TRAFFIC SCIENCE

A Guide
FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT PRACTITIONERS

A GUIDE FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS WHO ARE INTERESTED IN

THE SCIENCE OF TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT AND ROAD ENGINEERING
PRACTICE.

BENJAMIN VAN ROOYEN

COPS UNLIMITED

P.O.BOX 3 BEDFORDVIEW 2008

SOUTH AFRICA

ISBN 978-0-620-46944-9
(Copyright © Cops Unlimited) All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic
or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning,
digitizing, taping, web-distribution, information networks, or other information storage
and retrieval system without the written permission of the author.

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To my cop colleagues who over a period of more than 35 years enriched my life. This is
a career like no other! Thank you all.

To my wife Sannie who always supported my efforts - Thanks Lol.

APRIL 2010

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 INDEX

Chapter 1 Crash data and hazardous locations 4

Chapter 2 Crime and crash prevention by environmental design 21

Chapter 3 Data management: Traffic law enforcement strategies 38

Chapter 4 Police ethics and patrol 53

Chapter 5 Supervisory and leadership styles in traffic law enforcement

Agencies 70

Chapter 6 Patrol objectives, patrol techniques and related issues 85

Chapter 7 Deployment of traffic law enforcement personnel 96

Chapter 8 Measuring enforcement performance 101

Chapter 9 Communicating with subordinates 115

Chapter 10 Dealing with problematic law enforcement officers 124

Chapter 11 Deployment of traffic personnel 130

Chapter 12 Shifts and scheduling requirements 141

Chapter 13 Problem investigation 147

Chapter 14 Congested and unsafe roads 156

Chapter 15 Setting and management of speed limits 170

Chapter 16 Pedestrian safety measures 195

Chapter 17 Traffic calming 211

Chapter 18 Traffic studies 225

Chapter 19 Intersection Control 253

Bibliography 278

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 CHAPTER 1

CRASH DATA AND HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS

After completion of this unit you should be able:-

 To comprehend the extent of traffic crashes in South Africa

 To contextualise the South African road safety problem internationally
 To identify crash causative factors and trends
 To define the term hazardous crash location
 Apply different methods to rate hazardous crash locations
 Integrate crash expectancy into selective traffic enforcement programs

1.1 Introduction
Law enforcement officers have a special role to play in ensuring a safe road environment
for the country's road users. These officers, whether from traffic departments (Municipal
and Provincial), metropolitan police departments or those employed by the South African
Police Service; all have a patrol function as a core responsibility. Officers on patrol attend
to road crash scenes, incidents involving road users, traffic congestion, defective road
furniture, etc., and have a critical role to play to ensure that these issues are attended to
and that any risk that may exist be minimised. This can be done through a variety of
interventions the least of which is to report the matter to the appropriate response units.
Too often do we see officers that pass through intersections with defective traffic signals,
potholes on the road, missing signs, etc. without them lifting a finger to intervene. South
Africa has one of the worst road crash records when compared to developed countries. I
have been involved with road traffic science issues for more than 30 years and have
learned during this time that road engineers are more than willing to interact with law
enforcement officers to remedy problems. This interaction is based on a mutual respect
between the respective industries. Once a law enforcement officer has mastered the basic
principles of traffic science he/she will have confidence to engage other stakeholders
particularly road engineers in a range of projects - from insignificant issues to major road
developments.

One thing that I have learned is that not all civil engineers have a passion for road safety
issues let alone a perceived interference from law enforcement officers. It is therefore
important that the law enforcement officer builds a relationship with the engineer and to
do so will precipitate reciprocal respect. Traffic science is one of the most interesting
facets of road policing as it allows the law enforcement officer to remedy issues that may
save lives, reduce congestion, ensure a safe passage of vehicles, etc. I still see many
changes on the roads of Ekurhuleni, where I had the privilege to facilitate changes that
have made our roads safer. I was instrumental in bringing speed humps to public roads
despite objections from the Automobile Association. Today I'm not sure whether this was
a good thing as I have "jokingly" been accused of introducing a nuisance factor, causing
sea-sickness to road users etc.

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There are too many law enforcement officers who have a restricted view of their role
insofar as traffic crash prevention is concerned. They may think that driving around and
being visible is sufficient to deter crash causative behaviour. This may to some extent
have a deterrent value, but as soon as the officer is out of sight, road users act as if there
is no law enforcement and enforcement. Traffic engineering interventions on the other
hand are 'permanent' and have a long term effect. The value of road safety engineering
can therefore not be underestimated. Law enforcement officers also are in a unique
position to observe road safety issues as they occur and if it is a recurring factor, it may
be well worth the while to look at traffic engineering remedies. Law enforcement
administrators should look further than officer productivity in terms of the number of
prosecutions instituted. This one-sided approach to performance measurement is more
often than not resented by law enforcement officers. More emphasis should be placed on
other activities of operational officers i.e. their interventions to solve road safety problems
in consultation with other stakeholders.

This manual is intended to provide officers with knowledge and skills to interact with a
range of stakeholders. It should not in any way be seen as a comprehensive guide to all
technical orientated road safety issues. There are just too many factors that play a role in
crash causation. It will however give the law enforcement practitioner a sound knowledge
of basic road engineering problems and possible solutions. Apart from an engineering
approach to road safety issues, this manual will also focus on a few other selected issues
that may impact on the role of law enforcement supervisors in law enforcement practice.
The 3- E approach to traffic safety refers to engineering, education and enforcement.
Other E's are at times added such as evaluation, etc. The manual will focus on the more
important aspects of the pertinent issues in each of the "E's"

Crime prevention through environmental design (CePTED) is an internationally

recognised concept that attempts to intervene with the built environment in order to make
it more difficult for criminal activity to take place. Many of the principles of this concept
are applicable to the road environment and this manual will in addition to the road safety
issues referred to above, attempt to use the underlying principles of CePTED in a road
safety context.

1.2 The extent of the road safety problem

South Africa has an unacceptably high road fatality rate compared to the industrialised
countries. The country may not be the worst performer in comparison to other developing
countries, but this should not be a reason for complacency. It is important for any law
enforcement practitioner that wants to focus on road safety issues to investigate the extent
of the road safety problem. This must be done on macro, meso and micro level. Macro
refers to international and national road crash data, meso to regional, metropolitan and
municipal level and micro to a specific location. Road crash data is collated at a local
level by the agencies responsible for road policing and then transferred to provincial
traffic departments. From here the data is referred to the Road Traffic Management
Corporation (RTMC). It is also useful for law enforcement officers to compare crash data
with international trends. A law enforcement practitioner that has an active interest in
crash prevention programs should always make comparisons between the crash data for
the area for which he is

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responsible and other comparable countries or jurisdictions. By making such
comparisons, it puts the data into perspective.

1.2.1 International road crash data

The list hereunder reflects crash rate of a number of countries based on their per capita
(population). There are more accurate methods to compare crash rates such as the rate
per 100 million kilometres travelled. It however provides some indication of the risks in
different countries. Industrialised countries generally have lower crash rates than
developing countries. (www.driveandstayalive.com)

Position Per Capita Country Number of Population

Death Rate Deaths in (millions)
2003
1 Brunei
2 Malta
3 FYR Macedonia
4 United Kingdom
5 Sweden
6 Norway
7 Netherlands
8 Japan
9 Finland
10 Switzerland
11 Iceland
12 Albania
13 Israel
14 Serbia and Montenegro
15 Denmark
16 Germany
17 Australia
18 Ireland
19 Ireland -- Republic of
20 Canada
21 Azerbaijan
22 France
23 Moldova
24 Romania
25 Bahrain
26 Austria
27 New Zealand

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 28 Luxembourg
29 Italy
30 Slovak Republic
31 Slovenia
32 Georgia
33 Estonia
34 Bulgaria
35 Portugal
36 Turkey
37 Hungary
38 Spain
39 Czech Republic
40 Belgium
41 Poland
42 Jamaica
43 U.S.A.
44 Repub. of Korea
45 Greece
46 Croatia
47 Liechtenstein
48 Belarus
49 China
50 Lithuania
51 Latvia
52 Russian Federation
53 South Africa
54 Malaysia
Cyprus
Ghana

Table 1.1

Per Capita Fatality Data – 2003

It must be remembered that there are three primary measures for comparing multi-
national crash and fatality data: the deaths per 100,000 population or per capita rate, as
shown here, deaths in relation to overall distance travelled (known in the USA as the
VMT rate), and deaths in relation to the number of registered motor vehicles in the
country. All three measures should be considered when comparing disparate countries

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but using just one of these methods is generally acceptable when comparing countries of
similar status (e.g. "highly motorised countries" [HMCs], developed nations, third world
countries, etc.). As a result, some countries in Table 1.1 may appear to present bizarre
results, either because like China, for example they have a very high death toll but it is
offset by a huge population, or they simply have, say, a very low proportion of motor
vehicles per head of population -- such as Brunei, that is currently at the head of the per
capita table, or Ghana. There is also the question of how, exactly, a traffic fatality is
defined in any particular country. Some may only include deaths at the scene, whereas
others will stipulate deaths within 24 hours, and some may allow a full week or even 30
days. In some cases, therefore, the data for the number of deaths simply cannot be relied
upon as being accurate. In Turkey, for example, the national press state that over 9,000
people are killed in road crashes each year, and yet each year data is published by that
country giving a much lower body count. For that reason we have elected to position
Turkey in the table to allow for an approximate per capita rate of 13.06 (based on the
aforementioned 9,000 estimate) but have not shown the rate in the relevant column.
(www.driveandstayalive.com)

1.2.2 National road crash data

Table 1.2 reflects the number of fatalities per road user group for the different provinces
in South Africa for the period 2006/07. 2006-2007

Table 26: Number of Fatalities per Road User Group

2006-2007 GA KZ WC EC FS MP NW LI NC RSA
Drivers
Passengers
Pedestrians
Total
2007-2008
Drivers
Passengers
Pedestrians
Total
Change
Drivers
Passengers
Pedestrians
Total
% Change
Drivers
Passengers
Pedestrians
Total

Table 1.2

South African Road Crash Data per Province

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1.3 Hazardous localities (High frequency crash locations)
It is important to ensure that crash data is collated and presented in such a manner that it
serves a useful purpose. Law enforcement practitioners must be able to make sense of the
data in order that it directs them to possible interventions. Apart from a holistic view of
the crash problem, data must focus on specific issues such as the types of crashes, the
vehicles involved, the places where the crashes occur, days of the week, time of the day
etc.

