What is the longest food chain in the food web?

Vegetation herbivorous insects carnivorous insects  spiders toads and lizards  short-eared owls
Food Webs

2) Name a species that is found at two trophic levels.

Food Webs

2) Name a species that is found at two trophic levels.

● Foxes (3rd trophic level and 4th trophic level).
● Short-eared owls (4th, 5th and 6th trophic levels)
Food Webs

3) Extract a food chain from the food web.

Food Webs

3) Extract a food chain from the food web.

Vegetation  rabbits  foxes
Food Webs

4) If all kestrels die, what may happen to

a) voles
Food Webs

4) If all kestrels die, what may happen to

a) Voles: slight increase
Food Webs

4) If all kestrels die, what may happen to

a) short-eared owls
Food Webs

4) If all kestrels die, what may happen to

a) Voles: slight increase
b) Short-eared owls: no significant changes (slight increase)
Food Webs

5) If there is a great increase in the rabbit population, what happens to

a) rabbit predators

b) the vegetation
Food Webs

Whole food web

will be at stake

5) If there is a great increase in the rabbit population, what happens to

a) rabbit predators: (short-term) increase; (long-term) decrease

b) the vegetation: significant decrease.

T+A
2) The length of food chains is restricted
because the amount of sunlight entering the
ecosystem is limited. (TRUE OR FALSE).
T+A
2) The length of food chains is restricted
because the amount of sunlight entering the
ecosystem is limited. (TRUE OR FALSE).
Photosynthesis + Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis and
Cellular Respiration play
a significant role in the
flow of energy in
communities
Photosynthesis + Cellular Respiration
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eo5XndJaz-Y

1. What are the inputs and outputs of photosynthesis?

2. Where does photosynthesis take place?
3. Why is cellular respiration important?
4. Where does cellular respiration happen?
5. What are the inputs and outputs of CR?
6. How are photosynthesis and CR related?
Photosynthesis + Cellular Respiration
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eo5XndJaz-Y

7. Represent photosynthesis and cellular respiration using a systems

diagram (inputs, processes, and outputs).
Photosynthesis to be clear
T+A:
Is glucose on its own enough to generate energy for
the plant?
CR to be clear
CR to be clear
SUMMARY

Photosynthesis
SUMMARY

Cellular respiration
 T+ A

X 1) Name the
process labelled
by the X
● Biomass: living tissue
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wGfOoRrICto&feature=emb_logo
Terrestrial ecosystem
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wGfOoRrICto&feature=emb_logo
Aquatic ecosystem
 Aquatic ecosystem
Why can a pyramid show greater bars at higher trophic levels?
What are ecological pyramids?
● Show quantitative difference between amounts of living material
stored at each trophic level in a food chain

● Show energy transfers and where energy is lost throughout a food

chain

● Help us examine if ecosystems are balanced

Three types of ecological pyramids
We have pyramids of ...
Numbers Biomass Productivity

● Shows number of ● Shows biomass at ● Rate of flow of energy or

individuals in each trophic level biomass through each
each trophic trophic level
level (standing ● Energy or biomass generated
and available as food to the
crop)
next trophic level in a fixed
period of time
● Unit: number of ● Unit: mass per unit ● Unit: energy (joules, J) per
individuals per area (g/m2) unit area per period of time
unit area (J*m-2*year-1)
Pyramids of Numbers
● Number of individuals at each trophic level → length of
bars are relative to size of population

12 Hawks
40 Rabbits

260 Wildflowers
Pyramids of Numbers
● Number of individuals at each trophic level → length of
bars are relative to size of population
Pyramids of numbers
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• All organisms are included
● Simple, easy method (count!) regardless of their size.
● Good for comparing changes • Numbers can be so big that it
in an ecosystem over time. is hard to represent them
● Non destructive methods for accurately.
data collection. • Some organisms have very
different life cycles (juveniles
may look very different).
Pyramids of Biomass
● Biomass (WHAT IS THIS) at each trophic level (mass per area)
● g/m2 or kilograms per meter squared (kg/m2)

11 g/m2
37 g/m2

807 g/m2
Pyramids of Biomass
● Biomass stored (WHAT IS THIS) at each trophic level
● g/m2 or kilograms per meter squared (kg/m2)
Pyramids of Biomass
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Organisms killed => dry mass!
● Overcome some of the • Samples from populations for
problems of pyramids of extrapolation => inaccurate.
numbers. • Seasonal variation (autumn vs
spring).
• Two organisms with the same
mass do not have the same
energy content (calorific value)
Pyramids of Productivity
● amount of energy that is generated and available as food for the next
trophic level.

42 J/m2/year
222 J/m2/year

1,200 J/m2/year
Pyramids of Productivity
● amount of energy that is generated and available as food for the next
trophic level.
● Productivity values = rates of flow
Pyramids of Productivity
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Difficult to collect energy data
● Most accurate pyramids (rate of biomass production
(actual energy available and over time required).
rate of production over time). • Species can be difficult to assign
● Ecosystems can be compared. to a particular trophic level (this
● Solar input can be added to is a problem in all the pyramids).
the model.
 organisms in more than one
trophic level.
T+A
1) What is the difference between an autotroph and a heterotroph?
2) What is the difference between a carnivore, omnivore, and herbivore?
3) Fill in the following table:
Inputs Outputs

Photosynthesis

Cellular Respiration

1) Why are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related to how energy flows
through ecosystems?
From the second Law
of Thermodynamics
we know that energy
transfers ARE NOT
100%.....
 Supermarket analogy

Goods Rate at
displayed which
on the goods are
shelves removed
and
restocked
Activity 2
Activity 2

Tertiary Consumers 500

Secondary Consumers 2,000

Primary Consumers 10,000

Primary Producers 100,000

 3 birds

500 spiders and insects

10,000 herbivores

1 oak tree

Pyramid of numbers
 3 birds
500 spiders and insects
10,000 herbivores
1 oak tree

Pyramid of numbers
 3 birds (average mass = 10 g)

500 spiders and insects (average mass = 0.2 g)

10,000 herbivores (average mass = 0.05 g)

1 oak tree (average mass = 4,000 kg)

Pyramid of numbers
Explain the difference between them

3 birds 30 g/m2
500 spiders and insects 100 g/m2
10,000 herbivores 500 g/m2
1 oak tree 4,000,000 g/m2

Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass

T+A
1) State which pyramid, A or B is a pyramid of productivity. (1)
2) Justify your answer. (1)
 Increase in the concentration
of a pollutant in an organism
as it absorbs or it ingests it
from its environment.
Chemicals are retained in body
tissue (such as FAT).

