CLIMATE CHANGE CONVENTION
ENVIRONMENT CONVENTION
STOCKHOLM CONVENTION 1972 (June 5th – 16th)
[UN Conference on Human Environment]
•Launch of UNEP
•Creation of Umbrella Act for Environment by all member countries.
(In consonance with this on India has created EPA 1986)
•World Enviro day June 5th announced
•Action plan for Human Environment “Earth Watch”
•Convene 10years once
NAIROBI SUMMIT 1982 –
•Less Publicity
•The Declaration envisaged the creation of a special commission to frame
long term environment strategies for achieving sustainable developments
upto the year 2000 and beyond.
ENVIRONMENT CONVENTION
EARTH SUMMIT 1992 [Rio de Janerio]
[UN Conference on Environment & Development]
Agreements Signed
1. Rio Declaration , AGENDA 21 & Forest Principles
2. UN Commission on Sustainable Development [UN-CSD] [Later
name changed to High level Political forum on Sustainable
Development]
3. Three Conventions Signed
ØUN Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC]
ØConvention on Biological Diversity [CBD]
ØUN Convention on Combating Desertification [UNCCD]
4. Global Environment Facility [GEF] – Funding Mechanism
GEF is a financial mechanism provides Grants for 6 areas – Biodiversity,
Climate Change, Land Degradation, Ozone depletion, International
Waters, Persistant organic pollutants(POP)
ENVIRONMENT CONVENTION
JOHANNESBERG SUMMIT 2002 [South Africa]
{Earth Summit 2002/Rio+10}
[World Summit on Sustainable Development]
vJohannesberg Declaration
vAchieving MDG
EARTH SUMMIT 2012 [Rio de Janerio] {Rio+20}
[UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UN-CSD)]
vAdopted ground breaking policy on Building Green Economy
vPartnership Alliance on Green Economy [PAGE]
vTo address the issue of land degradation on a global scale,
a concept of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) emerged.(In October
2015, UNCCD country Parties reached a breakthrough agreement on the
land degradation neutrality (LDN) concept.)
v Support SDG for 2030 Agenda
EARTH SUMMIT 1992
UN Commission on Sustainable Development [UN-CSD]
The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was
a body under the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) tasked with
overseeing the outcomes of the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development/Earth Summit.
The CSD was established in December 1992 by General Assembly
Resolution A/RES/47/191 as a functional commission of the (ECOSOC) ,
implementing a recommendation in Chapter 38 of Agenda 21of Earth
Summit 1992 held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
It was replaced in 2013 by the “High-level Political Forum on
Sustainable Development”, which meets both under the General
Assembly every four years and the ECOSOC in other years.
EARTH SUMMIT 2022 - STOCKHOLM +50
( The Conference decided to call as Stockholm+50 rather than
Rio+30)
The theme of the meeting is “A Healthy Planet for the Prosperity of All – Our
Responsibility, Our Opportunity”
Stockholm+50 is a timely opportunity to reinforce the 1972 principles and to generate
urgent actions for a healthy planet for the prosperity of all by:
•Accelerating the implementation of commitments for a sustainable, inclusive, peaceful,
and gender-responsive future through exploring enhanced and innovative financing and
capacity building opportunities, showcasing solutions, and examining existing structures;
•Driving actions across sectors needed to recover and build forward from the pandemic and
its adverse impacts on people, planet, and prosperity; • Advancing policies and partnerships
for transitioning to a net-zero, zero-pollution, and nature-positive global economy,
including by rethinking new metrics for our economy;
•Promoting structures for meaningful youth participation, by strengthening the voice and
representation of young people, and ensuring that the wellbeing of current and future
generations is at the core of all discussions; andSupporting the mobilization of innovative
and bold action and collaboration by businesses to drive system transformation.
UNCCD - Bonn Challenge
The Bonn Challenge is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the
world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350
million hectares by 2030.
It was launched in 2011 by the Government of Germany and IUCN, and
later endorsed and extended by the New York Declaration on Forests at
the 2014 UN Climate Summit.
