NAOE 3211: Ship and Offshore Structure-II

3.00 Credit. 3 hrs/wk.

Objectives;

This course will enrich students’ knowledge on loading and stresses of ship and steel offshore
structures. The important vibration structural analysis for ship and floating structures will also
be introduced here.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the course, students will be able to:

• • understand the environmental loading on ship & offshore structure

• • aware of structural and related principles and concepts
• • undertake ship structural design and analysis

Contents:

Introduction to ship and offshore structure vibration; Source of ship vibrations; Effect of
vibration to ship hull girders; Effect of vibration to local structures; Resonance avoidance;
Method of calculating natural frequency – single and multi dof; Calculation of forced vibration
response; Method of reducing vibration problems; Reducing vibration problems in structural
design; ABS guidelines for vibration prevention and reduction.

Ship structural design - a review; Ship structural design process; Ship structural loads; Plate
theory & small deflection theory; Plate bending; Stiffened plate bending; Plate buckling;
Stiffened plate buckling.

Environmental loading on ship & offshore structure; Wave loading on fixed structures; Wave
loading on floating structures; Wind & current loading on ship & offshore structures.

Plastic strength; Elastic versus plastic design; Plastic moment of beam; Collapse mechanism;
Plastics design of hull girder; Structural safety – a review; Safety margins; Ship and offshore
structure safety.
Vibration: Introduction

When an elastic body such as, a spring, a beam and a shaft are displaced from the equilibrium
position by the application of external forces, and then released, they execute a vibratory
motion, due to the elastic or strain energy present in the body. When the body reaches the
equilibrium position, the whole of the elastic or stain energy is converted into kinetic energy
due to which the body continues to move in the opposite direction. The entire KE is again
converted into strain energy due to which the body again returns to the equilibrium position.
Hence the vibratory motion is repeated indefinitely.

Oscillatory motion is any pattern of motion where the system under observation moves back
and forth across some equilibrium position, but does not necessarily have any particular
repeating pattern.

Periodic motion is a specific form of oscillatory motion where the motion pattern repeats itself
with a uniform time interval. This uniform time interval is referred to as the period and has
units of seconds per cycle. The reciprocal of the period is referred to as the frequency and has
units of cycles per second. This unit of combination has been given a special unit symbol and
is referred to as Hertz (Hz)

Harmonic motion is a specific form of periodic motion where the motion pattern can be
describe by either a sine or cosine. This motion is also sometimes referred to as simple
harmonic motion. Because the sine or cosine technically used angles in radians, the frequency
term expressed in the units radians per seconds (rad/sec). This is sometimes referred to as the
circular frequency. The relationship between the frequency in Hz (cps) and the frequency in
rad/sec is simply the relationship. 2π rad/sec.

Natural frequency is the frequency at which an undamped system will tend to oscillate due to
initial conditions in the absence of any external excitation. Because there is no damping, the
system will oscillate indefinitely.

Damped natural frequency is frequency that a damped system will tend to oscillate due to
initial conditions in the absence of any external excitation. Because there is damping in the
system, the system response will eventually decay to rest.

Resonance is the condition of having an external excitation at the natural frequency of the
system. In general, this is undesirable, potentially producing extremely large system response.

Degrees of freedom: The numbers of degrees of freedom that a body possesses are those
necessary to completely define its position and orientation in space. This is useful in several
fields of study such as robotics and vibrations. Consider a spherical object that can only be
positioned somewhere on the x axis.
 in rad/sec is simply the relationship. 2π rad/sec.

ch an undamped
This needs system will tend
only one dimension, ‘x’ to to oscillate
define the positiondue
to the to initial
centre of gravity so it has one
excitation.degree
Because there
of freedom. If the is nowas
object damping, thealsosystem
a cylinder, we will‘θ’ to define the
need an angle
orientation so it has two degrees of freedom.

Now consider a sphere that can be positioned in Cartesian coordinates anywhere on the z plane.
This needs two coordinates ‘x’ and ‘y’ to define the position of the centre of gravity so it has
hat a damped system will tend to oscillate due to initial
two degrees of freedom. A cylinder, however, needs the angle ‘θ’ also to define its orientation
citation. Because
in that planethere
so it hasisthree
damping in the system, the system
degrees of freedom.