Crash databases are an indispensable tool for:

 Drafting a road safety action plan and a strategy. One needs to know: What is
the problem, what are crash root causes so that one can design
countermeasures?
 Evaluation of road safety countermeasures, like campaigns, new legislation,
etc
 Formulation of enforcement plans
 Road improvements, for which location information is evident

Numerous groups are interested in road safety and need to use road crash data. They
include road safety professionals, highway engineers, the police, lawyers, research
groups, politicians, teachers, statisticians, motor manufacturing companies, vehicle fleet
operators, insurance companies and even members of the public.

Some of the key reasons for collecting crash and injury data are to:
 overview the problem,
 monitor trends,
 identify high risk/problem groups,
 identify high risk, hazardous locations,
 enable objective planning and resource management,
 evaluate effectiveness and monitor achievement of targets,
 make international comparisons, and
 provide evidence for prosecution

Potential sources of data include:

 police crash data
 hospital and medical data
 insurance data
 vehicle operators
 special surveys

Road crashes are rare events with extreme outcomes that statistically represent a small
proportion of real-life interactions between drivers and the road environment or between
drivers themselves. Even though crashes are rare, all information that can be derived from
such events is of a great value to road safety engineers when tracing the possible causes
of a crash.

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Accident data thus are a crucial element of a safety diagnosis. They are the basis for any
road safety action plan and a major tool for the decision-making process when priorities
have to be defined and immediate actions to be taken. The types of crashes on which
efforts should be focused or the sections of a network requiring immediate remedial
actions need to be determined. With systematic monitoring, the formation of "black spots"
can be observed so that the location and time of future problems can be anticipated. This
knowledge greatly facilitates budget planning and should have a strong impact on the
strategic elements, such as the determination of the main crash reduction target and the
development of the road safety action plan target. An efficient road safety program must
be based on these data since realistic targets can only be established by using accident-
related information. Some fine-tuning will also be required at local levels, where
politicians and civil organisations may have their own goals. (Elsenaar, P. et. al. 2005. p.
15)

Crash data generated by the law enforcement agency's Accident Bureau should at least
produce the following information in a collated format:-

Where Location by map coordinates, road name

and/or kilometre post
When By year, month, day of the week, time of the
day
Who People involved, vehicle types involved,
animals, roadside objects, etc.
What The severity of the crashes
What- environmental conditions Poor light, weather, road surface etc.
How Crash type, driver error, etc

Table 1.3
Minimum data requirements for crash analysis

Data management is a specialised function, but reports must be generated in such a

manner that it assists law enforcement practitioners towards an understanding of the
problem and to generate possible interventions that will minimise risks. One of the crucial
questions that we have to answer is - what is a hazardous crash location? If data indicates
there were 8 accidents at a specific intersection or on a stretch of roadway, is this serious
or not? What if there are numerous localities with more than say 8 crashes per year? How
are we going to select the localities that require dedicated attention? The law enforcement
agency must develop a system to identify those localities that require intervention. It is
important that an agency's limited resources be utilised in the most productive manner i.e.
effectively and efficiently. This means that the agency must achieve a proper return on its
investment or maximum value for money spent. We know that many law enforcement
supervisors -- those that have the responsibility to deploy officers on patrol - often neglect
to consider road crash data. They deploy officers haphazardly e.g. based on their
'knowledge' of the area. This is to say the least - a very unprofessional approach and is
sure to lead to wastage of resources. On any road network, crashes have been shown not
to be completely distributed randomly, but to be clustered at certain locations; i.e.
hazardous locations. (www.adb.org) Professional law enforcement practitioners will
identify and study these clusters in order to make some sense of why this phenomenon
occurs.

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Law enforcement supervisors that fail to deploy their officers in a professional manner
follow a "shotgun approach" to law enforcement. The use of crime and crash data to
deploy law enforcement officers is not new and is practiced by almost every responsible
police department in the world. Why would a law enforcement agency deploy officers in
areas with no or almost no crime and "rob" other areas of a law enforcement presence if
it is desperately needed to offer protection to citizens?

A crash location can be identified as hazardous by the occurrence of an abnormal number,

rate, or severity of crashes over a given period of time. There are various ways to identify
hazardous localities. From the outset it must be emphasised that each law enforcement
agency must develop its own set of parameters to identify the hazardous localities within
their respective jurisdictions. It is not possible to use the same parameters for a small rural
town with that of a major metropolitan area. In a small town it may be possible to say that
any intersection with 5 or more crashes per year is a hazardous locality, but if this same
parameter is applied in a major metropolitan area there will be too many hazardous
locations to work with. Later in this Chapter, the Pareto Principle will be discussed. This
principle is a useful instrument to assist law enforcement practitioners to select a critical
few hazardous localities to concentrate on. The following methods of selection and
identification assist to give substance to the procedures followed to create a database of
hazardous localities.

1.3.1 Time Period and Segment Length Analysis

Crash experience (data) is used to identify locations defined as hazardous. These
procedures involve the review and analysis of system wide crash information:-
 To compare the crash experience of several locations fairly, the period of time
over which crashes are counted and the length of roadway section should ideally
be the same at each location;
 If not, a crash rate may be compared between locations, expressed in a common
unit of exposure (i.e., crashes per million vehicle miles, or crashes per million
vehicles entering).

1.3.2 Period Analysis

 Crash data for the most recent i.e. one to three-year period is normally used and
is generally sufficient. Using data for periods longer than 3 years will not
necessarily yield better results. It may however be used to determine long term
trends e.g. over a period of 5 to 10 years. Data for such an extended period of time
is useful for strategic planning purposes.

 A two or three-year analysis periods are more appropriate at locations with low
traffic volumes, where a 1-year period may not provide sufficient information. It
is advisable to use a period of three years as this will give the most accurate picture
of the risks at the locality or a group of localities.

 Crash data should only be used when there are no major changes in facility
characteristics or land use. It serves no purpose to investigate the crash rate and
to make sensible deductions if there was a targeted intervention at the crash
locality. If the purpose is to determine the impact of such an intervention it is
acceptable to compare the crash data prior to the intervention and for a
corresponding period thereafter.

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1.3.3 Roadway Length Analysis
In this method the network is divided into spots and/or segments. It implies that a specific
length of road is identified. This can be a length of road between two specific spots. On
a freeway it may be feasible to define segments as 500 meters each or say one kilometre
stretches. Isolated bridges, curves and intersections are classified as spots. The following
points are important when the law enforcement practitioner selects to use this method i.e.
to identify spots or segments of roadway: (www.kiewit.oregonstate.edu)
 Segments must be in accordance with the system used by the agencies' accident
capturing unit. It is useful to consult the law enforcement agency's "Accident
Bureau" before data is used for deployment or research purposes.
 In areas where accident reporting is less accurate, e.g. in rural areas or a freeway
with long open stretches of roadway with little "markers' it is advisable to use
longer sections of road as segments.

Spots are usually classified as an intersection or a very short section of roadway. It is

advisable to include the area of "influence" around the hazard as part of the spot. For
instance if an intersection is a spot, it will include all the crashes that have been recorded
on the approaches to that intersection within a radius of say 50 meters from the
intersection. This radius may vary from intersection to intersection based on a number of
influences or the geographical properties in close vicinity to the intersection. The queue
lengths that form at an intersection may give the agency a good indication to ascertain the
radius of influence of the intersection. Stopping sight distance is another logical reference
point to use to determine the area of "influence" It is thus impossible to prescribe to local
law enforcement agencies in exact terms how to determine their hazardous locations. It
is however important that the officers responsible for crash investigations and data
recording use acceptable criteria to classify their spots and segments for purposes of
locating where crashes occur.

You can now begin to understand why it is so important that those law enforcement
officers who are responsible to respond to crash scenes and those who record the details
of these crashes, to record details as accurate and as detailed as possible. Without good
information it becomes very difficult to record data in a manner that it is useful for later
use by engineers, researchers and most importantly for law enforcement supervisors who
want to deploy their officers in accordance with crash data.

1.4 Methods for identifying Hazardous Locations

There are three basic or principal methods to analyse the "hazardousness" of localities:
(Analysis of Accident Statistics www.kiewit.oreganstate.edu) It is recommended that law
enforcement agencies apply the most appropriate method based on the resources available
to establish and to maintain these databases.

1.4.1 Spot Map Method

This method refers to the use of a map of the area or jurisdiction of the relevant authority
with crashes indicated with different coloured pins. The map can also be computer
generated with crash frequency indicated in colour.

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Many police stations still use maps where different crimes are indicated with different
coloured pins. Smaller traffic law enforcement agencies also use the pin map method as
they do not deal with the vast number of crashes recorded in major cities and metropolitan
areas. The spot map method is very effective if it is used to portray a holistic view of
areas where the most crashes occur. It is particularly useful to patrol officers as they can
instantly see the spots and segments with the highest concentration of crashes within their
patrol area. These maps must therefore be located at a place where officers can view the
map regularly. Supervisors have the advantage that officers can identify high frequency
crash areas without any additional information. For a more serious approach to identify
crash localities, this method has very little use as it contains no additional information. A
variation to the visual map is the reporting of crash data per location from computer
generated data. This is probably the most widely used method in South Africa. Although
not the best, it provides raw data of the localities with the most crashes irrespective of
volume, risks, etc taken into account. The information listed in Table 1.2 is an example
of crash data without any other factors taken into consideration.