Underlying the Bonn Challenge is the forest landscape restoration (FLR)
approach, which aims to restore ecological integrity at the same time as
improving human well-being through multifunctional landscapes.
The Bonn Challenge is not a new global commitment but rather a practical
means of realizing many existing international commitments, including the
CBD Aichi Target 15, the UNFCCC REDD+ goal, and the Rio+20 land
degradation neutrality goal.
UNCCD - Bonn Challenge
India joined the voluntary Bonn Challenge pledge to bring into
restoration 13 million hectares (mha) of degraded and deforested land by
the year 2020, and additional 8 mha by 2030. [Totally 21million hectare]
This pledge to restore of 21 m.ha by 2030
has been increased to 26 mha, during the COP14 to the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 2019.
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC]
Objective - Mitigation & Adaptation of Climate change & reduce GHG
This can be done by
üCommitment towards Reduction of GHG by Emitting Countries
üTechnology transfer from developed country to developing country
üFund transfer from developed country to developing country
Annex I countries – Industrial Countries
Annex II Countries – Wealthy and Industrial Countries(Fund & Technology)
Non Annex Countries – Other all countries
Least Developed Countries
COP 3 – 1997 – Kyoto Protocol – (Kyoto protocol call for Legal binding
emission target is only for Annex B (Rich) countries and other countries
non legal binding target)
Rich countries says– Common Responsibilities [CR] – Legal binding for all
countries
Developing countries. – Common But Differential Responsibilities [CBDR]
(Because of Historic Responsibility and Capability)
Developing country promised for Voluntary Emission Pledge target without
Legal binding
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997
and entered into force on 16 February 2005. Controlling Six GHG
KYOTO PROTOCOL – FIRST PERIOD
The targets for the First Commitment period (2008-2012) of the Kyoto
Protocol cover emissions of the six main greenhouse gases, namely:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2);
• Methane (CH4);
• Nitrous oxide (N2O);
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs);
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
Reduce GHG by 5% below 1990 levels
KYOTO PROTOCOL MECHANISM
Emission Trading /Carbon Trading/Cap & Trade - AAU
Clean Development Mechanism - CER
Joint Implementation - ERU
Developments
ØPersuading US to join the Protocol
ØEstablishment of Adaptation Fund board
ØDecision on Technology Transfer & Mitigation
ØReview of Financial mechanism beyond GEF
ØDemand for Exclusive Fund for Climate change
ØDiscussion on Global target for Temperature Limits
ØDebate on the reports of IPCC
ØDemand of Developing countries for extending Kyoto protocol under
CBDR
COP 16 – 2010 – Cancun Agreement– Agreed to
Limit Global Warming to 2degCelsius
COP 17 – 2011 – Durban Platform
New Climate deal will be finalised by 2015 and will come into force by
2020.
Launched Green Climate Fund [GCF]
No Consensus on KP II by many countries
COP 18 – 2012 – Doha Outcome
KP II second commitment period extended from 2013 – 2020 under
CBDR principle. 7th Gas Nitrogentriflouride was added
All the KP, 3 mechanism will continue
GCF commitment is not clear – Developing countries demand for
$100bn/year by 2020 from Rich nations
COP 19– 2013 – Warsaw Pact
Roadmap for COP 2015 in Paris – Legal binding
REDD+ for formally launched
Little progress om $100bn/year by 2020
Establishment of Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and
Damage
COP 20– 2014 – Lima Outcome
GCF initial - $10bn funding will be provided
Proposal for 2015 New deal & Concept of “Nationally appropriate
mitigation action”
REDD & REDD+ PROGRAMME
REDD Programme developed by UNDP,UNEP and FAO
REDD+ developed by UNFCCC members. It is a result based payment
What is Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage?
The aim of the L&D Mechanism is to address loss and damage associated
with impacts of climate change, including extreme events (such as
hurricanes, heat waves, etc.) and slow onset events (such as
desertification, sea level rise, ocean acidification, etc.) in developing
countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of
climate change.