Increase in the concentration

of the pollutant as it moves up
through the food chain

PERSISTENT POLLUTANTS (do not break down easily)

WHY TOP CARNIVORES ARE IN TROUBLE?
● Highest trophic level => most susceptible to alterations in the environment
● BUT WHY?
WHY TOP CARNIVORES ARE IN TROUBLE?
● Vulnerable to the effects of changes further down the chain.
● Poupulation numbers are low (2nd law of thermodynamics!)
● Ability to withstand changes is more limited than species lower in the food
chain (with larger populations).
KEY: second law of
thermodynamics describes a
tendency for numbers and
quantities of biomass and energy
to decrease along food chains
Trophic Level: is the position that an organism occupies in a food chain
https://www.youtube.co
m/watch?v=0glkXIj1DgE
1) How much energy moves up each trophic level?
2) How is energy lost throughout the food chain?
T+A
2) The length of food chains is restricted
because the amount of sunlight entering the
ecosystem is limited. (TRUE OR FALSE).
T+A
2) The length of food chains is restricted
because the amount of sunlight entering the
ecosystem is limited. (TRUE OR FALSE).
2.3 Energy flows and matter

Ecosystems are linked together by energy

and matter flows.

The Sun’s energy drives these flows, and

humans are impacting the flows of energy
and matter both locally and globally.
ALMOST ALL ENERGY
THAT DRIVES
PROCESSES ON
EARTH COMES
FROM….
 Living systems are
DEPENDENT
on the amount of
solar insolation
reaching the
GROUND

What factors impact the amount of solar insolation

reaching the ground?
How much of the solar insolation
coming in is available to plants?
 How much of the solar insolation
coming in is available to plants?

● Only about 1-4%

 Pathways of energy through an
ecosystem include:

● conversion of light energy to chemical energy

● transfer of chemical energy from one trophic

level to another with varying efficiencies

● re-radiation of heat energy to the atmosphere

Key Points
● Once solar energy enters the biosphere it
can be used by plants to produce matter in
the form of biomass.
● The energy and biomass then move
through food chains
○ energy eventually passes back to the
atmosphere as heat
○ matter recycles through the system.
Energy flows, matter cycles!
 HOW IS ENERGY
INTRODUCED INTO
AN ECOSYSTEM?
PRIMARY PRODUCERS

LIGHT ENERGY → CHEMICAL ENERGY

LIGHT ENERGY → CHEMICAL ENERGY
 PRODUCTIVITY
CONVERSION OF ENERGY INTO BIOMASS
OVER A SPECIFIC TIME PERIOD

MEASURED PER UNIT

AREA PER UNIT OF LIVING MASS
TIME OF AN
(PER SQUARE METER ORGANISM
PER YEAR) (“DRY”)
 PRODUCTIVITY
In ecology, productivity is the rate at which energy is
added to the bodies of organisms in the form of biomass
in a given amount of time.

Biomass is simply the amount of matter that's stored in

the bodies of a group of organisms.
 HOW MUCH GROWTH
IN A
SPECIFIC TIME PERIOD
(for plants and animals)
biomass biomass
 TYPES OF PRODUCTIVITY

GROSS PRODUCTIVITY (GP) NET PRODUCTIVITY (NP)

● Total biomass that COULD ● Total biomass gained by an
be gained by an organism organism AFTER
BEFORE counting for accounting for energy loss
energy loss
● Gain in biomass per unit
● Total gain in biomass per area per unit of time
unit area per unit of time AFTER deductions taken
for respiration
 If we talk about
primary productivity,
what are we talking
about?
 TYPES OF PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
GPP NPP
● Total biomass that COULD ● Total biomass gained by a
be gained by a plant plant AFTER accounting
BEFORE counting for for energy loss
energy loss
● Gain in biomass per unit
● Total gain in biomass per area per unit of time by
unit area per unit of time PLANTS AFTER
by PLANTS deductions taken for
respiration
 TYPES OF Secondary PRODUCTIVITY
GSP NSP
● Total biomass that COULD ● Total biomass gained by a
be gained by an animal animal AFTER substracting
BEFORE counting for fecal respiration and fecal loss
loss
● Gain in biomass per unit
● Total gain in biomass per area per unit of time by
unit area per unit of time animals AFTER deductions
by animals taken for respiration
 Key Point 1:

What is the maximum

amount of energy (biomass)
available to all animals??
 Key Point 1:

Biomass of plants is
theoretically the maximum
amount of energy available
to all animals
Calculating GPP (measuring amount
of sugar produced by plant)
Is DIFFICULT

NPP is used to monitor productivity

of plants (accumulation of matter)
Calculating NPP:

NPP = GPP - R

Rate at which plants photosynthesize (GPP)

-
Rate at which they respire (use energy) (R)

R = respiratory loss
NSP??
NSP = 33 J
 T+ A

X 1) Name the
process labelled
by the X
 T+A

Identify the pyramid of productivity

Justify your answer

 T+A

Calculate the percentage of energy loss to the hawk from the initial
input of 500 kcal m-2 yr-1.
 T+A

The main primary producers in most ecosystems are plants. Explain

two of the roles of plants in an ecosystem. (2)
 Key Point 2:

Does productivity vary from

ecosystem to ecosystem?
 Key Point 2:

Amount of biomass
produced varies

Why?
Biomass of plants
varies

SPATIALLY TEMPORALLY

SEASONAL PATTERNS OF
BIOMES PRODUCTIVITY based on
(latitudes) availability of basic resources
 PRODUCTIVITY

● Also varies over time.

=> At certain times of the year - cold seasons are less
productive
=> At certain life cycle stages - young organisms have
higher growth rates than older ones.
=> Disturbances: disease, pests, fires damaging
standing crops
 EFFICIENCIES (%)
● Assimilation: how much of the food an organism
consumes can it assimilate (absorb into its body)?