1.4.2 Crash Frequency Method

In this method the hazardous localities are ranked by the number of crashes. The location
with the highest number of crashes is ranked first, followed by the location with the
second highest number of crashes and so on. This method does not account for traffic
volumes at each location. It therefore does not indicate the severity of crashes of those
localities with a high incidence of crashes but a low traffic volume. The system is useful
for patrol deployment purposes as it will assist law enforcement to deploy their officers
purely on the basis on the number of crashes that have been recorded. In larger areas it
implies that only those localities high on the list will be included for dedicated attention
as no law enforcement agency has the required resources to saturate each hazardous
location with law enforcement visibility. The Pareto Principle (80/20 Principle) which
will be discussed in more detail later can be applied very successfully with the Accident
Frequency Method. In terms of the Pareto Principle 80 percent of all crashes occur at 20
percent of the crash spots and segments. It is also possible to rank the hazardous localities
in terms of crash severity. In this case the locations with the most fatalities and serious
injuries are ranked the highest. This method requires that the severity of the crash is given
a specific weight e.g. a fatality has a weight of 8, a serious injury a weight of 5, a minor
injury crash a weight of 3 and a damage only crash a weight of 1. Example:-

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 Intersection A: The following crashes were recorded over a period of 3 years:-

Fatal crashes 6
Serious injuries 16
Minor injuries 24
Damage only 47
Total 93

Intersection B: The following crashes were recorded during the same 3 year period:-
Fatal crashes 4
Serious injuries 12
Minor injuries 26
Damage only 61
Total 103

Table 1.4
Comparative crash severity analysis

It is clear from the above-mentioned data that intersection B is more unsafe than
intersection A, since more crashes occurred at the former. Do you agree? The number of
crashes by itself does not give a clear indication about the seriousness of an intersection
or road section. If the different categories of crashes are weighted the following is
evident:-

Intersection A
Fatal crashes (6) multiplied by a factor of 8 = 48
Serious crashes (12) multiplied by a factor of 5 = 60
Minor injuries (26) multiplied by a factor of 3 = 78
Damage only (61) multiplied by a factor of 1 = 61

Total for Intersection A = 247

Intersection B
Fatal crashes (4) multiplied by a factor of 8 = 32
Serious injuries (12) multiplied by a factor of 3 = 36
Minor injuries (26) multiplied by a factor of 3 = 78
Damage only (61) multiplied by a factor of 1 = 61

Total for intersection B = 207

It is now clear that although Intersection B has more crashes, Intersection A has a higher
crash risk/severity factor. It is therefore advisable to rate all the localities in an area and
then to concentrate on the locations with the highest crash risk/severity factor. This
implies that the agency's resources are better utilised. The next step would be to determine
the crash rates for the top twenty percent crash localities and to focus law enforcement
here.

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The clever law enforcement practitioner will use this method to deploy "scarce" resources
to frequent and focus on the crash spots at the top of the list. From a law enforcement
perspective this method is very useful as it is relatively easy to generate the data and it
can be used for a relatively lengthy period of time before a new list has to be generated.
For engineering purposes it has some limitations. Engineers have to interrogate crash data
more extensively before they spend money on road improvements.

1.4.3 Crash Rate Method

Any law enforcement officer that uses crash data extensively for enforcement purposes
will tell you that the above-mentioned methods have certain limitations. Experience in
this field indicates that there are certain crash spots with an extraordinary high number of
crashes in relation to the traffic volumes at these sites. This indicates that traffic volumes
alone do not dictate crash incidence and neither do they dictate crash severity. These
aspects will be discussed in more detail later. The crash rate method compares the number
of crashes at a location with the number of vehicles or vehicle kilometres of travel. This
comparison results in a crash rate. The term used to express this crash rate is "crashes per
million vehicles" for intersections (and other spots) and "crashes per million vehicle
kilometres of travel" for segments. The data is then ranked in descending order. The
following procedure can be followed to determine the crash rate at a specific intersection
or street section:-

1) Compute the “K” Factor for an intersection or dominant roadway, by reviewing

the traffic counts collected. Use the same time period, preferably the PM Peak
hour that was used in determining the peak hourly approach volumes. (A default
value of 0.09 can be assumed for insufficient traffic data.);

2) Calculate the intersections' ADT (known as "V") by summing (adding) the

approach volumes and dividing it by the "K" Factor. The result is a measure of
the total daily approach volume for the specific intersection;

3) Review the crash data obtained from the local law enforcement agency's Accident
Bureau to determine the number of crashes recorded at the intersection over the
time period analysed (5 year time period preferred, 3 year minimum). The crashes,
to be considered valid, should occur at the intersection, or within the immediate
vicinity. Calculate the average number of crashes by year at the intersection by
dividing the total number of crashes by the length of the study period;

4) The formula for calculating the crash rate for an intersection is presented below.
The "Rate" (R) is expressed in crashes per Million Entering Vehicles (MEV),
which is standard to the traffic engineering profession.

1,000,000
=
∗ 365

Where:
A = Average number of crashes at the study location per year
V = Intersection: Annual Daily Traffic (ADT) (total daily approach
volume)

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For a street section follow the following procedure:-

1) Note the length of the segment (L) in terms of kilometres;

2) Note the average daily traffic volume (both directions) (V);

3) Review the crash records data obtained from the local law enforcement agency to
determine the quantity (number) of crashes occurring along the roadway over the
time period analysed (5 year time period preferred, 3 year minimum). Enter in the
total number of years analysed. Calculate the average number of crashes along the
segment by dividing the total number of crashes by the length of the study period
in years;

4) The formula for calculating the crash rate for a roadway segment is presented
below. The "Rate" (R) is expressed in crashes per Million Vehicle Kilometres
Travelled (MVKT), which is standard to the traffic engineering profession.

1,000,000
=
∗ ∗ 365

Where:
A = Average number of crashes along the study roadway per year;
L = Length of roadway segment in kilometres;
V = Average daily traffic volume along the roadway.

1.5 Crash Expectancy

People in general are more afraid that they may become a victim of violent crime than
being a crash victim. Properties are secured with perimeter walls, burglar bars in front of
windows, alarms, closed circuit television systems, armed response etc. Yet - when they
get into a vehicle they pay little attention to the risks associated with roadway travel and
more often than not they have very little knowledge where crashes are most likely to
occur. How are law enforcement officers expected to make road users aware of where the
highest risks are located? Is this a function of engineers, law enforcement practitioners or
educationists?

Crash prediction models exist and are used for research purposes. Due to the statistical
complexity thereof they do not form part of this study unit. A law enforcement
practitioner that wants to investigate the crash expectancy of a spot or segment should
consult a civil engineer. The following characteristics of crashes may lead to the
perception that crash risks are low and therefore often ignored by road users:-
(Ossenbruggen, P.J. 1998. p. 85)

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 Crashes are rare – the average driver does not see a crash every time that he drives on
the road
 Crashes vary with traffic conditions – Traffic crashes are often related to congestion
and episodic events. An episodic event can be a major sporting event, a long weekend
etc. and is suspected of creating traffic "shockwaves" that surprise drivers and cause
a chain reaction of crashes;
 Crashes vary by crash type – there are a number of different crash types. Pedestrian
crashes account for the single largest number of fatalities on South African roads.
Single vehicle crashes also account for a large percentage of fatalities and injuries,
especially at night;
 Crashes vary spatially – The largest number of "damage only" crashes is recorded on
parking areas at shopping malls and high volume, congested roads in city centres;
 Crashes vary temporally – crashes occur at different times of the day. The highest
concentration of fatalities occurs between 18h00 and 21h00 and particularly on
Fridays;
 Crashes vary with driving conditions – wet roads account for more crashes
proportionally than dry roads. Fog and smoke also contribute to crash causation;
 Crashes vary with driver's physical conditions – alcohol impaired drivers have a much
higher risk of being involved in a crash than a sober driver. Driver age, etc. also play
a role;
 Crashes vary with driver attitude – young male drivers between the age of 18 and 24
have a much higher risk of being involved in a crash than older drivers.
 Crashes vary with driver experience – Crash risks diminish with age. Drivers older
than 55 have the lowest risk of being involved in a crash.

From the above-mentioned factors it is clear that there are a multitude of factors that have
an influence on crash causation. Apart from the factors mentioned, it has to be kept in
mind that there is a direct relationship between the driver, the vehicle and the roadway.
This may precipitate some information overload when studying crash risk factors. The
law enforcement practitioner may become a victim of "analysis paralysis"

From a practical perspective it is important to do the following:-

 Identify the hazardous crash locations;
 Identify the days and times when most crashes occur;
 Identify the most prevalent types of crashes;
 Increase law enforcement visibility;
 Introduce strict enforcement activities.

Traffic law enforcement practitioners often use their "common-sense" to minimise crash
risks through a combination of interventions. They may not always have the requisite
technical knowledge of roadway design, but years of practical on-the-road experience can
direct them to the major causes of crash risks. Crash reduction interventions often come
from traffic law enforcement officers, crash investigators and even members of the
community. The worst thing that a law enforcement supervisor can do is to ignore the
value of data and to deploy law enforcement

17 | P a g e
personnel in a haphazard manner. It is recognised that apart from the traffic safety
problems that face traffic law enforcement supervisors, they also have to consider crime
prevention and the demands placed on them to provide a range of other social orientated
services.

"Successful traffic engineers usually devote several years to practical experience beyond
a formal college education to become effective at making decisions regarding traffic
safety improvements. But local agency engineers may not have that experience.
Fortunately, advances in computing technology have simplified the lengthy manual effort
previously required, such as mass sorting paper crash reports and hand plotting dozens of
data elements per record in an attempt to find a common element that provides clues to a
potential causal factor. But the need remains to train these practicing engineers in the "art"
of traffic safety analysis. "Most of our local agencies have never received specific
education in safety analysis, and it appears that this is the situation nationwide," says
Jason Nordberg, senior planner, Genesee County Metropolitan Planning Commission.
"The only solution is training." (McNinch, T.L. et al. 2009)

This is very important for law enforcement practitioners. Just as they do not have the
technical know-how of civil engineers so do the engineers not have the practical road
experience of law enforcement practitioners? Many roadway problems have been
identified by competent law enforcement practitioners and referred to engineers for
remedial action. It is therefore important that formal structures be established to enhance
interaction between the different role players in the road safety sphere.