In order to completely specify the position and orientation of a cylinder in Cartesian space, we
would need three coordinates x, y and z and three angles relative to each angle. This makes six
xternal excitation at theAnatural
degrees of freedom. frequency
rigid body in of xthe
space has (x,y,z,θ θy θzsystem.
). In
ucing extremely large system response.
In the study of free vibrations, we will be constrained to one degree of freedom.

es of freedom that
mpletely define its
useful in several
tions. Consider
‘x’ to define a to the centre of gravity so it has one degree of
the position
ed somewhere
inder, we also needonan angle ‘θ’ to define the orientation so it has two

can be positioned in
on the z plane. This
d ‘y’ to define the
so it has two degrees
r, needs the angle ‘θ’
n that plane so it has

fy the position and

esian space, we would
d z and three angles
makes six degrees of
has Page | 2

e will be constrained

ee vibration is one that occurs naturally with no energy being added to

ion is started by some input of energy but the vibrations die away with
. In each case, when the body is moved away from the rest position,
How Vibrations Occurs

Consider a simple pendulum vibration as shown in figure below.

There are 3 positions shown in the figure. The pendulum is at stable equilibrium when it is at
position ‘b’. When pendulum is hit, it oscillates between ‘a’ and ‘c’, passing through ‘b’. So it
can be concluded that:

§ Vibration starts on a rigid body because of an external force or excitation on the

body.
§ Then the body is displaced from its stable equilibrium.
§ Now the body tends to return to its equilibrium position under the action of a
restoring force, which can be gravitational force or elastic forces.
§ The body keeps moving back and forth crossing its position of equilibrium due to
inertia.
§ Finally amplitude of vibration reduces gradually or vibration dampens and die out
and body regains its stable equilibrium, if no more excitation is given to it.

Elements for Vibration

There are 4 elements for vibration.

1. Mass [m]: Rigid body executes vibration

2. Spring [k]: Elasticity of body
3. Damper [c]: Means of energy dissipation
4. Excitation [F(t)]: System receives energy from excitation
Hull Vibrations

Hull vibrations include vibration of main hull, sub structures (such as deck house, uptakes,
masts, deck, bulkheads, etc.) and local structures (such as panels, plated and minor structure
members).

Machinery Vibrations

Machinery vibrations are caused by ship’s propeller, shafting, thrust block, main engine and
other machinery.

Effects of Vibrations in Ships

Vibrations are unwanted on board ships and it must be minimized. Vibrations may lead to:

§ Damages to hull structure

§ Machinery failure or malfunction
§ Personal discomfort
§ Loosening of joints, nuts, bolts, etc.
§ Fatigue fractures
§ Fluctuation of stresses, etc.

Vibration of Offshore structures

Offshore construction is the installation of structures and pipelines in a marine environment for
the production and transmission of oil and gas. Construction in the offshore environment is a
dangerous activity and where possibly the construction is modular in nature with the individual
modules being assembled on shore and using a Crane Barge to lift the modules into place.
Offshore structures can be designed for installation in protected waters, such as lakes, rivers,
and bays or in the open sea, many kilometers from shorelines. The oil and gas exploration
platforms are the best example of offshore structures that can be placed in water depths of 2
kilometers or more. These structures may be made of steel, reinforced concrete or a
combination of both. Offshore platforms have many uses including oil exploration and
production, navigation, ship loading and unloading, and supporting bridges and causeways.
Offshore oil production is one of the most visible of these applications and represents a
significant challenge to the design engineer. These offshore structures must function safely for
design lifetimes of twenty years or more and are subject to very harsh marine environments.
Some important design considerations are peak loads created by hurricane wind and waves,
fatigue loads generated by waves over the platform lifetime and the motion of the platform.
The platforms are sometimes subjected to strong currents which create loads on the mooring
system and can induce vortex shedding and vortex induced vibration.

Offshore platforms suffer from different kinds of mechanical vibrations due to exposure to
water waves, wind, severe environmental conditions, helicopter landing, impact boats, the
 intensity level of consequences of failure machinery etc. One of the major sources of such
mechanical vibrations on offshore platforms is the impact of sea waves on to the platform’s
legs. These mechanical impacts are transferred through the platform’s legs from the bottom up
to the highest top end of such a structure, which consist of employee’s offices,
accommodations, measurement instruments, piping, and heavy machinery.