● Productivity: how much of what is assimilated is used

for productivity (turned into meat, profits!)?
 How are sustainability and productivity
related?
● Productivity?
● Sustainability?
 How are sustainability and productivity
related?
● Productivity?
● Sustainability?

● COMPLETE THE HANDOUT (no Chat GPT!)

● THINK-TEAM-SHARE (5 min -5 min -10 min)
 How are sustainability and productivity
related?
● Productivity: the conversion of energy into
biomass (J m-2 yr-1). The rate of growth of
plants and animals in the ecosystem.
● Sustainability: Management of resources that
allows full natural replacement of the
resources exploited (full recovery of
ecosystems)
ORIGINAL
STOCK
 What is the net
productivity
ORIGINAL
here?
STOCK

(think of
productivity in
bussiness)
 Maximum Sustainable Yield
(MSY)

● Amount of biomass that can be extracted without

reducing the natural capital (original stock) of the
ecosystem.
 Maximum Sustainable Yield
(MSY)

● Amount of biomass that can be extracted without

reducing the natural capital (original stock) of the
ecosystem.
● MSY = Net Productivity

MSY = NP
MSY = NPP
MSY = NSP
 Maximum Sustainable Yield
(MSY)

● Explanation: If you are extracting biomass

without reducing the natural capital (original
stock) then you have to be taking the net
primary or net secondary productivity of the
system.
What is the MSY for
plants?

For herbivores?
Minamata Japan 1950s
Minamata Japan 1950s
The situation (1950s)

● Number of cases of people experiencing

○ loss of hearing and sight
○ loss of control over movement
○ issues with speech
○ paralysis
○ birth defects and stillbirths

… and the rates seemed to only be increasing

The situation (1932-1968)

● University researchers began doing surveys

● Chisso Factory (petrochemical-based products)
○ Unregulated release of methylmercury into Minamata
Bay
○ Methylmercury DOES NOT breakdown easily
If it’s in the bay…. how did it end up impacting humans?
If it’s in the bay…. how did it end up impacting humans?

Chisso Factory
If it’s in the bay…. how did it end up impacting humans?

Chisso Factory Two process:

Bioaccumulation

Biomagnification
Minamata Disease recognized in 1968

● Minamata Disease caused by mercury

poisoning

● Seafood from Minamata Bay not

declared safe until 1997
Bioaccumulation
Accumulation of a toxin in the tissues of an organism

Time
Biomagnification
Increased concentration of a toxin within higher trophic levels

Time
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
T+A

1) What is productivity?
2) Productivity varies both spatially and temporally. Outline what this means.
3) Distinguish between primary productivity and secondary productivity?
Water Cycle
Energy Flows, Matter Cycles
What type of system is a nutrient’s cycle?
Carbon Cycle

● Carbon flows between each

reservoir in an exchange
called the carbon cycle,
which has slow and fast
components.

● Any change in the cycle

that shifts carbon out of
one reservoir puts more
carbon in the other
reservoirs.
 Carbon Cycle
● Storages in the carbon cycle
include
○ Organisms (plants and
animals)
> BIG = forests

● Atmosphere
● soil
● fossil fuels
● oceans
 Carbon Cycle
● Flows in the carbon cycle
include:
○ consumption (feeding)
○ Death
○ Decomposition
○ Photosynthesis
○ Respiration
○ dissolving
○ fossilization.
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
 Nitrogen Cycle

● Storages in the nitrogen

cycle include
○ Organisms
○ Soil
○ Fossil fuels
○ Atmosphere
○ Water bodies
 Nitrogen Cycle
● Flows in the nitrogen cycle
include:
○ nitrogen fixation by bacteria
○ Lightning
○ Absorption
○ Assimilation
○ consumption (feeding),
○ excretion,
○ death and decomposition
○ denitrification by bacteria
 Nitrogen Cycle
● Flows in the nitrogen cycle
include:
○ nitrogen fixation by bacteria
○ Lightning
○ Absorption
○ Assimilation
○ consumption (feeding),
○ excretion,
○ death and decomposition
○ denitrification by bacteria
T+A
1. Identify two storages in the
carbon cycle.

1. Outline two flows in the

carbon cycle.

1. Outline one way in which

humans are impacting the
carbon cycle
HUMAN IMPACTS (CARBON CYCLE)
HUMAN IMPACTS (NITROGEN CYCLE)
 2.4 Biomes, Zonation, and Succession
● Climate determines the type of biome in a given area, although
individual ecosystems may vary due to many local abiotic and biotic
factors.

● Succession leads to climax communities that may vary due to

random events and interactions over time. This leads to a pattern of
alternative stable states for a given ecosystem.

• Ecosystem stability, succession and biodiversity are intrinsically linked

What is a biome?
● Large geographic areas with animals and plants
adapted to similar abiotic conditions

● Collections of ecosystems sharing similar climatic

conditions
5 main types (these have many subdivisions)

Forest Desert

Grassland Aquatic Tundra

 each biome has unique
● levels of productivity
● limiting factors
● levels of biodiversity
KEY: each biome has unique
limiting factors, levels of productivity, levels of biodiversity
Limiting Factors Levels of Productivity Levels of Biodiversity

Factors that limit Gain in biomass Diversity in:

growth of ● species,
populations Ex. living tissue present in Amazon vs ● habitat,
Antarctica ● genetics within
populations
Biomes exposition
● Location (map, general facts, landscape description)

● Abiotic factors (average temperature, precipitation, seasons, type of

soil…)
● Plant adaptations (specific species shown)
● Animal adaptations (specific species shown)
● Threats (human activities and climate change)

IMPORTANT: Include pictures of every point mentioned.