The L&D Mechanism will promote the implementation of approaches to
addresses loss and damage in three ways:
•Enhancing knowledge and understanding of comprehensive risk
management approaches;
•Strengthening dialogue, coordination, coherence and synergies among
relevant stakeholders;
•Enhancing action and support, including finance, technology and
capacity–building
Establishment of Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and
Damage
The L&D Mechanism will facilitate:
Action to address gaps in the understanding of various topics related to
addressing loss and damage
•The risk of slow onset events, non-economic loss and damage
•Examine how impacts of climate change are affecting patterns of
migration, displacement and human mobility, etc.;
•Collection, sharing, management and use of relevant data and
information;
•Provision of overviews of best practices, challenges, experiences and
lessons learned.
COP 21 – 2015 – Paris Climate Conference
New Paris Agreement – Legal binding for all will be in force from 2020
Target 2degcelsius but if possible 1.5degcelsius
But principle of differentiation is maintained by INDC(Intended
Nationally Determined Contribution) hence CBDR – RC. Countries
will be expected to submit an updated NDC every five years, which
will represent a progression beyond the country’s then current NDC
to reflect its highest possible ambition.
Paris Agreement entry from 2020, till that KP-II will be in action in the
principle of CBDR
India launched “International Solar Alliance”
TARGET – 1TW of Solar Energy with USD 1000 billion by 2030
In order to begin Paris Agreement the following has to be finalised
v “Paris Rule book” should be created
v “NDC Targets’ should be given by all countries
v “Global Stocktake” methodology to be finalised
v GCF Commitment from developed countries & how funds will be
distributed should be finalised
v Issue of Carbon credit created during KP period – how it will be
used during Paris Agreement
v Issue of HFC to be resolved – Kigali Amendment finalised
v Monitor KP-II is being conducted till 2020. “Legal binding” for Rich
countries and “Voluntary pledges” by developing countries
COP 24 – 2018 – Katowice
v“Paris Rule book” Finalised
vDispute on IPCC Spl Report on 1.5degcel - Rejected
v“NDC Targets’ – India and many other countries submitted
v“Global Stocktake” finalised for every 5years
vGCF Commitment - Poor progress
vIssue of Carbon credit created during KP period – how it will be
used during Paris Agreement - Postponed
vIssue of HFC to be resolved – Kigali Amendment finalised
vMonitor KP-II is being conducted till 2020. “Legal binding” for Rich
countries and “Voluntary pledges” by developing countries
Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol
The Ministers recognized that the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal
Protocol for phasing down use of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) could
prevent up to 0.40C of warming by end of the century,
Further, noting that universal ratification of Kigali Amendment to the
Montreal Protocol shall allow realization of its full potential.
INDIA 1st NDC COMMITMENT
v“33-35% GDP Emission reduction by 2030 from 2005 level
v2.5 to 3bn ton of Co2 equivalent reduction through Forest cover by
2030.
v40% Electric power from Non fossil by 2030
According to the global climate pact, a country’s INDC is converted to a
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) when it formally joins the Paris
Agreement by submitting an instrument of ratification, acceptance,
approval or accession, unless a country decides otherwise.
NDCs present countries’ efforts to reach the Paris Agreement’s long-term
temperature goal of limiting warming to well below 2°C (3.6°F), with efforts
to stay below 1.5°C (2.7° F).
The Climate Action Summit
The United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres hosted the Climate
Action Summit 2019 in New York ahead of the UN General Assembly. The
Secretary-General called on all leaders – governments, the private sector,
civil society, local authorities and other international organizations – to come
with concrete, realistic plans that will boost ambition and rapidly accelerate
action to implement the Paris Agreement.
About UN Climate Action Summit
The first summit had taken place in California in 2018. The purpose of the
summit is to bring leaders from around the world together to hasten the
implementation of Paris Agreement. At 2018 summit, the NDCs were re-
calibrated. It was an opportunity to recognize the roadblocks and increase
the commitments.