1.6 Go Where the Problem Is!

Thirty years ago, traffic enforcement practice evolved from "hit-and-miss" deployment
practices to a logical and effective strategy of selective enforcement. Go where the biggest
problem is; attack the major causes! That's the basic reason intoxicated driving became
such a high enforcement priority and why safety belt and cell phone use enforcement is
emphasised today. Effort applied in these two areas produces proportionately greater
benefits. Criminal enforcement in those earlier years was mostly a bonus. Felony arrests
were infrequent, not because criminals weren't using cars, but rather, the importance of
emphasising criminal enforcement had not yet made itself widely felt within traffic work.
The necessity for combining skills began to overtake all police agencies, as phrases such
as "cut-back management" and "doing more with less" became familiar. The urgency to
run tighter ships is never more obvious than now, when governments at all levels are short
of funds. The tendency to expect more of public employees is common and police
agencies are not exempt. Criminal investigators now look to road patrols for help in both
gathering intelligence and intercepting criminals on the streets and highways. The
reaction of state police and highway patrols has been positive, but their response was
restrained because the resource equation seemed out of balance. Shifting emphasis always
means shifting resources from one priority to another-or does it? That ultimately proved
the key finding a way to absorb a new responsibility without undermining existing duties.
Officers working traffic enforcement, fulfilling a critical safety mission, can undertake
the criminal identification task as long as they can handle it in parallel with the basic
traffic assignment. History now declares that they can and they

18 | P a g e
do, and that's why the new program works so well. It also provides an answer to the
challenge sometimes issued by irritated motorists reacting to a traffic stop: "Why aren't
you out arresting criminals?" We are, but in addition to, not at the expense of the traffic
law enforcement responsibility. Patrolling our streets and highways remains the vital task
of protecting public safety, through the proven deterrence of aggressive, intelligent traffic
law enforcement. That won't change. What has changed is the level of police officers'
capabilities. They just got better. And the public is reaping the benefits. (Highway Safety
Desk Book)

1.7 Smeeds law

Smeed's Law, named after R. J. Smeed, who first proposed the relationship in 1949, is
an empirical rule relating traffic fatalities to traffic congestion as measured by the proxy
of motor vehicle registrations and country population. Thus, increasing traffic volume
leads to an increase in fatalities per capita, but a decrease in fatalities per vehicle. It was
posited after an analysis of figures from a number of countries over several decades.
(www.wikipedia.com)

Smeed's formula is expressed as:

= .0003( )

or, weighted per capita,

= .0003

Where D is annual road deaths, n is number of registered vehicles, and p is population.

Smeed himself took his law as expressing a truth about group psychology: people would
take advantage of improvements in automobiles or infrastructure to drive ever more
recklessly in the interests of speed until deaths rose to a socially unacceptable level, at
which point, safety would become more important, and recklessness less tolerated.

Freeman Dyson summarized his friend's view as:-

Smeed had a fatalistic view of traffic flow. He said that the average speed of traffic in
central London would always be nine miles per hour, because that is the minimum speed
that people will tolerate. Intelligent use of traffic lights might increase the number of cars
on the roads but would not increase their speed. As soon as the traffic flowed faster, more
drivers would come to slow it down..... Smeed interpreted his law as a law of human
nature. The number of deaths is determined mainly by psychological factors that are
independent of material circumstances. People will drive recklessly until the number of
deaths reaches the maximum they can tolerate.

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When the number exceeds that limit, they drive more carefully. Smeed's Law merely
defines the number of deaths that we find psychologically tolerable.

Whilst in charge of the RRL's traffic and safety division, Smeed's views on speeds and
accidents were well reported at the time of the introduction of a mandatory speed limit on
UK roads: "If I wanted to stop all road accidents I would ban the car and introduce an
overall speed limit, for there is no doubt that speed limits reduce accidents. Of course,
roads with higher speeds often have lower accident rates. It is only on the safer, clear
roads that you can drive fast - but that does not prove that you are driving more safely."
He recognised that few methods of reducing accidents were painless and thus preferred
to report facts and not to make direct recommendations as: "political, social and economic
factors come in - but the people who make the decisions must know what the facts are on
a subject."

At the opposite end of this theory; were Smeed's observations of heavily congested
networks. He noted that at some minimum speed, motorists would simply choose not to
drive. If speeds fell below 9 mph, then drivers would keep away; as speeds rose above
this limit, it would draw more drivers out until the roads became congested again.
(www.wikipedia.com)

The formula above can be utilised to establish what the road crash fatality rates should be
for a country such as South Africa, based on its vehicle population.¹

1.8 Conclusion
Traffic law enforcement has evolved into a science the science of crash reduction. No law
enforcement supervisor can afford to waste the agency's resources. Those supervisors that
deploy patrol officers without interrogating crash statistics are robbing their communities
of a service that they deserve and for which they pay taxes. No respectable chief of a law
enforcement agency will tolerate such an unprofessional approach to traffic crash
reduction strategies. It is not expected from first-line supervisors to be expert statisticians.
Neither should they spend countless hours trying to decipher crash data. This should be
developed and made available to first-line supervisors in a manner that is easy to
understand and utilise for patrol purposes. The agency should have a dedicated team of
officers or civilians to conduct the required research in its Accident Bureau. Operational
officers however must understand the basic issues related to crash data. Once this
knowledge has been mastered will a more structured approach to traffic crash reduction
strategies begin to make sense to law enforcement officers.

Professional traffic law enforcement practitioners will find that the use of crash data will
open up a whole new world of challenges in road safety management.²

0000000
_________________________
¹ Establish the South African vehicle population and determine the expected fatalities. The latest vehicle
data population can be obtained from the Arrive Alive website.
2
Traffic law enforcement practitioners should request assistance from a suitably qualified person
to assist with formulas and statistical analysis where appropriate.

20 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 2

CRIME AND CRASH PREVENTION BY ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

(CePTED)

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 Identify the four key strategies of CEPTED

 Describe the use of statistics in CePTED Programs
 Describe a crime or crash prevention model
 Explain crime displacement
 Assess the 3-E concept in traffic law enforcement
 Differentiate between enforcement and education in traffic policing
 Integrate the broken windows principle into traffic enforcement strategies
 Indicate the role of enforcement in respect to quality of life issues.

2.1 Introduction
As briefly mentioned in Chapter 1, traffic law enforcement practitioners have a
responsibility for a range of other issues beyond the emphasis on crash reduction
intervention. Crime prevention by environmental control is a relatively new concept in
metropolitan police departments and traffic law enforcement agencies. Some elements
thereof can be traced back to the 3-E concept in traffic policing. The 3- E's refer to;
Engineering, Education and Enforcement. Take note of the fact in which sequence the E's
are arranged. Engineering has been placed first, which implies that the physical
environment has to be attended to before education and lastly enforcement is executed.
The same principle can be applied to crime prevention. The physical environment is an
important aspect in respect of crime prevention, but too many law enforcement officers
ignore it as if it has no or little bearing on crime.

Crime prevention or crash prevention through environmental design, hereinafter referred

to as CePTED, has evolved into an independent field of study over the last couple of
years. In a traffic policing environment the 3- E principle applies and in crime prevention
a 3-D principle, i.e. Designation, Definition and Design. Using this simple model, may
reveal a conflict between the "D's" which should be remedied. CePTED must not be
viewed as a cure all for crime prevention. It forms part of a comprehensive crime
prevention program. The challenge particularly for traffic law enforcement practitioners
is to integrate the concepts of crash - and crime prevention. When attempts are made to
"design out crime or to minimise crash risks" it works best when it is incorporated into a
program that involves all relevant stakeholders. Community involvement is of crucial
importance and law enforcement officers involved in CePTED programs are advised to
fully participate in community policing forums, chambers of commerce, other non-
governmental organisations, etc.

21 | P a g e
The importance of participative policing is relevant to both strategies i.e. crash reduction
and crime prevention.3

Metropolitan police - and traffic law enforcement officers are in a unique position to assist
with CePTED issues as they have excellent access to the resources available at local
government level. These enforcement agencies are an integral part of provincial and local
authority structures. They usually have a good working relationship with a number of
other departments that also share a responsibility to prevent crime, albeit that they are not
always aware of their respective roles.

According to the National Crime Prevention Council - USA, CePTED builds on four key
strategies: territoriality, natural surveillance, activity support, and access control.

 Territoriality: People tend to protect property and territories that they feel they
own. They also have respect for the property and territory of others. This is not
limited to the property that they own, but also property owned by the local council,
etc. Any intruders within a well defined territory are generally easy observed.
Think of an open park in a well-developed residential neighbourhood. Think about
the public roads in a neighbourhood. Many residents are highly emotional about
open public spaces that abut their properties.

 Natural surveillance: Criminals don't want to be seen. It thus speaks for itself
that in order to minimise risk, an area, building, etc. must be developed and
maintained in such a manner that it minimises the opportunity for a criminal to
hide. Think of your garden: does it have dark corners with shrubs where a person
can easily conceal himself?

 Activity support: Encouraging legitimate activity in public areas discourages

crime. By erecting benches and a playground for children in a park, attracts people
that can support active natural surveillance. Think about this: do we ever
encourage domestic servants to report any suspicious activity in the
neighbourhood? Do we ask them to write down the registration number of a
speeding vehicle, or a highly suspicious vehicle cruising around in a residential
neighbourhood?

 Access control: Properly located entrances, exits, fencing, landscaping and

lighting can all make it very discouraging for a prospective intruder to enter a
property. The controversial closure of public streets falls within this category.
Speed and volume calming can also have the effect that it discourages road users
from using a particular road.

In new developments it is relatively easy to take all of these factors into account, i.e. from
the planning stage to the implementation thereof. In the older, better established areas it
may not be so easy to effect substantial changes, although it poses a challenge to the law
enforcement agencies to think innovatively and creatively to propose changes,

__________________
3
Many members of society are more concerned about technical issues affecting road safety in their suburbs
than driving issues.

22 | P a g e
Most of the complaints that law enforcement authorities receive emanate from the older
suburbs. The roads in many of the older suburbs are wide and encourage speeding. Some
of these roads are in fact wider than national roads where speed limits of 120 km/h are
applicable.4

2.2 Crime statistics

Crime statistics and related data are of the utmost importance in any program intended to
prevent crime. In Chapter 1 it was also emphasised that crash data is of utmost importance
for law enforcement practitioners when dealing with crash reduction issues. A community
can easily over-react when a single serious crime or serious crash occurs. The media is
often responsible for stirring up the emotions in instances like these. Media frenzies can
all too easy lead to a reactive response from the authorities, including law enforcement
agencies. The responses may not necessarily be warranted in terms of risk factors. Traffic
law enforcement and crime prevention programs have to be developed in line with what
statistics reflect. Crime and crash mapping in conjunction with other statistical analysis
will indicate where the potential risks are greater and what types of crashes and crimes
are prevalent in a specific area. Crime intelligence must be used to supplement a statistical
analysis of crime risks. In the case of crashes, the local law enforcement agency should
be able to generate a variety of crash data to indicate the areas, the types, the times and
the specific causes of crash types that require attention. It must be borne in mind that law
enforcement patrols, how effective they may be perceived to be, will never be sufficient
to create an omnipresence that will eliminate all crimes and crashes. There are chronic
staff shortages in almost every law enforcement agency in South Africa. It is virtually
impossible to effectively patrol every possible conflict area 24-hours per day, seven days
per week. It is as a result of this shortcoming in law enforcement functions that other
measures require the attention of law enforcement agencies. CePTED is a viable
alternative as it generates a sense of responsibility on the part of a community to take co-
responsibility for what occurs in an area.