Biomes list
● Temperate deciduos forest => Charles
● Savanna (tropical grassland) => Min Ah
● Desert => Alex
● Estuaries => Joao
● Steppe => Eden
● Coral reefs => Paulo
● Polar ecosystems (Arctic vs Antarctic) => Brian
● Taiga => Roma
 are found
along
ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENTS:
GRADUAL CHANGE OF ABIOTIC FACTORS THROUGH SPACE
 the combination of several
abiotic factors determine WHERE
biomes are located on Earth
 Climate
● Long term weather patterns
(seasons, extremes)

● MOST IMPORTANT
FACTORS:
○ Temperature
○ Precipitation (rain, snow)
○ Solar Insolation (sunlight)
 Climate
● MOST IMPORTANT
FACTORS:
○ Temperature
○ Precipitation (rain, snow)
■ Water availability
○ Solar Insolation (sunlight)
 P/E ratio
(Precipitation to evaporation)

• Easy to calculate
• precipitation / evaporation

• P/E = 1 ??
 P/E ratio
(Precipitation to evaporation)

• Easy to calculate
• precipitation / evaporation

• If P/E = 1,
• P=E What happens when
• Soil is fertile and rich. P/E is different than 1?
 P/E ratio
(Precipitation to evaporation)
 What determines
the distribution of
biomes?
• Wind and ocean currents
• Latitude and altitude
• Earth’s tilt, rotation,
revolution, curvature.
• Topography
 What determines
the distribution of
biomes?
• Explain why these factors
influence weather.
 What determines
the distribution of
biomes?
Atmospheric circulation
 Tricellular
Atmospheric
Altitude Model
● Height about sea level
explains how
thermal energy is
● Temperature decreases the distributed around
higher you go above sea level the planet
○ Why you see snow on
mountains at low
latitudes
Tricellular Atmospheric Model
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7fd03f
Altitude
BRsuU&feature=emb_logo
● Height about sea level
1) What causes global circulation?
2) What is the main source of heat on Earth?
● Temperature decreases the
3) higher
What causes differential
you go above heating of Earth?
sea level
○ Why you see snow on
4) Whymountains
do we see ice at the poles?
at low
5) Describe why global circulation is called a “clever air
latitudes
conditioning system”?
Tricellular Atmospheric Model
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xqM83
Altitude
_og1Fc&feature=emb_logo
● Height about sea level
1) What causes the three cell pattern of circulation on Earth?
2) What are the names of the three types of cells?
● Temperature decreases the
3) higher
Why are the
you go tropics located
above sea level where they are?
○ Why you see snow on
4) Whymountains
are the deserts
at low
located where they are?
latitudes
Ocean and Wind Currents
● Distribute heat energy from
the equator upwards to the
poles

● Wind = air moving

horizontally across surface of
Earth
○ High → low pressure

● Water transports heat:

absorbs or releases heat
when changing state
Wind currents
Atmospheric Circulation TriCellular Model
Oceanic Circulation System
Latitude: how far we
are away from the
equator ● -90°S to 90°N

● Distance north or
south from the
Equator

● Temperature
decreases the
farther away
 Altitude
● Height above sea level

● Temperature decreases the

higher you go above sea level
○ Why you see snow on the
top of mountains
Rain Shadow effect
Rain Shadow effect
• Mountain range as a barrier
• (usually coastal mountain ranges)
• Mojave Desert, California.
Secondary C

1) Extract a food chain

1) Describe how energy

can be lost throughout
this ecosystem.
a) Name one process (think
formula for NP)

1) Identify two possible

effects of removing
trout on this ecosystem
 T+ A

1) Outline 3 factors
X that determine
where biomes are
located

1) Identify 1 biome with

high productivity and
1 biome with low
productivity
GUESS THE BIOME!
Game in teams
Guess the biome!!
Guess the biome!!
Climate impacts productivity
● Think of an ecosystem…
○ What are its NUTRIENTS STORAGES?
Nutrients (Gersmahl) cycle
Biomes and climate change
“By the end of the
21st century, large
portions of the
Earth’s surface may
experience climates
not found at present,
and some 20th-
century climates may
disappear”
Biomes and climate change
Changes in temperature and precipitation

changes in vegetation and habitat

Changes in species able to survive

Biomes and climate change
Some will say…

Species can adapt, don’t worry

Biomes and climate change
Evolution is a slowwwwwwwww process
(we’ll learn the deets next unit)

To survive most species will have to migrate:

● Towards the poles or up mountains where it is cooler

● Towards the equator where it is wetter

Biomes and climate change
What’s the problem with the need to shift range
distributions?
Biomes and climate change
Elevated risk for biodiversity, especially in the
tropics where species have smaller
FUNDAMENTAL NICHES
● less accustomed to fluctuations in
temperature and precipitation levels.

Amazon rainforest as being vulnerable to climate

change due to “particular risk for increased fire
frequency and loss of forest cover.”
Zonation vs Succession
Zonation Succession

● the change in a vegetation ● the predictable change in a vegetation

community over time.
community along an
environmental gradient.
Zonation vs Succession
Zonation Succession

● the change in a vegetation ● the predictable change in a vegetation

community over time.
community along an
environmental gradient. ● Starts with a pioneer community then
the vegetation transitions through
● The change may be caused by various intermediate communities to the
changes in altitude, depth of final climax community.
water, tidal level, distance from ● Some species will start the process as
the shore etc. the dominant species but then die out to
be replaced by an alternative dominant
● Changes are spatial and are species.
determined by changes in the ● Through time the vegetation becomes
abiotic factors taller and the ecosystem more complex.
KEY: zonation is SPATIAL
succession is TEMPORAL
Zonation

● How an ecosystem is
changing along an
environmental gradient
KEY: zonation is SPATIAL
Zonation all goes back to….