The Climate Action Summit
Chile led the launch of Climate Ambition Alliance (CAA) at the Climate
Action Summit New York in 2019. Around 73 countries have joined the
Climate Ambition Alliance (CAA) at the COP25.
Both Chile and UK will work together to mobilize additional actors to join
the alliance. They will also work towards COP26 that is to be held in
November 2020 at Glasgow, UK.
Climate Ambition Alliance
The CAA will focus on enhancing Nationally Determined Contributions in
order to achieve Net Zero by 2050. It will focus in resilience in
infrastructure, management of water and sustainability of cities. The main
purpose of the alliance is to upscale 2020 targets of members of UN and
to achieve Net Zero Carbon Emissions by 2050.
‘RACE TO ZERO’
It is a global campaign to rally; leadership and support from businesses,
cities, regions, investors for a healthy, resilient, zero carbon recovery that
prevents future threats, creates decent jobs, and unlocks inclusive,
sustainable growth.
Race To Zero mobilizes actors outside of national governments to join
the Climate Ambition Alliance, which was launched at the UNSG’s Climate
Action Summit 2019 by the President of Chile, Sebastián Piñera.
The objective is to build momentum around the shift to a decarbonized
economy ahead of COP26, where governments must strengthen their
contributions to the Paris Agreement. This will send governments a
resounding signal that business, cities, regions and investors are united in
meeting the Paris goals and creating a more inclusive and resilient
economy.
The Climate Action Summit
India to increase share of non-fossil fuels to 175 GW by 2022 and
further take it to 450 GW
World leaders gathered in New York in September for the United Nations
Secretary General (UNSG) Climate Action Summit. Bringing attention
towards India’s efforts in always following a climate sensitive sustainable
development pathway by mainstreaming climate change concerns in
development policies, Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi announced that
India is going to increase the share of non-fossil fuels to 175 GW by 2022,
and will further take it to 450 GW.
PM also mentioned about the launch of Jal Jeevan mission for water
conservation, rainwater harvesting and for the development of water
resources. India is going to spend approximately 50 billion dollars on this
in the next few years
PM announced the launch of The Global Coalition for Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure [CDRI]
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
The CDRI was launched by the Prime Minister of India during his speech
at the UN Climate Action Summit on 23rd September 2019
It is a multi-stakeholder global partnership of national governments, UN
agencies and programmes, multilateral development banks and financing
mechanisms, the private sector, and academic and knowledge institutions.
It is not an inter-governmental organisation, which are ordinarily treaty-
based organisations
With the increasing demands of a growing global population and
unpredictable hazard patterns, the existing infrastructure will be put under
additional stress and new infrastructure will be built in hazardous areas.
The CDRI is a global partnership that aims to promote the resilience of
infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks, thereby ensuring
sustainable development
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030)
highlights the role of improved disaster resilience of infrastructure as a
cornerstone for sustainable development.
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
The Coalition provides a forum for countries at all stages of development,
to access knowledge and resources from other members to make their
infrastructure resilient and thus, contribute to each other’s economic
growth.
1. For countries that are in the early stages of infrastructure development,
the Coalition provides access to good practices to develop appropriate
standards as well as regulatory mechanisms to manage infrastructure
development in a manner that fosters resilience.
2. For countries at an advanced stage of infrastructure development, CDRI
provides an opportunity to engage with the development of robust
infrastructure systems that are interconnected globally. As with other
nations, the challenge for them is to transform how infrastructure is
designed, constructed, operated and maintained, and develop the financial
incentives, standards, governance arrangements and capacities that are
required to facilitate the resilience of infrastructure to extreme events and
changes in future hazard patterns, while fulfilling the commitment to leave
no-one behind.
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
Envisioned as a partnership, the CDRI is not organised around the notion
of rights and obligations. However, national governments that endorse the
Charter and become a member of the CDRI have a key role in setting its
substantive agenda as well as in its governance. It may be noted that the
policies, standards and other outputs of CDRI would not be binding on its
members.