Crime and crash analysis, although relatively easy, should be delegated to officers that
have a proper understanding of statistics. It inter alias includes the determination of
various ratio's to ascertain which area has the highest risk. Ratios alone do not always tell
the full story and at times it is important to also consider the raw number of incidents. A
good example of this is the number of fatalities on freeways. The number of fatalities per
1,000 000 km's travelled may be within acceptable norms, even though these roads claim
the lives of many road users. It may at times be for the good of society to purely look at
the number of crimes and not the crime ratios. This however must always be done with
the required circumspection.

2.3 Crime
It is argued that there are generally three precursors to the commission of every (most)
crimes. They are: - (Smith. R. G. et al, 2003)

 The presence of a motivated offender;

 The presence of a suitable target - (opportunity);
 The absence of a capable person to prevent the crime;
_____________________
4
There are many possible remedies to reduce speeding offences in residential areas. This will be dealt with
later in this manual

23 | P a g e
In the case of crashes the following may apply:-

 The presence of a motivated or negligent road user;

 The presence of a vehicle or person to commit a traffic crime - (opportunity);
 The absence of a capable person to prevent the traffic crime.

Other models refer to the presence of two factors, i.e. the predisposing and the
precipitating factors. Both have to be present before a crime is committed. The
predisposition of a person will determine whether a crime will be committed or not. It
refers to the inclination or desire to commit a crime. To eliminate this factor is not easy
and requires a long term approach to crime prevention. Other institutions have a more
important role to shape juveniles into law-abiding citizens. The parents, the church, the
schools and others have a primary responsibility to assist in the upbringing of well-
adjusted citizens that will respect their fellow human beings, etc.

The second is the precipitating factor. This refers to an opportunity to commit a crime. If
a person, when predisposed to crime, does not find a suitable opportunity to commit a
crime, will either not commit the crime or will find another easier target.

Booth described a selective traffic law enforcement model as: - (Booth. W. L. 1986)

TRAFFIC OFFICERS
deployed at the
HIGHEST FREQUENCY CRASH LOCATIONS
during the
HIGHEST FREQUENCY CRASH TIMES
enforcing
CRASH CAUSING VIOLATIONS

Although this model refers to traffic prevention plans, it is applicable to crime prevention
in general. Adapted for this purpose it will read as follows –

LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS

deployed at the
HIGHEST FREQUENCY CRIME LOCATIONS
during the
HIGHEST FREQUENCY TIMES
preventing
CRIME CAUSING CONDUCT

24 | P a g e
An important aspect of the above-mentioned models is the reference to an "opportunity."
It presupposes that the (traffic) crime will take place somewhere, given the right set of
circumstances. If the law enforcement agencies can predict when, where and why most
crimes and crashes will occur, they can alter their officer deployment strategies. This
brings us to another important aspect in police work and that is that there will never be
sufficient numbers of law enforcement officers to be present at every possible locality in
an area for 24 hours per day, 7 days per week for 365 days per year. This is not only
impractical but also impossible. It is thus incumbent on professional law enforcement
practitioners to study crime and crash patterns meticulously and to institute all possible
remedial actions to eliminate the opportunities for crime to take place. This study guide
aims to assist law enforcement practitioners to not only identify the possible targets, but
also the locality and the offender. We are all aware of the fact that it is not possible to
eliminate all crime and crashes, but it is possible to protect communities to a large extent
if certain measures are put in place to minimise the opportunities to commit a (traffic)
crime.

The police act as a general deterrence to crime, but since they cannot be everywhere all
the time, alternative measures should be explored to prevent crime from being committed.
By altering the physical environment it is possible to make it much more difficult for a
motivated offender to execute his crime. Not only will it be more difficult to identify a
potential target or opportunity, the risk of identification and apprehension increases
proportionately to the measures taken to prevent the crime. The study of eliminating
opportunities to commit a crime in the physical environment is referred to as crime or
crash prevention by environmental design.

2.4 Crime displacement

We have learnt in the above-mentioned section that a crime will only occur if certain
factors are present such as the presence of a (motivated) offender or a person that is
predisposed to crime. We can therefore also postulate that if we remove an opportunity
to commit a crime, the offender will merely look at easier targets where the risk of
identification and apprehension is smaller. It means that we cannot change the persons
conduct merely be altering the physical environment. The offender will merely go
somewhere else. Crime can therefore not be eliminated but only displaced to other more
suitable localities. This may be true to some extent, but it can also be argued that if every
possible opportunity is eliminated, the risk of crime will disappear.

Six forms of crime displacement have been identified:

 Spatial displacement of crime - (to other locations);

 Temporal displacement of crime - (to other times or occasions);
 A Target displacement - (to softer targets);
 Tactical displacement - (changing the modus operandi);
 Offence displacement - (to other types of crimes);
 Perpetrator displacement - (to other perpetrators).

Research has indicated that displacement rarely takes place, and when it does, it usually
does not overwhelm other gains achieved by blocking crime opportunities. (Smith, R.G.
et al, 2003, p.3)

25 | P a g e
Crime reduction will in all probability only be successful if offenders believe that all
opportunities have been eliminated and that by committing a crime will surely result in
apprehension. This is a "make-belief" scenario that must be created by the law
enforcement agencies. There is thus a direct link between the physical environment and
the omnipresence of the police. The one cannot be separated from the other. The
environment must not be conducive to crime or crashes and in addition hereto, the illusion
of police omnipresence must be real in the minds of the offender.

2.4.1 Spatial displacement

Spatial displacement is probably the easiest to comprehend. It merely suggests that
incidents of robbery and burglary (and other crimes for that matter) are displaced from
targets that have been hardened to targets that remain less protected. It seems simple and
is the major reason why most citizens improve their homes and business properties with
security measures. By doing so, it is believed that potential offenders will rather look for
less protected premises. This has indeed proved to displace crimes, particularly those that
are committed by unprofessional and quasi-professional criminals. A private residence
with visible protection such as burglar bars, CCTV- camera's, high walls with electrical
fencing, etc. will indeed divert the interest of a burglar to other premises with less
protective measures. Volume - and to a lesser extent traffic calming measures also have
the effect that some road users will use alternative routes if it becomes too much of an
inconvenience to travel along that route.

2.4.2 Temporal displacement

Temporal displacement occurs when crime is shifted to another time (or occasion) in
response to a hardening of targets. A burglar may alter his/her modus operandi and attack
the target when for instance a premise is more vulnerable, i.e. when the physical barriers
are not in place as intended. The gates to a property may be left open during daytime. A
petty thief may decide not to attack this target due to the presence of law enforcement
officers and rather wait for another occasion. He/she may elect to wait when there are
more pedestrian traffic and the subsequent shoulder rubbing on a sidewalk.

2.4.3 Target displacement

This form of displacement refers to the scenario where the offender changes his/her focus
to a softer target. A bank robber will in all probability target another bank when the
original target bank implements measures to inhibit robberies. The installation of a good
security system at the entrance to the bank may precipitate a reaction where the would-
be robber targets another more vulnerable bank. It was recently hypothesised that the
increase in armed robberies at shopping malls are as a result of the hardening of banks as
targets. Shopping malls have not reached the level of security that exists at most banking
institutions. Shopping complexes with a good electronic surveillance system and patrol
services will be less of a target as a similar shopping complex where little or no electronic
surveillance exists.

2.4.4 Tactical displacement

Tactical displacement refers to the adoption of a different modus operandi to commit a
crime. When for instance, a highly sophisticated access system is installed at a premises,
the offender would seek to obtain the access code from the employees rather than to
challenge the high-tech electronic system.

26 | P a g e
In the case of computer based crimes, the offender would seek the password/code from a
fellow employee to commit fraudulent transactions. The "law of unintended
consequences" seems to be quite relevant to crime causation. As soon as one opportunity
is eliminated the criminals find new strategies that were not anticipated. The installation
of ATM's in South Africa led to the emergence of new types of criminal conduct. The
public have to be educated regularly about the different scams that offenders employ to
rob their targets of their money. In the traffic milieu the emergence of camera prosecution
systems has led to the use of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) to warn road users where
speed and robot cameras have been installed. Drivers then merely adapt to the legal speed
limit at the locations where the cameras have been installed!

2.4.5 Offence displacement

This phenomenon refers to the change from one type of crime to another due to the
hardening of targets. Since the emergence of highly sophisticated locking systems in
motor vehicles, the theft of cars decreased and vehicle high-jacking increased, often from
a non-violent crime to a violent crime. Criminals often enter a shopping complex and rob
a large number of victims whilst brandishing their fire arms. gerprint identification
systems as a replacement for the current PIN-number at ATM's will inevitably lead to
more violent armed robberies where targets will be held at gunpoint to withdraw cash.
Again the "law of unintended consequences" must always be borne in mind when a
hardening of targets is considered.

2.4.6 Perpetrator displacement

Perpetrator displacement occurs when new offenders attack a target as existing offenders
are removed following the implementation of crime prevention initiatives or activities by
law enforcement agencies. This situation flourishes where an abundant number of
offenders are available and merely takes the place of offenders that are incarcerated. In
gangs, the arrest of one or more members will merely result in their places being taken
up by other members of the gang. Another interesting scenario is where electronic
surveillance systems are installed to prevent unauthorised employee access, just to be
replaced by workers of the contractor that have the required knowledge of the system to
incapacitate or by-pass it, and to so gain access for criminal intentions. Changes in work
procedures also result in perpetrator displacement. Where for instance a number of people
have to be bribed to commit a crime, unintended work changes may reduce the number
of employees that have to be corrupted to commit the same crime. The efforts of traffic
law enforcement agencies to stop illegal racing on public roads also seem to indicate that
there is an abundance of new "entrants" to replace those that are prosecuted or who
terminate their criminal racing activities.5

2.4.7 Total displacement

Any crime prevention project must include the possibility of crime displacement.
Experienced law enforcement practitioners will over time gain the necessary expertise to
ensure that displacement problems are minimised. If it is true that crime prevention by
environmental design merely displaces crime, then seen in its totality, little purpose in
terms of spending time, effort and finances in an effort to minimise serves

____________________
5
In order to be successful the law enforcement agency will have to follow-up regularly. Failure to do so
will merely exacerbate the problem.