● Fundamental Niche
○ range of abiotic
conditions that an
organism can survive in
Zonation all goes back to….
● Factors that determine a
species’ fundamental
niche:
■ Temperature
■ Precipitation
■ Solar insolation
■ Soil Type
■ Interactions with
other species
■ Human Activity
Zonation all goes back to….
● Factors that determine a species’ fundamental niche:

Temperature Precipitation
● Decreases as altitude ● Let’s keep to the mountain
(higher up a mountain) and example:
latitude increase (higher ● Rainfall is mostly at middle
towards the poles) altitudes → air is dry and
cold at peaks
Zonation all goes back to….
● Factors that determine a species’ fundamental niche:

Solar Insolation Soil Type

● How much light available for ● In warmer zones =
photosynthesis decomposition is faster which
● REALLY intense on peaks of means more nutritious soils
mountains → plants need ● Higher the altitude = the
adaptations to avoid damage slower the decomposition
(more acidic)
Zonation all goes back to….
● Factors that determine a species’ fundamental niche:

Interactions Human Activity

● Competition ● Deforestation
● Presence of fungi ● Agriculture
● Road Building
In Class Activities
Task: Zonation
Read:
https://www.mba.ac.uk/fact-sheet-rocky-shore

https://www.slnnr.org.uk/media/2413395/rocky_shore_zonation.pdf

Create a diagram of rocky shore zonation

Include an explanation for why we see zonation occuring

T+A
● Define zonation and provide an example.
Zonation vs Succession
Zonation Succession

● the change in a vegetation ● the predictable change in a vegetation

community over time.
community along an
environmental gradient.
KEY: zonation is SPATIAL
succession is TEMPORAL
 R- Selected K-Selected
T+A
Many small offspring High parental Care
Fast development Few large offspring
Reproduction early in life More constant and predictable mortality
Variable population size Slow development
Variable and unpredictable mortality Reproduction later in life
Low parental care Constant population size, close to carrying
capacity
Survivorship Curve
K Selected

Mortality
R Selected
Constant

R Selected
Survivorship Curve
K Selected

1) Explain the shape of the K-

selected species
Mortality
R
Constant
Selected 1) Explain the shape of the R-
selected species

1) Distinguish between the

R Selected
life cycles of K and R
selected species
KEY: zonation is SPATIAL
sucession is TEMPORAL
Succession

● the predictable change in a vegetation community over time.

● Starts with a pioneer community then the vegetation transitions
through various intermediate communities to the final climax
community.
● Some species will start the process as the dominant species but
then die out to be replaced by an alternative dominant species.
● Through time the vegetation becomes taller and the ecosystem
more complex.
What is Succession?

● Over time, there is a natural increase in

complexity of the structure and species
composition of a community
Communities?

● Over time, there is a natural increase in

complexity of the structure and species
composition of a community
What is Succession?
● Ecosystems advance through stages of
succession until reaching a climax community
How does succession end?
● In a climax community,
● the maximum amount of biomass that
can possibly exist given available
resources is reached

● Stable and self perpetuating (steady-

state or dynamic equilibrium)
What is Succession?
● Succession is the change in composition of an
ecosystem over time
Types of succession?
● Succession is the change in composition of an
ecosystem over time
There are two types of succession….

Primary Secondary
● Occurs on bare soil ● Occurs on developed soil
after a disturbance
● Colonization of newly
created land*** ● Abridged version of
primary succession
Steps of Primary Succession

Bare ground (rock):

● Don’t have many
nutrients
● Don’t have much
water holding
capacity
Step 1: Colonization
Colonization:
● Type of species? r or K? Why?
● What happens here?
Step 1: Colonization
Colonization:
● Pioneer species arrive to the area
○ adapted to extreme conditions because they
are normally r-selected species
● Small size, short life cycles, with rapid
growth and production of many
offspring or seeds
Step 2: Establishment
Establishment:
● Species diversity increases
● With introduction of smaller invertebrate species, we
begin to see development of soil
● more nutrients, more water holding
capacity
 Step 3: Competition
Competition
● Larger plants, why?
● Consequence of that?
 Step 3: Competition
Competition
● Start to see larger plants which
○ 1) change the microclimate → temperature, humidity,
exposure to sun and wind

○ 2) provide shelter and resources for K-selected species

to establish
● Larger bodied, longer life cycles, slower growth
rates, slower reproduction rates, specialized
niches
 Step 4: Stabilization
Stabilization
● Fewer new species arrive as species become established and
complex food webs develop
Climax Community
● Name the community. Characteristics?
Label the four stages of succession…

Add: pioneer species, r-selected, k-selected, climax community

Label the four stages of succession
Stabilization Climax
Establishment Competition Community
Colonization K Species
Pioneer Species K Species

r Species r Species

Add: pioneer species, r-selected, k-selected, climax community

What changes with succession?
What changes with succession?

● Biodiversity increases
● Energy flows become more complex as food chains turn
into food webs
● Soil development → more nutrient content and cycling,
water-holding capacity increases.
How does productivity change?
How does productivity change?

● Early stages:
○ Grasses and shrubs
● GPP = low (biomass = low)
● NPP = high (respiration rates = low)
● Late stages:
○ Forest
● GPP = high (biomass = high)
● NPP = lower (respiration rates =higher)
How does productivity change?

● Early stages:
○ GPP = low as the conditions are more extreme and
there are not many primary producers
○ NPP = high as respiration rates are low

… meaning that the system is growing as

BIOMASS is increasing
How does productivity change?

● Late stages:

○ GPP = high as there is more biomass and productivity

○ NPP = starts to decreases as respiration rates increase

with biomass (as plants get bigger so do their
respiration rates)
 How does productivity change?

● Early stages:
○ Lichen, grasses and shrubs
● GPP = low (biomass = low)
● NPP = high (respiration rates = low)
● Late stages:
○ Forest
● GPP = high (biomass = high)
● NPP = lower (respiration rates =higher)
Key point:

GPP tends to increase throughout the

colonization and early establishment
phases, and then decrease as the
climax community is reached
Check-for-understanding
1) Outline two reasons why the climax community is more
stable than the intermediate community. [2]

2) Outline two ways in which the food web is likely to change

as a result of succession. [2]

3) Outline two ways in which the soil quality in the pioneer

stages of the succession model will differ from that in the
climax ecosystem. [2]
T+A

1. State an area other than sand

dunes where zonation may
be found.
2. Compare and contrast
succession and zonation.
3. Explain how productivity
changes during succession.
Kognity
checklist
Kognity
checklist
 ● Ecosystems can be
better understood
2.5 through quantification
Investigating of their components.

ecosystems ● Investigations:
PRACTICAL WORK ○ comparisons between
(fieldwork) ecosystems or
evaluation over time.