A large share of the estimated fund requirements to cover the core costs
over the first five years has been invested by India. There are no
obligations on the part of members to make financial contributions to
CDRI. However, at any point (during the first five years or beyond),
members of the CDRI may make voluntary financial or in-kind
contributions to the CDRI such as assignment of experts from national
institutions to the CDRI Secretariat[DELHI], hosting of thematic workshops
and meetings, and travel support.
COP 25 – UNFCCC Presidency of Chile in Madrid, Spain on
December 2019.
Key issues
1)Pre-2020 implementation and ambition gaps
2) India 2nd Biennial Update Report submitted that
India has achieved 21% Reduction in emission intensity of GDP over
2005-2014. ie) Pre 2020 India’s Voluntary pledges achieved.
India moreover said increased target for Renewable from 175GW to
450GW [CBDR-RC maintained]
3) Climate Ambition Coalition – India refused to join and said will see
after Globalstocktake
4) Article 6 under the Paris Agreement – No consensus
(It is market & Non market mechanism. Market mechanism talks
about Emission trading etc and Non market mechanism is talks about
Tax etc)
COP 25 – UNFCCC Presidency of Chile in Madrid, Spain on 02nd –
15th December 2019.
5) Climate Finance Issues – No visibility
6) Enhanced Transparency Framework (Monitoring, Reporting and
Verification)
7) Warsaw International Mechanism (WIM) for Loss and Damage
associated with Climate Change Impacts
9) Parity between Mitigation and Adaptation
8) Technology development and transfer – Climate Technology centre
network,& GEF to Collaborate
India also called upon more countries to join the International Solar
Alliance (ISA) to reduce dependence on fossil fuels to meet the growing
energy requirement.
UNFCCC COP-26 GLASGOW SUMMIT
According to the UNFCCC, COP26 will work towards four goals:
1. Net-Zero by 2050:
•To secure Global Net-Zero by Mid-Century and keep 1.5 degrees within reach.
•Countries are being asked to come forward with ambitious 2030 emissions reductions
targets that include reaching net-zero by the middle of the century.
•To deliver on these stretching targets, countries will need to:
• Accelerate the phase-out of coal
• Curtail deforestation
• Speed up the switch to electric vehicles
• Encourage investment in renewable sources of energy.
2. Adapt to Protect Communities and Natural Habitats:
•Countries will work together to ‘protect and restore ecosystems and build
defences, warning systems, and resilient infrastructure and agriculture to avoid loss of
homes, livelihoods and even lives.’
3. Mobilise Finance:
•Developed countries must make good on their promise to mobilize at least USD100bn in
climate finance per year.International financial institutions must play their part
UNFCCC COP-26 GLASGOW SUMMIT
4. Work Together to Deliver:
•Another important task at the COP26 is to ‘finalize the Paris Rulebook’.
•Leaders will work together to frame a list of detailed rules that will help fulfil the Paris
agreement.
Loss & Damage
Acknowledging that climate change is having increasing impacts on people especially in
the developing world, countries agreed to strengthen a network— known as the Santiago
Network, that provides vulnerable countries with technical assistance, knowledge, and
resources to address climate risks.
Control of Methane: 103 countries, including 15 major emitters, signed up to the Global
Methane Pledge, which aims to limit methane emissions by 30 percent by 2030, compared
to 2020 levels. Methane, one of the most potent greenhouse gases, is responsible for a third
of current warming from human activities.
Ending Deforestation - In the Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forests and Land Use,
countries committed to ending deforestation by 2030. The declaration was backed by $17
billion of investments. Since the group includes Brazil and Indonesia where large areas of
forests are being ravaged by legal and illegal logging, there will be progress in expanding
these carbon sinks on the planet.
The Forests, Agriculture and Commodity Trade (FACT) Dialogue, a road map for the
sustainable development and trade of agricultural commodities, was launched.
Private Finance: Private financial institutions and central banks announced moves to
realign trillions of dollars towards achieving global net-zero emissions. Among them is the
Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero, with over 450 firms across 45 countries that
control $130 trillion in assets, requiring its member to set robust, science-based near-term
targets.