27 | P a g e
crime. Crime displacement may even make an already unsatisfactory situation worse and
more difficult to manage. "Total displacement" may frustrate law enforcement agencies
to a point of paralysis and inaction. The displacement theory is widely accepted because
it is instinctively seen as "common-sense," which is reinforced by our understanding of
the way the world works. Stop the criminals in one location and they will merely find
another location. (www.crimereduction.co.uk) Another criticism of crime prevention by
environmental design is that it does not address the root causes of crime as they do not
attempt to change an individual's willingness or desire (predisposition) to commit crime.
As was indicated above, both factors i.e. precipitating factors as well as predisposing
factors must be present before a crime is committed. CePTED basically focuses on the
precipitating factors. The predisposing factors, which are much more difficult to
minimise, must also be addressed. This is the responsibility of a range of other role players
- mostly non-enforcement entities. It is therefore necessary not to view CePTED as a cure-
all but merely one of many strategies available to police agencies to prevent crime. It
must never be viewed in isolation. Effective police patrols, education, information
projects, and training all in combination might have a more desirous effect. There are also
many socio-economic factors that do not fall within the scope of law enforcement that
impact on the level of crime within a specific area, or community. In its totality we have
to ensure that both crime causing factors are addressed as they complement each other.
Displacement although relevant to crime it is not as much of an issue in traffic crime.
Traffic crime with some exceptions are not time and location specific. One can however
expect that the same principles applicable to crime are also applicable to traffic offenders.
Road blocks on a specific road over a prolonged period of time may displace the
intoxicated driver to other venues or other routes. The same goes for overloaded
commercial vehicles. The installation of weighbridges on major routes has diverted
overloaded vehicles to secondary roads that were not designed to accommodate them.

Pease summarised the situation as follows: - "It is probably not going too far to say
that the best strategy for crime control is now clearly a combination of proven
techniques for the reduction of individuals' tendency to commit crime through
intervention in childhood, and the manipulation of environments to make that more
difficult."(www.crimereduction.co.uk).

This reflection on crime prevention also emphasises the relationship between a

predisposition towards crime and precipitating factors. From a policing perspective this
approach is important as it indicates that crime prevention models should not only be
focussed on police patrols but other aspects on both sides of the traditional approach.
Training and education as well as environmental design aspects should also be addressed
with the same vigour as the patrol function. All three components require the attention by
specialists."

Gang violence, bullying in schools, deviant behaviour, binge drinking, drug abuse etc.,
all have an influence on crime. The problem with educational projects is that more often
than not there is no immediate positive result. This however should not entice the law
enforcement agencies to abandon these projects in favour of visible policing.

___________________
6
Many law enforcement officers reject the notion that they have a responsibility to educate the public. This
is seen by these officers as the responsibility of other stakeholders.

28 | P a g e
 EDUCATION ENFORCEMENT ENGINEERING/ENVIRONMENT
Road safety by environmental
design.

EDUCATION ENFORCEMENT ENVIRONMENT/ENGINEERING

Crime prevention through
environmental design.

The 3-E approach in traffic policing is therefore also applicable to general crime
prevention.

The idea of "total displacement" cannot be supported as it will have the implication that
despite all the efforts of the police, crime and crashes cannot be minimised, no matter
what environmental changes are made, as there will always be an abundant supply of new
offenders. Even the removal of any number of offenders due to apprehension and
incarceration will not have any impact on crime patterns.

The introduction of speed control measures in a particular street may have a detrimental
effect on neighbouring streets, and should only be considered as part of a comprehensive
plan for that specific area. If this can be achieved, speed can be reduced considerably.
The same principle applies to crime. The idea of an unlimited supply of offenders does
have support. Take for example the exportation of drugs from a third world country. No
matter how many couriers are apprehended, there will always be new ones to carry on
due to the level of poverty and degradation at the source of the drugs. In this example
CePTED will in all probability have little impact. "On the other hand many officers will
have gone to the same premises time and again, which has been repeatedly burgled, often
despite a number of arrests. The cause is often the inherent vulnerability of the premises,
or the high desirability of the products found there, but a crime prevention specialist might
point out that only changing the inherent vulnerability of the premises is likely to
genuinely alter the situation for the victim - and stem the demand on the police."
(www.crimereduction.gov.uk)

Hesseling conducted major research in respect of a large number of studies in which

displacement was an issue. Twenty-two of the studies examined found no displacement,
and six of these found evidence that crime prevention measures had produced a beneficial
effect in adjacent areas known as diffusion of benefits. (Hesseling, R.B.P. 1994)

Thirty-three studies found some form of displacement, mostly quite limited, and no study
found total displacement of crime. He concluded – “displacement is a possible, but not
inevitable consequence of crime prevention (measures). Further, if displacement
does occur, it will be limited in size and scope." (www.crimereduction.gov.uk). We can
therefore without fear of contradiction say that although crime displacement is a reality,
it should not deter law enforcement agencies from investigating and implementing crime
and crash prevention by environmental design programs. It is important to note that some
crimes are more susceptible to be displaced. Drug dealing for instance may relatively
easily be displaced as a result of

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police intervention. Contrary to popular belief, burglary is not easily displaced. Effective
measures to limit burglary will therefore result in net gains. It is therefore important to
minimise crash risks associated with environmental aspects. Making a specific crash spot
safer does by no means imply that the risk is displaced to another location. In traffic
policing crime displacement is less of a problem than in general policing activities.

2.5 Education versus environment

Law enforcement officers are regularly confronted by a critical issue, namely to decide
what number of officers to deploy in units responsible for educating the youth versus the
number of officers deployed in units responsible for police patrols. An added
responsibility is now to decide what percentage of officers should be trained and deployed
in units that specialises in environmental design. The problem is that the results of
policing activities are immediately measurable, i.e. the number of prosecutions or arrests
versus the invisible results of long term educational strategies. The results of officers
involved in issues of environmental design are less visible than that of the officers
responsible for general policing functions, but more than that of their colleagues in the
educational field.

2.5.1 Example one

Let us assume the chief of police receives a call from an irate resident, an elderly lady
whose house has been burgled several times over the last couple of years. Her property is
adjacent to an open field close to a busy arterial road. Do you think it would be wise for
the chief to tell her that his department is busy with an intensive program to change the
anti-social behaviour of all the child, en in grade 8? Will this assist her in her
predicament? No, she will probably not live to see any real change in behaviour! What
she requires is an immediate response that will alleviate her problem. This could either
be in the form of intensified patrols, which we all know has limited impact as it is not
possible to sustain this patrol activity over a prolonged period of time. The visibility of
police officers will however put her at ease for some time. The more appropriate response
would be to investigate the immediate surroundings and to identify what in the
environment could be done to minimise the opportunities for burglars to commit their
crimes. There are possibly a multitude of issues that could be addressed. Grass cutting on
a regular basis, proper fences, an alarm system, proper lighting, locks, etc. could be
considered. This coupled with sporadic patrols at times when burglary generally takes
place, will be a more suitable approach to minimise her exposure to crime. The same
arguments referred to above hold true for a complaint about a juvenile driving around in
a residential area without due regard to other road users.

The value of crime prevention by environmental design is that it has a more visible and
long term impact than police patrols. Staff shortages makes it impossible to opt for the
patrol option due to the fact that the sheer number of similar issues do not allow law
enforcement agencies the luxury to patrol every potential target continuously.

Situational crime prevention can quickly and clearly deliver dramatic results. Clarke
(1997) comments, "What makes situational prevention interesting is that it so frequently
works" Frequently does not mean always! (www.crimereduction.co.uk)

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2.5.2 Example 2
Let us look at another example. The chief receives a written petition, signed by a number
of residents, complaining that motorists exceed the speed limit in their street and that this
behaviour endangers the lives of the children in the area. Once again, a first response
could be to send an officer to observe what is transpiring and to prosecute offenders! A
more appropriate response would be to instruct a senior officer to first meet with the
complainants. The officer should gather as much information as possible regarding their
complaint. The following is important: -

 Are the offenders from the area or not?

 Which days of the week and what times of the day are particularly problematic?
 Is it a single incident or a regular occurrence?
 What solutions do they propose?
 What is the opinion of other stakeholders?

The next step would be to ascertain whether the problem is real or imagined. If real, a
number of steps could be considered. Firstly, some form of patrol visibility could solve
the matter. Secondly, it may require a more structured approach, such as speed studies,
etc. This will reveal whether the situation is within acceptable parameters when
considering similar road conditions within the immediate area, or whether the percentage
of offending motorists exceeds acceptable pre-determined criteria. The next step would
be to investigate environmental design issues such as speed calming devices.

2.6 Importance of situational crime prevention

Felson and Clarke argue that opportunity is a cause of crime and not a root cause of crime.
According to them critics "often downplay opportunities or temptations as true causes of
crime. To show why this is mistaken we note that no crime can occur without the physical
opportunities to carry it out. Whatever one's criminal inclinations... crime opportunities
are necessary conditions for crime to occur." (www.crimereduction.co.uk)

This statement re-emphasises the value of design issues for law enforcement agencies. It
is virtually impossible for them to solve all crash and crime problems that many
communities experience, by merely concentrating on police presence as a cure-all. Law
enforcement administrators often argue that they need more officers to successfully tackle
their problems. Most of the time police chiefs do not get what they want as a result of a
variety of factors, often financial considerations. I have often argued that many
administrators in policing are ill-prepared to submit convincing professionally based
arguments to motivate why they need more patrol officers. The problem being that it is
very difficult to quantify the optimum number of law enforcement officers to maintain a
satisfactory/acceptable level of crime and traffic crashes. The first and the most difficult
question posed to them is whether every officer is utilised optimally, and whether nothing
else could be done to improve police visibility, productivity, response times, etc. If the
law enforcement administrator fails to answer these questions satisfactorily, he/she may
not be successful in the bid to increase the law enforcement agency's slice of the financial
cake.