○ Natural change and

human impacts.
Measuring abiotic factors
GOAL: observe the impact of abiotic factors on biotic factors
Measuring abiotic factors
GOAL: observe the impact of abiotic factors on biotic factors
Measuring abiotic factors
Marine Freshwater Terrestrial
● Salinity ● Turbidity ● Air temperature
● pH ● Flow Velocity ● Light Intensity
● Water ● pH ● Wind Speed
Temperature ● Water ● Soil Texture
● Dissolved Oxygen temperature ● Slope
● Wave Action ● Dissolved oxygen ● Soil Moisture
● Rainfall
● Drainage
● Mineral Content
Select three abiotic factors and research (PAIRS)
1) How is it measured? (device, procedure, units)
2) Why is it relevant / useful? (how does it translate?, in which context can be
used?)
3) Evaluate each one of the strategies described (pros/cons)

IMPORTANT: Include visuals!!

Example: TEMPERATURE
1) Probes / thermometers (°C or °F)
Example: TEMPERATURE
2) In the case of aquatic ecosystems, minor changes => terrible consequences
- For example, temperature impacts metabolic rates.
- Lower temperatures = lower metabolism
- Higher temperatures = stress
- Comparison before and after an event (human disruption)
- Analyze how zonation driven by temperature influences changes in the
metabolism and therefore, differences in the organisms observed.
Example: TEMPERATURE
3)
Measuring abiotic factors
Marine
Salinity ● Test for density of water or ● Probe
conductivity
pH ● 1-14
Temperature ● Impacts metabolic rates
● Lower temp = lower metabolism
Dissolved ● Higher temp = lower oxygen
Oxygen ● Higher pollution = lower oxygen
Wave Action ● Important for organisms living at the ● Dynamometers
surface
Measuring abiotic factors

Freshwater
Turbidity ● Cloudiness of water → ● Secchi disk
photosynthesis
Flow Velocity ● Determines what species can live in ● Flow meters, impellers,
an area floats
● Varies with time, depth, position in
river
Measuring abiotic factors
Freshwater
Turbidity ● Cloudiness of water → ● Secchi disk
photosynthesis

Let’s say you record the depth of the Secchi disk

every year for 10 years,

● If the depth that you can see the disk

increases overtime…..

● If the depth that you can see the disk

decreases overtime…..
Measuring abiotic factors
Terrestrial
Air ● Impacts metabolism ● Thermometer
Temperature

Precipitation ● Water availability ● Rain gauge

Light Intensity ● Impact photosynthesis ● Meters

Wind speed ● Evapotranspiration

Soil Texture ● Drainage and water-holding capacity ● Optical meters or jars
Soil Moisture ● Water availability ● Oven
Measuring abiotic factors
Terrestrial
Soil Texture ● Drainage and water-holding capacity ● Optical meters
Soil Moisture ● Water availability ● Oven

Q: to what extent does soil texture and

moisture change with altitude?
Measuring abiotic factors
Terrestrial
Soil Texture ● Drainage and water-holding capacity ● Optical meters
Soil Moisture ● Water availability ● Oven

Q: to what extent does soil texture and

moisture change with altitude?

H: Less water will be present in the soil at

higher altitudes
 ● Ecosystems can be
better understood
2.5 through quantification
Investigating of their components.

ecosystems ● Investigations:
PRACTICAL WORK ○ comparisons between
(fieldwork) ecosystems or
evaluation over time.

○ Natural change and

human impacts.
Measuring abiotic factors
GOAL: observe the impact of abiotic factors on biotic factors
Measuring abiotic factors
Marine Freshwater Terrestrial
● Salinity ● Turbidity ● Air temperature
● pH ● Flow Velocity ● Light Intensity
● Water ● pH ● Wind Speed
Temperature ● Water ● Soil Texture
● Dissolved Oxygen temperature ● Slope
● Wave Action ● Dissolved oxygen ● Soil Moisture
● Rainfall
● Drainage
● Mineral Content
Measuring Biotic Components

● Biomass
● Productivity (conversion of energy into biomass)
● Catching small motile organisms (terrestrial, aquatic)
● Measuring abundance (biodiversity and species
richness)
Measuring Biotic Components

● IB animal experimentation policy

● WARNING: no stress, no killing of animals

● Find humane ways to catch them!

Measuring Biotic Components
● Biomass (living tissue)

● Take above-ground biomass (rather than roots)

● Dry out vegetation and measure weight

○ Simple
○ Destructive
Measuring Biotic Components
● Primary Productivity (conversion of energy into biomass)
○ Plants in water → measure changes in dissolved oxygen (DO) levels
Measuring Biotic Components
● Primary Productivity (conversion of energy into biomass)
○ Plants in water → measure changes in oxygen levels
Measuring Biotic Components
● Primary Productivity (conversion of energy into biomass)
○ Plants (terrestrial) → measure biomass
Evaluation (primary productivity)

LIMITATIONS:
Measuring Biotic Components
● Secondary Productivity
○ Animals (terrestrial) → ??

Challenge: design an
experiment to
determine GSP and NSP
Measuring Biotic Components
● Small motile organisms:
○ Pitfall traps
○ Sweep Nets
○ Tree beating
○ A pooter
Measuring Biotic Components
● Biotic index (for pollution or DO levels)
Measuring Biotic Components

● Remote sensing
But we don’t just have to identify our
variables….

We must decide how we are going to go out and take our

samples
Quadrats: a frame of a specific size
Transects
Sampling strategies
● Random sampling
● Stratified random sampling
● Systematic sampling
Upgrade IA proposal…
● Watch video (about quadrats and transects) and take notes!
● Include the quantification of biotic factors in your IA project.
● Make sure that you include what we learned today in class.
Quadrats

Help us tell about changes in biodiversity, abundance,

and landscape patterns over SPACE and TIME
Quadrats: a frame of a specific size

Used to gain an understanding of ecosystems

(impossible to count all organisms)

● Density: mean number of plants per unit2

● Frequency: percentage of the total quadrat number that
species was present in
● Percentage cover: estimate of the coverage by each
species
Quadrats: a frame of a specific size

Used to gain an understanding of

ecosystems (impossible to count all
organisms)
● estimate % coverage of bare soil
● visual observations of plant health
● count slow moving animal species
Quadrats: how to determine % cover?
Quadrat is subdivided into
100 smaller squares
● Counting the number of squares
covered
Quadrats: how to determine % cover?
Alternatively, you can use the ACFOR score:
ACFOR score
Quadrats: a frame of a specific size