Clarity on Article 6 of Paris agreement- There is greater clarity on how bilateral carbon
trades can proceed and the creation of a centralised hub that replaces Kyoto Protocol’s
Clean Development Mechanism.
Criteria have been set out for countries to use CERs from projects registered after January
1, 2013 to meet their first NDC or first adjusted NDC.
It also designates a 12-member Supervisory Body to oversee the emerging hub and to
review the baselines of recognised credits.
Article 6 of the Paris Agreement introduces provisions for using international carbon
markets to facilitate fulfilment of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) by
countries. Launch of new mechanism ‘Sustainable Development Mechanism ‘
India's Stand at COP-26
2nd NDC COMMITMENT
The Government of India has articulated and put across the concerns of developing countries
at the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Glasgow, United Kingdom.
Further, India presented the following five nectar elements (Panchamrit) of India’s
climate action:
i.Reach 500GW Non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
ii.50 per cent of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
iii.Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from now to 2030.
iv.Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45 per cent by 2030, over 2005
levels.
v.Achieving the target of net zero emissions by 2070.
CRITICISMS
Phasing out the coal - India introduced an amendment to the original draft to replace the
phrase “phase out” with “phase down” playing negatively with both the advanced as
well as a large constituency of developing countries.
India had earlier said that principles of equity meant all fossil sources: coal, oil and gas be
reduced but the US and other countries refused as they were critical to their own
economies.
Inadequate funding for adaptation - Doubling the current finance available for adaptation
to developing countries will be around $ 30 billion which is grossly inadequate. According
to UNEP, adaptation costs for developing countries are currently estimated at $70 billion
annually and will rise to an estimated $130-300 billion annually by 2030.
Shortfall in Paris Agreement target - The Paris Agreement target of $100 billion per annum
between 2005-2020 has a shortfall of more than half.
CRITICISMS
The renewed commitment to deliver on this pledge in the 2020-2025 period is unlikely
especially in this post- pandemic global economic slowdown.
Issue of compensation for loss and damage – The compensation for loss and damage for
developing countries who have suffered as a result of climate change for which they have
not been responsible has not met.
Global Methane Pledge - India did not join the Global Methane Pledge despite methane
being the second- most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere after carbon dioxide.
Ending deforestation - India refused to join the group due to concerns over a clause on
possible trade measures related to forest products.
INDIA’S EFFORTS AT PRESENT:
India’s renewable energy capacity is 4th in the world as of now and growing at a
rapid rate.
India has seen an increase of about 25% in renewable energy capacity in the last
four years.
Indian railways, one of the largest emitters has promised to reach net-zero by 2030–
this alone will reduce 60 million tonnes of emissions.
India has launched international institutions for climate action such as International
Solar Alliance (ISA), Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI),
India along with UK and Australia will launch the Infrastructure for Resilient
Island States (IRIS) for the island nations and developing countries.
India will also be part of the launch of the Green Grids Initiative.
Cabinet approves India’s Updated Nationally
Determined Contribution [NDC]
India now stands committed to reduce Emissions Intensity of its
GDP by 45 percent by 2030, from 2005 level
Achieve about 50 percent cumulative electric power installed
capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.
India’s long term goal of reaching net-zero by 2070. Prime Minister’s
concept of mass movement for ‘LIFE’– ‘Lifestyle for Environment’ as a
key to combating climate change"
India’s NDC do not bind it to any sector specific mitigation obligation or
action.
UNFCCC COP-27 EGYPT (Sharm el-Sheikh)
Key Outcomes of COP27
On Loss and Damage: Developing countries have been seeking financial assistance for
loss and damage for nearly 3 decades. It refers to money needed to rescue and rebuild the
physical and social infrastructure of countries devastated by extreme weather. Countries
have now agreed to set-up a fund to provide financial assistance to poor nations stricken
by climate disaster. This is the biggest achievement of the Conference. However, there is
no agreement yet on the mechanism of operation of the fund or how finance should
be provided and administered.
Parties also agreed on the institutional arrangements to operationalize the Santiago
Network for Loss and Damage, to catalyze technical assistance to developing countries
that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.