ThisWhy
needsvibration is important
only one dimension, ‘x’ toindefine
ship the
design?
position to the centre of gravity so it has one degree of
freedom. If the object was a cylinder, we also need an angle ‘θ’ to define the orientation so it has two
degrees of freedom.
Vibration is a subject of continual interest to naval architects, ship-builders, marine engineers
and shipowners. Its presence can ruin the reputation of a passenger ship and seriously impair
Now consider a sphere that can be positioned in
the fighting
Cartesian efficiency
coordinates of a on
anywhere warship, and itsThis
the z plane. avoidance should be one of the aims present in any
needsdesigner’s mind when
two coordinates ‘x’ engaged
and ‘y’ intoplanning
define thea new ship.
position of the centre of gravity so it has two degrees
of freedom. A cylinder,
The greater however,ofneeds
the amplitude the angle
vibration ‘θ’
the greater the strains - and therefore, the stress - in the
also material,
to define and
its orientation in that plane so it has
it is the presence of these stresses which makes vibration important to the
three degrees of freedom.
structural designer, especially when it is remembered that the stresses induced are alternating
in character,
In order so that their
to completely intensities
specify must be
the position andlower than those permissible for static loads, and
orientation of a cylinder in Cartesian space, we would through the loading of the ship and the effects
they are in addition to the stresses already present
needofthree coordinates
waves at sea. x, y and z and three angles
relative to each angle. This makes six degrees of
freedom. A rigid body in space has
Types of Vibrations
(x,y,z,θx θy θz).
In the study of free vibrations, we will be constrained
Free
to one or natural
degree vibrations: A free vibration is one that occurs naturally with no energy being
of freedom.
added to the vibrating system. The vibration is started by some input of energy but the
Types of Vibrations:
vibrations die away with time as the energy is dissipated. In each case, when the body is moved
Freeaway
or natural vibrations:
from the A free there
rest position, vibration
is a is one that
natural occurs
force thatnaturally with no
tries to return energy
it to being
its rest added Free
position. to
the vibrating system. The vibration is started by some input of energy but the vibrations die away with
or natural vibrations occur in an elastic system when only the internal restoring forces of the
time as the energy is dissipated. In each case, when the body is moved away from the rest position,
theresystem act upon
is a natural forceathat
body.
triesSince theseit forces
to return areposition.
to its rest proportional to natural
Free or the displacement of the
vibrations occur in body
an
from
elastic the when
system equilibrium position,
only the internal the acceleration
restoring forces of the of the act
system bodyuponis a also
body.proportional to the
Since these forces
are proportional
displacement to and
the displacement of the body
is always directed towardsfromthetheequilibrium
equilibriumposition,
position, sothethat
acceleration
the bodyofmoves
the
body is also proportional to the displacement and is always directed towards the equilibrium position, so
with SHM.
that the body moves with SHM.

Figure 1. Examples of vibrations with single degree of freedom.

Note that the mass on the spring could be made to swing like a pendulum as well as bouncing up and
down and this would be a vibration with two degrees of freedom. The number of degrees of freedom of
the system is the number of different modes of vibration which the system may posses.
 Note that the mass on the spring could be made to swing like a pendulum as well as bouncing
up and down and this would be a vibration with two degrees of freedom. The number of degrees
of freedom of the system is the number of different modes of vibration which the system may
posses.

The motion that all these examples perform is called SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
(S.H.M.). This motion is characterized by the fact that when the displacement is plotted against
time, the resulting graph is basically sinusoidal. Displacement can be linear (e.g. the distance
moved by the mass on the spring) or angular (e.g. the angle moved by the simple pendulum).
Although we are studying natural vibrations, it will help us understand S.H.M. if we study a
forced vibration produced by a mechanism such as the Scotch Yoke.

Simple Harmonic Motion

e examples perform is called SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (S.H.M.). This
The wheel revolves at ω radians/sec and the pin forces the yoke to move up and down. The pin
by the fact that when the displacement is plotted against time, the resulting
slides in the slot and Point P on the yoke oscillates up and down as it is constrained to move
oidal. Displacement can be linear (e.g. the distance moved by the mass on the
only in the vertical direction by the hole through which it slides. The motion of point P is simple
the angle moved by the simple pendulum). Although we are studying natural
harmonic
s understand S.H.M. if we motion.
studyPoint P moves
a forced up and
vibration down sobyat aany
produced moment it has a displacement x,
mechanism
. velocity v and an acceleration a.

on
ω radians/sec and the pin forces
down. The pin slides in the slot
oscillates up and down as it is
y in the vertical direction by the
lides. The motion of point P is
. Point P moves up and down so
isplacement x, velocity v and an Figure 2

adius R from the centre of the

placement of the pin from the
t any time is x. This is also the
P. The yoke reaches a maximum
when the pin is at the top and –R
ttom.
The pin is located at radius R from the centre of the wheel. The vertical displacement of the
pin from the horizontal centre line at any time is x. This is also the displacement of point P.
the oscillation. If the wheel rotates at ω radian/sec then after time t seconds the
The yoke reaches a maximum displacement equal to R when the pin is at the top and –R when
adians. From the right angle triangle we find x = R Sin(ωt) and the graph of x - θ
the pin is at the bottom.