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It is reasonable to expect that more attention be given to activate community participation,
design considerations, a scientific approach to officer deployment tactics based on a
statistical analysis of crime and crash trends, etc.

Design considerations unfortunately, have not received the attention that it requires and
has to date not evolved as a specific field of police specialisation in traffic and
metropolitan police agencies. Traffic law enforcement agencies probably have a more
structured approach to the value of situational crime prevention strategies due to the 3 -
E concepts. Their interaction with road engineers forces them to explore physical
measures to minimise crash risks. The same level of interaction with other governmental
agencies responsible for a variety of other services has not reached the same level of
reciprocal professional cooperation. The parks department of a local authority for instance
plays a major role in crime prevention by environmental design. They probably do not
even recognise their importance as a result of ignorance and little cooperation between
them and law enforcement agencies. They may not have an idea of the important role that
they play to minimise the opportunities for criminals to commit crimes by hiding in
vegetation, the positioning of lighting, etc. Slight changes in the manner in which they
prune shrubs and trees, may have a positive impact on minimising opportunities for crime
within the environment.

Building inspectors are more often than not ignorant about the manner in which buildings
should be designed to minimise crime! Electrical engineers on the other hand play an
important role insofar as lighting is concerned. Security departments play an important
role to advise other institutions on physical security measures, etc. Every institution has
a responsibility to become sensitised on the importance of situational crime. “Altering the
volume of crime opportunities at any level will produce a change in criminal outcomes.
Town planning, defensible space architecture, problem oriented policing, situational
crime prevention - all of these offer methods for reducing crime opportunities."
(www.crimereduction.co.uk)

Law enforcement officers They can minimise the They can then
must bear in mind that it number of localities concentrate their efforts
is not possible to where crime and crashes at these locations.
eliminate all crime are problematic.

The available law enforcement officers can then be deployed at locations where crime
and crash problems are concentrated. This will render them more effective and efficient.

2.7 Displacement - theory or fact?

Despite all arguments, a level of displacement does occur. In the mid-seventies all new
cars sold in the UK had to be fitted with steering locks. Theft of new cars diminished
whereas older cars became the preferred targets for thieves. The problem here was that
the millions of older cars without steering locks did not "squeeze" opportunities
sufficiently to make a significant impact on vehicle theft cases. This illustrates an
important point namely that environmental design changes must be as comprehensive as
possible to alter offender behaviour. For instance one single speed hump in a long stretch
of roadway will not solve the speeding problem as it has been showed that driver
behaviour is only affected for a specific distance before and

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beyond the speed hump. A series of speed humps, preferably coupled to other measures
will have a much greater impact to reduce the opportunity to speed along a specific stretch
of roadway.

2.8 The road to nowhere

Another interesting aspect of the displacement theory is the relatively short distances that
offenders travel to commit crime. Let us first explore the scenario described above. A
specific stretch of road where effective speed calming measures have been implemented
will reduce the average speed significantly. It however does not guarantee that some
drivers will not speed and attempt to negotiate the speed calming measures with an
unacceptable high speed (often to their own detriment) or to accelerate and decelerate
between the speed calming devices. This type of behaviour often has an unintended
consequence, namely an increase in noise levels due to the higher engine revolutions,
defective exhaust systems, etc. However, the question that we want to answer is whether
some drivers will merely avoid this road with speed calming devices to deliberately go
and speed in another road where no such devices have been placed? A small percentage
probably would display this type of behaviour or would merely reduce their vehicle speed
to the point where the speed calming terminates and speed thereafter. An effective
network of speed calming and other control devices will in all probability minimise
speeding. The “squeezing” effect is relevant.

In the event of crime, a similar trend exists. Surprisingly, criminals tend to travel only
short distances to their targets. Wiles and Costello commented on this issue as follows:
- "The most general and consistent finding is the fact that offenders do not appear to
travel very far. Other research also revealed that burglary is much localised. Serial
rapists and killers for instance have a modus operandi to which they stick. Their crimes
are largely restricted to a specific area. Let us assume the case of unprofessional and
quasi-professional burglars. They would in all probability remain active in a specific
area. Professional burglars, more mobile, would in all probability target larger, more
diversified areas. If we accept these findings as valid, it will assist to approach
environmental design aspects more relevant and appropriate. Further credence to this
approach will be if design elements are considered in a larger area than purely at the
location where the immediate problem exists.

One study overseas provides interesting statistics in relation to the reasons why burglars
select specific targets.

REASON FOR TARGET SELECTION %

Chance 63
Passing and it looked easy - poor security 31
Passing and it looked easy - unoccupied 26
Passing and it looked easy - isolated/quiet 26
Noticed it previously 26
Tipped off 17
Passing looked wealthy 14
Revenge 6
Other 6
Burgled before 3

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Note: percentages add up to over 100% due to multiple answers.
(www.crimereduction.co.uk)

Other research also reflected on this issue, namely that the majority of property crime
occurs within an offenders' routine activity and awareness space the familiar and regularly
used areas between home, shops, school and leisure areas. Most gangs also operate within
their "area of jurisdiction" and will for fear of retribution from other rival gangs, select
their targets within their sphere of influence.

2.9 The "Broken Window" theory

The "Broken Window" theory is closely associated with the principles of CePTED. James
Q Wilson and George Kelling developed the thesis to explain signals that are send out by
a deteriorating environment. The theory suggests the following sequence of events that
can be expected in deteriorating neighbourhoods:
 Evidence of decay. (Accumulated trash, broken windows, dilapidated building
exteriors, etc, remains in the area for reasonably long periods of time.)
 People living and working in the area begin to feel vulnerable and begin to
withdraw.
 They become increasingly reluctant to maintain standards and public order or to
address physical signs of deterioration.
 Sensing this, juveniles and other possible offenders become bolder and intensify
their harassment and vandalism.
 The residents in the area become yet more fearful and withdraw from community
involvement and upkeep.
 This atmosphere then starts to attract offenders from outside the area, who sense
it has become a vulnerable and less risky site for criminal activity.

This theory presupposes that if the following measures are introduced, it will deter crime!
 Repair broken windows as soon as possible.
 Prompt removal of abandoned vehicles.
 Fast clean-up of illegally dumped items, litter and spilled garbage.
 Remove all graffiti.
 Facilitate facilities where teens can congregate, rather than at street corners.
 Fresh paint on buildings and streets.
 Clean sidewalks and street gutters.
 Grass to be cut regularly.

From the above it is clear that none, except maybe for the removal of abandoned vehicles,
of the items listed above fall specifically under the jurisdiction of the law enforcement
agency!

The following issues will generally become the focus of attention in a "broken windows
policing" plan: -

 Public drinking
 Aggressive panhandling
 Street prostitution

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  Loitering youths
 Littering
 Vandalism
 Public urination
 Unlicensed street vendors
 Disorderly behaviour

2.10 Urban decay

Urban decay is real. You may have noticed that some suburbs appear to become
dilapidated over time. It can be attributed to various factors which will be discussed
synoptically. Age - older suburbs have a larger concentration of poorer inhabitants. The
older these home owners become, the less they tend to maintain their neighbourhood. The
upwardly mobile generation move to other more affluent suburbs, thereby fast tracking
further decline. Low income households concentrate much more on survival strategies
than the impact of the decay. Decay may even force rentals down which benefits them
directly.

John Steinbeck wrote the following "When a city begins to grow and spread outward from
the edges, the centre which was once its glory is in a sense abandoned to time. Then the
buildings grow dark and a kind of decay sets in; poorer people move in as rent start to
fall, and small fringe businesses take the place of once flowering establishments." (Lang,
R.E. 2000)

Is the same not true for the spread of uncontrolled street trading? Why should we worry
about illegal street trading - after all, these traders merely want to eke out a living in a
country with massive unemployment. The "Broken Windows" theory has been applied to
law enforcement practices too. The theory goes that if law enforcement agencies start to
give attention to minor offences, the serious offences will also reduce. "Broken windows"
suggests that crime in neighbourhoods follow a fairly predictable pattern - when minor
offences such as prostitution or low-level drug dealing are ignored, citizens will begin to
feel uncomfortable, perceive their neighbourhood as unsafe, and curtail their activities.
When this happens, the common thread that bonds them together starts to diminish. Those
who can leave the area and this set in motion a process that will attract potential offenders
to the area. Law enforcement officers involved in traffic policing must also pay attention
to minor traffic transgressions such as illegal parking, illegal street trading, littering,
panhandling, begging on streets, pedestrian violations, loud music in public spaces,
graffiti, etc.

2.11 Fear, disorder and crime

Disorder normally precedes crime. Criminals quickly sense the level of disorder in an
area. The more disorder exists, the more the likelihood that they will be able to conduct
crime without being apprehended. Many people evade areas where they perceive the level
of disorder to be unacceptably high. Fear of crime rather than crime itself is often the
reason that people move from an area to a location where disorder visibly does not exist.
Very few people actually conduct any "research" before they decide to settle in a specific
area. They rely more on a "gut-feel" about what they- perceive regarding the area where
they want to settle.

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A residential area where a large number of vehicles are parked on sidewalks, parked
facing oncoming traffic and littered with abandoned vehicles, graffiti, also send out
signals that it is an unsafe area.

2.12 Aggressive policing

Many supporters of aggressive policing are of the opinion that if the police aggressively
target minor offences, (the so-called disorder issues) it sends out a signal to offenders that
no nonsense will be tolerated by the police. Wilson and Boland (1978) were among the
first to examine the relationship between aggressive policing and the incidence of crime.
(Worrall, J.L. 2002) They found that as the number of traffic “tickets" issued increase,
the serious crime rate declined. Other researchers later also established a direct
relationship between aggressive policing on so-called hot spots and a reduction in crime.
We must therefore never underestimate the importance of (traffic) policing. The
advantages of situational crime prevention and policing complement each other. Neither
can by itself completely resolve crime.

2.13 Quality-of-life policing

Quality-of-life policing has found a wealth of support. In contrast to aggressive policing,
which focuses on tough “heavy-handed” law enforcement, quality-of-life policing is
intended to make neighbourhoods more pleasant and liveable for those whose well-being
is threatened by the presence of criminal activity. (Worrall, J.L. 2002) Researchers
however, are divided over the perceived benefits that this type of policing has on serious
crime. The study conducted by Worrall concluded that there is a significant relationship
between arrests for minor offences and property related crime. The effectiveness of
"broken-windows" policing was established in this study and is important for law
enforcement agencies.