On 1.5°C Temperature Limit: At COP26 (Glasgow, 2021) countries had agreed to
focus on a 1.5°C limit. Since the promises to cut greenhouse gas emissions weren’t
enough to stay within the 1.5°C limit, countries had agreed to come back every year to
make the commitments stronger. This is called the “ratchet mechanism“. Some
countries tried to back out of the 1.5°C goal and get rid of the ratchet at COP27. They
didn’t succeed, but a plan to get emissions to peak by 2025 was taken out, indicating lack
of commitment towards climate action.
UNFCCC COP-27 EGYPT (Sharm el-Sheikh)
On Fossil Fuels: At COP26, a commitment to phase down the use of coal was agreed. At
COP27, some countries, led by India, wanted to include a commitment to phase down all
fossil fuels. It was a subject of intense debate but was not included in the final resolution.
The final text of COP27 contained a provision to boost “low-emissions energy”. That could
mean many things, like wind and solar farms, nuclear reactors, and coal-fired power stations
fitted with carbon capture and storage. It could also be interpreted to mean gas, which has
lower emissions than coal.
Food Security: The COP27 agreed that “safeguarding food security and ending hunger” is a
fundamental priority, and that communities can better protect themselves from climate effects
if water systems are protected and conserved.
On Technology: COP27 saw the launch of a new five-year work program at COP27
to promote climate technology solutions in developing countries.
UNFCCC COP-27 EGYPT (Sharm el-Sheikh)
Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan: The cover decision, known as the Sharm el-Sheikh
Implementation Plan, highlights that a global transformation to a low-carbon economy is
expected to require investments of at least US$ 4-6 trillion a year. Delivering such funding
will require a swift and comprehensive transformation of the financial system and its
structures and processes, engaging governments, central banks, commercial banks,
institutional investors and other financial actors.
On Reform in Finance Institutions: The World Bank and other publicly funded finance
institutions, have failed to provide the funding needed to help poor countries cut their
greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of the climate crisis. Reform discussed at
COP27 involve a recapitalisation of the development banks to allow them to provide far
more assistance to the developing world. The IMF has US$1 trillion available to lend to
countries in financial distress, but only a small fraction of this is for climate finance.
On Adaptation: Of the US$ 100 billion a year promised to poor countries, only about
US$ 20 billion goes to adaptation measures (like Building flood defences, preserving
wetlands, restoring mangrove swamps and regrowing forests). In Glasgow, countries had
agreed to double that proportion, but at COP27 some countries sought to remove that
commitment. However, after some differences it was reaffirmed.
UNFCCC COP-27 EGYPT (Sharm el-Sheikh)
On Mitigation: A mitigation work programme has been launched in Sharm el-Sheikh,
aimed at urgently scaling up mitigation ambition and implementation. The work
programme will start immediately following COP27 and continue until 2030.
Governments have also been requested to revisit and strengthen the 2030 targets in their
national climate plans by the end of 2023.
Other Developments
Countries launched a package of 25 new collaborative actions in five key areas: power,
road transport, steel, hydrogen and agriculture.
UN Secretary-General António Guterres announced a US$ 1 billion plan to ensure
everyone on the planet is protected by early warning systems within the next five years.
The G7 and the V20 (‘the Vulnerable Twenty’) launched the Global Shield against
Climate Risks, with new commitments of over US$ 200 million as initial Implementation
is to start immediately in a range of pathfinder countries.
UNFCCC COP-27 EGYPT (Sharm el-Sheikh)
The Food and Agriculture for Sustainable Transformation initiative (FAST) has been
launched to increase the amount and quality of climate financing contributions to change
agriculture and food systems by 2030.
The new Indonesia Just Energy Transition Partnership, announced at the G20 Summit
held in parallel with COP27, will mobilize US$ 20 billion over the next 3-5 years to
accelerate a just energy transition.
Important progress has been made on forest protection with the launch of the Forest and
Climate Leaders’ Partnership, which aims to unite action by governments, businesses
and community leaders to halt forest loss and land degradation by 2030.