This is the amplitude of the oscillation. If the wheel rotates at ω radian/sec then after time t
ange of distance with time. The plot is also shown on figure 3a. v
seconds the angle rotated is θ = ωt radians. From the right angle triangle we find x = R Sin(ωt)
ωR Cos(ωt).
and the graph of x - θ is shown on figure 3a.
or amplitude is ωR and this occurs as the pin passes through the horizontal
he way up and minus on the way down. This makes sense since the tangential
ng in a circle is v = ωR and at the horizontal point they are the same thing.

of change of velocity with time. The plot is also shown on figure 3a. a
Velocity is the rate of change of distance with time. The plot is also shown on figure 3a. v =
dx/dt = ωR Cos(ωt).

The maximum velocity or amplitude is ωR and this occurs as the pin passes through the
horizontal position and is plus on the way up and minus on the way down. This makes sense
since the tangential velocity of a point moving in a circle is v = ωR and at the horizontal point
they are the same thing.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. The plot is also shown on figure 3a. a
2 2
= dv/dt = -ω R Sin(-ω R)

2
The amplitude is ω R and this is positive at the bottom and minus at the top (when the yoke is
about to change direction)

Since R Sin(ωR) = x; then substituting x we find a = -ω 2 x

This is the usual definition of S.H.M. The equation tells us that any body that performs
sinusoidal motion must have an acceleration that is directly proportional to the displacement
2
and is always directed to the point of zero displacement. The constant of proportionality is ω
. Any vibrating body that has a motion that can be described in this way must vibrate with
S.H.M. and have the same equations for displacement, velocity and acceleration.

FIGURE 3a FIGURE 3b

Angular Frequency, Frequency and Periodic time

ω is the angular velocity of the wheel but in any vibration such as the mass on the spring, it is called the
angular frequency as no physical wheel exists.

The frequency of the wheel in revolutions/second is equivalent to the frequency of the vibration. If the
wheel rotates at 2 rev/s the time of one revolution is ½ seconds. If the wheel rotates at 5 rev/s the
Angular Frequency, Frequency and Periodic time

ω is the angular velocity of the wheel but in any vibration such as the mass on the spring, it is
called the angular frequency as no physical wheel exists.

The frequency of the wheel in revolutions/second is equivalent to the frequency of the

vibration. If the wheel rotates at 2 rev/s the time of one revolution is 1⁄2 seconds. If the wheel
rotates at 5 rev/s the

time of one revolution is 1/5 second. If it rotates at f rev/s the time of one revolution is 1/f. This
formula is important and gives the periodic time.

Periodic Time T = time needed to perform one cycle. f is the frequency or number of cycles
per second.

It follows that: T = 1/f and f = 1/T

Each cycle of an oscillation is equivalent to one rotation of the wheel and 1 revolution is an
angle of 2π radians.

Whenθ=2π and t=T.

It follows that since θ = ωt; then 2π = ωT

Rearrange and θ = 2π/T. Substituting T = 1/f, then ω =2πf

Equations of S.H.M.

Consider the three equations derived earlier.

Displacement x = R Sin(ωt).

Velocity v = dx/dt = ωR Cos(ωt) and Acceleration a = dv/dt = -ω 2R Sin(ωt)

The plots of x, v and a against angle θ are shown on figure 3a. In the analysis so far made, we
measured angle θ from the horizontal position and arbitrarily decided that the time was zero at
this point.

Suppose we start the timing after the angle has reached a value of φ from this point. In these
cases, φ is called the phase angle.

The plots of x, v and a are the same but the vertical axis is displaced by φ as shown on figure
3b. A point to note on figure 3a and 3b is that the velocity graph is shifted 1⁄4 cycle (90o) to
the left and the acceleration graph is shifted a further 1⁄4 cycle making it 1⁄2 cycle out of phase
with x.

Forced vibrations: When the body vibrates under the influence of external force, then the body
is said to be under forced vibrations. The external force, applied to the body is a periodic
disturbing force created by unbalance. The vibrations have the same frequency as the applied
force.
(Note: When the frequency of external force is same as that of the natural vibrations, resonance
takes place)

Damped vibrations: When there is a reduction in amplitude over every cycle of vibration, the
motion is said to be damped vibration. This is due to the fact that a certain amount of energy
possessed by the vibrating system is always dissipated in overcoming frictional resistance to
the motion.