Size of quadrat depends on what

organisms are being sampled:

● 10cm x 10cm: algae, lichen

● 0.5mx0.5m: grasses or tide pools
● 5m x 5m: mature trees
Quadrats need to be used in either

1) a grid system 2) along line or belt transects

Quadrats
Quadrats need to be used in either

1) a grid system
Random, Systematic, or Stratified Sampling
Random Stratified Systematic
In general Uniform Used when a population Where samples are
is known to contain chosen in a regular
Every item has the same subsets. way (nth method).
chance of being selected.
Important to know the e.g. you interview
Removes observer bias size of subsets in the every 5th person that
whole population passes you by
Generation of random  your sample reflects
numbers. the same
proportions
Random, Systematic, or Stratified Sampling
Depending on the habitat type, use…

Random Stratified Systematic

Habitat Uniform Habitat has distinct Environmental
areas Gradient
Large area with limited
time (for example, a meadow (gradual change in an
of grasses with sections abiotic factor through
Statistical tests require of bramble) space)
randomly sampled data
Random Sampling
Random Sampling is used to remove observer bias in uniform
landscapes
Random Sampling
Random Sampling is used to remove observer bias in uniform
landscapes
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is used to take into account different areas
(or strata) which are identified within the main body of a habitat
Ex. a grassland area is 200 m2 overall, but 50 m2 of
small bushes (25%)
● we determined that 12 samples are needed to be
taken in order to accurately reflect the composition
of the whole habitat.
○ 3 (one quarter, or 25%) would be located
within the small bush unit
○ 9 (three quarters, or 75%) in the general
grassland area.
Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is used to take into account different areas
(or strata) which are identified within the main body of a habitat
Stratified sampling
Systematic Sampling
Systematic Sampling is used when zonation occurs along an
environmental gradient (elevation, down a sea shore)

line transects belt transects

Systematic Sampling
Systematic Sampling is used when zonation occurs along an
environmental gradient (elevation, down a sea shore)

line transects
Systematic Sampling
belt transects
Systematic Sampling
RIVER
How to determine sample size?
How many transects?
How many quadrats?
How to determine sample size?
How many transects?
How many quadrats?
Example Studies
Q: how does the composition of species change with increasing
distance from the river?
Example Studies

Q: how does the % coverage change throughout a shrubland?

In Class Activity
Design a field experiment you could perform somewhere in
Mexico City that would need either:

1. Systematic Sampling

1. Stratified Sampling

What would you be looking for? What question would you be

answering? How would you do it?
Identifying Species
● Biological keys (dichotomous, diagrammatic):

○ Yes-No guide to features

 Example Dichotomous Guide
Can you eat it?
Yes No

Cheese? Run Away

Yes No

Tomato Sauce? Run Away

Yes No

Run Away
Pizza
Basic rules (Dichotomous keys)
Your turn:

● Create a dichotomous key

to identify everyone in the
class (including the teacher)
 Is the person over 25
YES NO
Teacher

Is the person over 1.80 m

1.- Construct a simple dichotomous key to identify the following
organisms:
Dichotomous keys
1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16
 Lincoln Index (Capture, Mark, Release, Recapture)
Used to estimate the population of animals that move about or do not appear during the day

1. Establish study area

2. Capture a sample of the population*
a. Count and record each one
3. Mark each one*
4. Release individuals
5. Wait
6. Capture second sample in same way and area
7. Calculate estimated population size
Lincoln Index (Capture, Mark, Release, Recapture)

Used to estimate the population of animals that move about or do not appear during the day

Estimating puffin populations

● North Shore of West Hill Island

● Capture sample of puffins (in a given amount of time)
○ Count and place a small tag on the left wing
● Wait one week
● Recapture sample of puffins on North Shore
● Count and record all puffins marked and unmarked
Lincoln Index (Capture, Mark, Release, Recapture)
Used to estimate the population of animals that move about or do not appear during the day

Marked Unmarked
1st Capture 60
2nd Capture 14 56

N = 60 x 70
14

N= ???
Lincoln Index (Capture, Mark, Release, Recapture)
Used to estimate the population of animals that move about or do not appear during the day

Marked Unmarked
1st Capture 60
2nd Capture 14 56

N = 60 x 70
14

N= 300 puffins
Lincoln Index (Capture, Mark, Release, Recapture)
Used to estimate the population of animals that move about or do not appear during the day

Marked Unmarked
1st Capture 56
2nd Capture 1 58

N = (56x59)/1

N= 138 puffins -- 94 puffins

Lincoln Index (Capture, Mark, Release, Recapture)
Used to estimate the population of animals that move about or do not appear during the day

Marked Unmarked
1st Capture 73
2nd Capture 12 121

N = (73x133)/12

N= 809 puffins
 Lincoln Index (Capture, Mark, Release, Recapture)
Used to estimate the population of animals that move about or do not appear during the day

Assumptions:

● Mixing is complete
● Marks don’t disappear
● Marks don’t make animals more susceptible to predation
● It is equally easy to capture every individual
● There is no migration or deaths between sampling times
● Trapping organisms once doesn’t make them more or less likely to be caught a second
time
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

KEY: takes into account the number of species

present, as well as the abundance of each
species
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

KEY: Diversity depends not only on the total

amount of species present, but also how many
individuals of each species is present.
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

KEY:
● Richness
○ a measure of the number of different kinds of
organisms present in a particular area

○ the greater the # of species, the “richer” the area

Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

Richness
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

KEY:
● Evenness:
○ compares the similarity of the population
size of each of the species present
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

Evenness
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

Total # of Species
Flower Species Meadow 1 Meadow 2
Daisy 300 20
Dandelion 335 49
Buttercup 365 931
Roses 324 6
Total ? ?
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

Total # of Species
Flower Species Meadow 1 Meadow 2
Daisy 300 20
Dandelion 335 49
Buttercup 365 931
Roses 324 6
Total 1324 1006
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

KEY: Diversity depends not only on richness, but

also on evenness.

A community dominated by one or two species = less diverse than one in

which several different species have a similar abundance.
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

KEY: Diversity depends not only on richness, but

also on evenness.