UNFCCC COP-27 EGYPT (Sharm el-Sheikh)
The Decision also included ‘transition to sustainable lifestyles and sustainable patterns of
consumption and production‘. This is significant as India’s Prime Minister has pitched
for environmentally-friendly lifestyle through his Mission LiFE (lifestyle for
environment) since COP26.
Further commitments to a deal on slashing methane emissions were struck on the
sidelines, indicating increasing focus on methane emissions. Brazil also committed to
introducing a zero-deforestation law for the Amazon in 2023, withCongo and Indonesia also
showing intent to follow suit.
Developed countries are pushing for agriculture to be included under climate action under
The Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture. It is a framework under the UNFCCC that
recognizes the potential of agriculture in tackling climate change. The Koronivia decision
addresses six interrelated topics on soils, nutrient use, water, livestock, methods for
assessing adaptation, and the socio-economic and food security dimensions of climate
change across the agricultural sectors. India has held that emissions from the agricultural
sectors are not “luxury” emissions but “survival emissions” of the poor. Poor and Marginal
Indian farmers lack the capacity to support climate action.
Black and Brown Carbon in Atmospheric Aerosols
The black and brown carbons are distinguished by their optical (scattering,
absorption and others) and physical (colour, volatility and other) properties.
Both these gases are major absorbing carbonaceous aerosols in the
atmosphere. The absorptive properties of these substances can have
large impacts on radiative transfer and climate.
Black Carbon (BC), emitted mainly by high-temperature combustion
processes (diesel engines, etc.) Brown Carbon (BrC), emitted mainly by
biomass combustion are the two most important light absorbing
substances in the atmospheric aerosol.
Black Carbon (BC) absorbs light over the entire solar spectrum. On the
other hand, Brown Carbon (BrC) absorbs near UV wavelengths and to a
lesser extent, visible light.
IPCC Wet bulb Temperature
The report refers to wet-bulb temperature, which accounts for both heat and humidity,
unlike conventional temperature measurements. It illustrates the implications of that
combination on the human body's ability to cool down. The term "wet bulb" refers to a
measurement method in which a wet cloth is wrapped around the end of a thermometer to
see how much evaporation can lower the temperature.
As the air around becomes more humidified, the body's ability to sweat decreases, making
it more difficult to cool off. As a result, dry heat feels more bearable than severe humidity.
"If the wet-bulb temperature reading is higher than our body temperature, that means we
can't cool ourselves to a temperature that humans can tolerate by evaporating sweat, and
that basically means you can't survive," said Tapio Schneider, a climate scientist and
professor at the California Institute of Technology.
A wet-bulb temperature of 31 degrees Celsius is exceedingly harmful for humans, while a
temperature of 35 degrees is unsurvivable for more than six hours, even for fit and healthy
individuals sitting in the shade. Even at lower temperatures, the heat can be fatal,
especially for the elderly, children, and anyone performing rigorous physical labour.
According to a research cited by the UN organisation in its report, currently, wet-bulb
temperatures in India rarely reach 31 degrees, with most of the country seeing maximum
wet-bulb temperatures of 25-30 degrees.
Projection of impacts on cities
Many regions of northern and coastal India would attain extremely unsafe wet-bulb
temperatures of over 31 degrees by the end of the century if emissions are decreased just to
the levels now promised. Wet-bulb temperatures will approach or exceed the 35 degree limit
across much of India if emissions continue to rise.
According to the study, Lucknow and Patna are among the cities predicted to reach wet-bulb
temperatures of 35 degrees by the end of the century if emissions continue to rise, while
Bhubaneswar, Chennai, Mumbai, Indore, and Ahmedabad are all predicted to reach wet-bulb
temperatures of 32-34 degrees if emissions continue to rise.
Consequently, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Tripura,
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Punjab will be the hardest hit, but if emissions continue to rise, by
the end of the century, all Indian states will have areas with wet-bulb temperatures of 30
degrees or higher.