Types of free vibrations:

Linear / Longitudinal vibrations: When the disc is displaced vertically downwards by an

external force and released as shown in the figure 4, all the particles of the rod and disc move
parallel to the axis of shaft. The rod is elongated and shortened alternately and thus the tensile
and compressive stresses are induced alternately in the rod. The vibration occurs is know as
Linear/Longitudinal vibrations.

Transverse vibrations: When the rod is displaced in the transverse direction by an external
force and released as shown in the figure 5, all the particles of rod and disc move approximately
perpendicular to the axis of the rod. The shaft is straight and bends alternately inducing bending
stresses in the rod. The vibration occurs is know as transverse vibrations.

Torsional vibrations: When the rod is twisted about its axis by an external force and released
as shown in the figure 6, all the particles of the rod and disc move in a circle about the axis of
the rod. The rod is subjected to twist and torsional shear stress is induced. The vibration occurs
is known as torsional vibrations.
 ROD

R OD R OD

D ISC D IS C D ISC
A A B
O
O A

B
F IG U RE 5
O

F IG U RE 4
B
F IG UR E 6

Oscillation of a floating body:

Causes of Ship Vibration
You may have observed that some bodies floating in
water bob up and down.
• Unbalanced forcesThis is another
where example
reciprocating of
machinery is fitted.
simple harmonic motion and the restoring force in
• Forces may be present due to forcing impulses in an internal combustion engine. Diesel
this case is buoyancy.
engines
Consider can cause
a floating body ofproblems dueInitially
mass M kg. to theirit required
is rpm being close to the hull natural
at restfrequency
and all the forces acting on it add up to zero.
Suppose
• Most a force F is problems
vibration applied to on
theships
top to
canpush it
be traced to the propeller. This may because of
down a distance x. The applied force F must
the following:
overcome this buoyancy force and also overcome the
inertia of the body.
(a) Irregular flow towards the propeller disc area.
Buoyancy force:
(b) Damaged
The pressure increases by ∆p = ρ g x.
propeller.
on the bottom
The buoyancy force pushing it up on the bottom is Fb and this increases by ∆p A.
Substitute b = ρpropeller
for ∆p and Fnew
(c) Unbalance gxA

Inertia force:
(d) Propeller is big too large for the aperture adjacent to the stern frame and the rudder.
The inertia force acting on the body is Fi = M a

(e)ofPitch
Balance variation from propeller root to propeller tip varying slightly from blade to
forces:
blade.force must be F = Fi + Fb -this must be zero if the vibration is free. 0 = Ma
The applied
+ρgxA
ρAg
(f) Propeller has wrong
a = number
− x of blades and so produces resonance with another
M
frequency linked with the vessel.
This shows that the acceleration is directly proportional to displacement and is always directed towards
the rest position so the motion must be simple harmonic and the constant of proportionality must be the
Reduction of vibration
angular frequency on ships already built
squared.

If it is an auxiliary unit that is giving vibration problems

• Alter the rpm to avoid synchronism.

• Improve any out of balance components within the unit
• Fit elastic seating. This can be in the form of hardened rubber mountings or metal
springs. This will dampen movement, like a shock absorber on a motorcycle.

Page | 7
If the main machinery causing vibration problem

• Alter the rpm to avoid synchronism.

• Add balance weights to decrease or eliminate out of balance forces.
• If she is twin screw ship, the rpm of the port side could be adjusted so that the propellers
are turning at slightly different revolutions

If the vibration problem is local

• Small stiffeners can be welded in to place. This can reduce the amplitudes, e.g. deck
plating. This solution is not too efficient because it could move the problem along the
deck and into the next cabin.

If the problem is traced to the propeller

• Fit a new propeller, fully balanced, with no bent or broken blade.

• Fit a new propeller with different number of blades.
• Increase the propeller clearances by raking the propeller blades in an aft direction
• Fill the aft peak tank with water ballast. This greatly helps dampen down forces
emanating from the propeller, being transmitted upwards towards the accommodation
and navigation space
• Alter the loading of the ship. This will change the natural hull frequency of the ship.
• Fit a Kort nozzle or Kort rudder around the propeller. If filled with polyurethane foam,
the propeller forces will be further dampened and the vibration problems decreased.

If the vibration problem caused by sea effects

• Alter the course heading of the ship. This could help avoid resonance.
• Increase or decrease ship speed to avoid wave excited vibration.