As species richness and evenness increase, diversity increases

Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

There are 3 Simpson Indices, but we will focus only on the

Simpson Diversity Index
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

Simpson Diversity Index (D): Lowest value = 1

D = N (N-1) D= Simpson Diversity Index
Σ n(n-1) n= number of individuals of a particular species

N = total number of organisms of all species found

Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

● High Values = stable or ancient site

D = N (N-1) ● Low Values = low productivity, or
Σ n(n-1) disturbed ecosystems
Which is more biodiverse?

Number of Individuals of
Species
A B C
Pond 1 25 24 21
Pond 2 65 3 4
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

Pond 1:
Number of Individuals of
Species
N = 25 + 24 + 21 = 70
A B C
D= 70x69
Pond 1 25 24 21
(25x24) + (24x23)+ (21x20)
Pond 2 65 3 4
D = 3.07
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

Pond 2:
Number of Individuals of
Species
N = 65 + 3 + 4 = 72
A B C
D= 72x71
Pond 1 25 24 21
(65x64) + (3x2)+ (4x3)
Pond 2 65 3 4
D = 1.22
T+A

I am about to show you some data tables…

1. Hypothesis: which ecosystems have more biodiversity?

Why?
2. Calculate Simpson’s Diversity Index
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

Number of Individuals of Species

A B C D
Forest 1 35 53 24 21
Forest 2 45 38 55 47
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

Number of Individuals of Species

A B
Grassland 1 12 23

Grassland 2 42 17

Grassland 3 24 6
Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity

1. Why might agricultural lands have low values on the

Simpson Diversity Index?

1. Why might tundras have low values on the Simpson

Diversity Index?
T+A

I am about to show you 2 data tables…

1. Hypothesis: which population is bigger? Why?

2. Calculate Lincoln Index
T+A

What do I need to make sure of while collecting data?

Marked Unmarked
1st Capture 134
2nd Capture 68 43

Marked Unmarked
1st Capture 128
2nd Capture 71 38
REMINDERS
● YOUR EXAM WILL BE NEXT WEEK

● To practice the IB style, each question has an answer box.

If you need more space, please ask for additional paper.
Remember to write which question you are answering.
Features of Experiments

It all starts with a research question….

Features of Experiments

It all starts with a research question….

● Question we want to know the

answer to
● Focused
● Concise
● Debatable
● Complex (not yes/no)
Features of Experiments

Good research questions….

● Feasible
● Clear
● Start with
○ “What”
○ “How”
○ “To what extent”
GOOD or BAD
Are there more male or female students at Westhill?
To what extent does locker location in middle school impact
chance of getting into university?
Do sixth graders prefer art or science?
How much waste is produced at Westhill?
Features of Experiments

In ESS our research questions must be put in context.

● Why should anyone care?

● Why is this question relevant?
Features of Experiments

What context could the following questions be put in?

● How do increasing temperatures

impact wheat yields?

● To what extent does age impact

environmental viewpoints?
Features of Experiments

…. then comes our hypothesis

● Our best guess (educated guess)

at the answer to our research
question
Features of Experiments

…. then comes our hypothesis (WRITE HYPOTHESES FOR THESE QUESTIONS)

● Research Question:
○ To what extent does choice of pizza topping impact overall taste?
HYPOTHESIS:

○ How does water affect gummy bears?

HYPOTHESIS:
Features of Experiments
Determine our variables (sometimes it helps to do this first)

Variable Definition Example

Dependent What you are measuring Plant Height
Independent What you are changing or manipulating to Exposure to sunlight
see the result of
Controlled What factors are staying the same. soil type, location
Uncontrolled Factors we have no control over Temperature, precipitation
Research Question: To what extent does wearing a 5 kilo belt impact running speed?

Hypothesis: If a runner wears a 5 kilo belt, then the runner will complete a 100 meter dash slower.

Control Trial: Experimental Trial:

Record speed of each runner without added weight Record speed of each runner with 5 kilo belt

Control Variables: Distance (100m), Where the race is held, Clothing runners are wearing

Independent Variable: 5-kilo belt

Dependent Variable: Time

Research Question: To what extent does the color of a bug impact how they are able to survive?

Hypothesis: If there is a green bush, then green bugs will be able to camouflage better than red bugs and be eaten less often.

Control Trial: Experimental Trial:

Control Variables: bush, location, type of bugs, timeframe

Independent Variables: color of the bushes

Dependent Variable: # of bugs

Features of Experiments
Determine our variables (sometimes it helps to do this first)

● Research Question: To what extent does choice of pizza topping

impact overall taste?
● Hypothesis:

Dependent
Independent
Controlled
Uncontrolled
Features of Experiments
Determine our variables (sometimes it helps to do this first)

● Research Question: To what extent does choice of pizza topping

impact overall taste?
● Hypothesis: If bacon is added to a plain cheese pizza, then the overall
taste will improve.
Dependent
Independent
Controlled
Uncontrolled
INSTRUCTIONS OF THE ACTIVITY
● Design and carry out an investigation to
determine the change in the population of one
or more species, investigating a correlation with
at least two abiotic variables.
IA Challenge
● In a Google Slides/Power Point presentation, design a field
experiment. (RQ, Hypothesis, Variable Chart)

● The experiment must be planned locally.

○ Include one slide detailing the ecosystem → name, where it is, what is
the climate like, what are the dominant species?

● Include one slide summarizing methodology

○ Comparison between places? Differences in space (zonation, assessment of
human impact)? Differences over time (before and after an event)?
○ Sampling strategies (random, stratified, or systematic?)
○ Transects, quadrats, both?
○ Measurements of biotic factors? (density, frequency, percentage cover,
biomass, productivity, Lincoln index, Simpson Diversity index, etc…)
○ Measurement of abiotic factors? (aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems?)
RQ: To what extent does Simpson Diversity Index change based
on location?

Hypothesis: Meadow A in Yellowstone is more diverse than

Meadow B in Yosemite.

Meadows → Yellowstone, Yosemite

Dependent: Simpson Diversity Index

Independent:Location

Controlled: way that I’m sampling, how big my grid system,

quadrat size

Uncontrolled: climatic conditions

RIVER
Altitude
Kognity
checklist
Kognity
checklist