Many law enforcement agencies direct a major proportion of their resources towards
serious crime, without really knowing whether their strategies are going to yield positive
results. It can also be argued that by vigorously pursuing by-law offences and traffic
crime, the same results could be achieved. The added advantage would be that it would
preserve the quality of life issues that affect residents of a community. On the contrary,
focussing only on serious crime, ignoring day-to-day concerns will to a large extent
reduce the visibility of the police. The importance of communication and consultation
with communities must therefore never be underestimated. CePTED specialists in
particular should be actively involved with their communities, as it is more often than not
the serious crime that bother them directly, but the minor issues. There is no clear answer
to this delicate balance, but it however indicates that both approaches should be an
integral part of any police crime prevention plan.

2.14 Conclusion
It is clear from the above-mentioned discussion that although displacement can never be
ruled out, it remains possible to reduce crime and crash risks in a specific area when
appropriate situational remedies are implemented. We can also assume that if regular and
visible policing is introduced, based on a proper statistical analysis of crime and crash
trends, that it will add impetus to the effect of environmental crime prevention. CePTED
specialists will over time develop the most appropriate strategies based on a wide array
of factors. These factors, etc must be identified through an audit process.

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It will not assist law enforcement officers if their agency takes a lethargic view towards
the inherent positive spin-offs that can be derived from crime prevention through
environmental design. This however is a specialised field of policing and CePTED -
officers must sharpen their skills through appropriate training and practical experience.
They must never underestimate the potential influence and assistance that resides within
other institutions and the community itself. Neither must they ignore the importance to
study the impact of their design strategies. A professional approach is to conduct a proper
audit. Before and after studies will reflect on the impact of their interventions over time.
It must also be borne in mind that although many interventions do not require huge capital
outlays, other may indeed. In instances where interventions require massive financial
resources, it becomes even more important to base recommendations on solid, verifiable
research. A gut-feel is often all that is required to get the process started. Follow your gut-
feel up with a research report with proper motivation and recommendations.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 3

DATA MANAGEMENT: TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT

STRATEGIES

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 Explain the role of data utilisation in a traffic law enforcement agency

 Describe the factors required in crime causation
 Discuss a model for crash reduction
 Explain how residual effect can be applied in a crash reduction model
 Develop a severity index to identify hazardous crash localities
 Describe how the Pareto principle applies to traffic law enforcement
 Identify the role of prosecution targets in traffic law enforcement

3.1 Introduction
Traffic policing is a science; maybe not a pure science, but nevertheless a science. A
supervisor in a law enforcement agency cannot expect to be successful if he does not have
a structured system in place to police a community or an area. If the supervisor has no
idea of the nature of the problems in his area of responsibility, he will not be able to solve
the issues that impact negatively on society. Policing is complex and any law enforcement
supervisor who thinks that he will be able to solve all the social "ills" without a holistic
picture of what transpires in his area of responsibility will sooner or later become
disillusioned with the extent of the problem. There are many law enforcement supervisors
who purely work on a "gut-feel", but surely this is not a professional approach to deal
with policing issues. There are also those supervisors that take their responsibilities more
seriously and utilise data to deploy their resources in a scientific manner. Are you one of
those "gut-feel" supervisors or a professional police practitioner? The previous two
chapters highlighted the importance of data and information to devise counter-strategies
to minimise crashes and crime.

3.2 Data in traffic management

Traffic law enforcement supervisors involved with traffic policing can never hope to be
successful if they don't have the faintest clue of why, where, when, and how crashes occur.
There is the well known principle in traffic policing; commonly referred to as the 3-E
principle.

The 3-E's refer to the following:-

 E - Engineering;
 E - Education;
 E - Enforcement;

In later years a fourth E was added, viz.:-

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  E - Evaluation;

An extra E can also be added i.e.

 E - Execution.

3.2.1 Engineering
Traffic control and law enforcement are intrinsically linked to the engineering profession.
The one cannot produce acceptable results without the other. Ideally there should be
formal communication channels in place to ensure that there is sufficient consultation
between the road engineers and law enforcement officers. This is a prerequisite to
maximise the collective knowledge of the two disciplines regarding traffic problems and
crash risks. Every law enforcement officer that has a responsibility for road policing
functions is duty bound to identify and report any deficiency in the road network that may
contribute to crash causation. There are many law enforcement officers on patrol that
observe crash risks but fail to respond to them or to get them rectified by an appropriate
authority.

Officers that are responsible for the investigation of road traffic crashes are in an excellent
position to examine the road infrastructure, including any road side furniture that may
precipitate crash causative risks. This should not only form part of the recording and
investigation of crashes, but should be reported to the appropriate departments for
remedial action. Law enforcement officers must regularly follow-up on issues that they
have reported. Officers involved with the collation and evaluation of accident statistics
(accident bureaus) should be able to identify hazardous accident locations. They must
initiate site inspections or request that a thorough road safety audit be conducted. If the
law enforcement agency has specialists in this field they should investigate these
localities, or alternatively refer it to road engineers. Every officer, irrespective of whether
he has received any advanced training in the technical analysis of roads networks, should
be able to identify basic issues that are evident to any road user. Do the officers understand
that they have an important role to play insofar as engineering issues are concerned? Do
we instruct officers to report any damage to the road infrastructure, such as potholes,
missing signs, malfunctioning robots, overgrown vegetation that may obstruct the view
of motorists, etc?

Good practice also dictates that the plans of any new development in a local authority be
referred to the law enforcement agency for inspection. Officers that specialise in this field
will be able to identify any issue that may have been overlooked insofar as traffic patterns
and crash risks are concerned. Recent developments also require from law enforcement
officers to report on any aspect that may impact on crime. The built environment can be
changed to minimise the opportunities for crime. This field of specialisation is referred to
as "Crime Prevention through Environmental Design or better known as CePTED" (See
Chapter 2)7

_____________________
7
It is much better to scan a proposed development at the planning stage than to remedy problems that have
been overlooked. Experienced officers have the required knowledge to execute this function.

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3.2.2 Education
Traffic law enforcement officers also have an important role to play in the education of
present and future road users. Most traffic law enforcement agencies have specialised
units that are involved with a variety of projects to educate citizens regarding the safe use
of roads and road facilities. The purpose of education is primarily focused on the
prevention (short, medium and long term) of traffic crime and to promote the safe usage
of the road network. Besides the formal education programs, officers continually assist
motorists with advice on road traffic issues. It is not always sure what the effects of these
training programs are? Projects regarding specific issues should be conducted with pre-
and post evaluations to determine the success thereof. Training and education should also
incorporate issues of attitude. Knowledge regarding road safety is important but so too is
the attitude of road users towards road safety. Over the long term training and education
has the biggest potential to minimise crash risks to acceptable levels.

3.2.3 Enforcement
The patrol division is the largest component within a traffic law enforcement agency. A
variety of patrol units are normally established to deal with general patrol activities.
Depending on the size of the agency and the nature of specific problems, it may lead to
the establishment of specialised units to concentrate on identified issues. Specialisation,
however also has specific negative aspects associated with it and agencies have to balance
the establishment of these units following a holistic view of its effects on other patrol
activities. The main purpose of law enforcement activities is to prevent (traffic) crimes
from taking place. It is directed primarily towards the elimination of opportunities to
commit crime by establishing a perception of omnipresence i.e. being everywhere at all
times. This requires careful planning as most agencies have a major shortage of resources.
Officer visibility is often absent on our roads and many motorists will testify that they
travel vast distances without noticing a single traffic law enforcement officer. Traffic law
enforcement supervisors should continuously examine road crash statistics to determine
where and when to deploy patrol officers in order to maximise their visibility. They
should adopt a scientific approach to the deployment of officers. They should for instance
experiment with a variety of techniques to attain this. There are many techniques available
and supervisors will be guided by the nature and extent of the problems in his area of
responsibility.

3.2.4 Evaluation
Evaluation refers to the identification and examination of all relevant data sources. This
is done in order to establish trends in crash patterns. It will provide police leaders with
alternatives to prevent traffic crime and crashes. There is a multitude of statistical analysis
that can be applied to make sense from raw data. There is an old saying that goes as
follows; if you can't measure, you can't manage. There is a lot of truth in this. A law
enforcement supervisor that solely relies on a "gut-feel" to police his area of responsibility
has very little chance of being successful. Intuitive characteristics are very useful in life,
but are rarely sufficient over a prolonged period of time. Policing has become too
complicated and sophisticated to merely rely on "feel-good" factors to manage a team of
subordinate officers. In the larger law enforcement agencies, it is best if statistical analysis
is reserved for trained analysts. Proficient supervisors however, must still have a sound
knowledge of statistics in order to make sense of a large number of data sets.

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3.3 Model for crime prevention.
It has been stated in Chapter 2 that there are basically two factors that have to be present
for any crime to be committed.

Firstly, there must exist an opportunity to commit a crime. This is self-explanatory as no

crime can be committed if a criminal (offender) does not find an opportunity to commit
a crime. This refers to the precipitating factor in crime control.

The second factor that must be present before a crime is committed is the predisposing
factor. This basically refers to the person itself. A person must have the inclination or
desire to commit a crime, before it is committed.

The law enforcement agencies concentrate primarily on the first factor, viz. the
elimination of opportunities to commit a crime. This can only be successful if all
opportunities are eliminated structurally (physically) or if there is in the mind of road
users a perception that they cannot commit any traffic offence without being apprehended
and/or prosecuted. The elimination of the second factor i.e. the predisposition of a person
towards crime can only be achieved over a long term as it depends on a wide range of
issues, many of which fall outside the scope of law enforcement agencies. Educating the
public is primarily the most important function on which law enforcement agencies
should concentrate on. Not enough resources are allocated to this long term strategy.
There are stakeholders that have an important role to play, such as the parents of children,
churches, the school system, non- governmental organizations, etc. The high crime and
crash rates in South Africa prevent law enforcement agencies from focusing on education
(long term prevention) in favour of reactive policing, such as responding to crime and
crash scenes, investigation etc.

The causative factors of crime are varied and often the product of socio-economic issues
over which law enforcement officers has very little control. If the traffic law enforcement
agencies could establish a model that would eliminate (or at least minimise) any of the
above-mentioned factors, then they will be more successful in the prevention of traffic
crime and the concomitant road crashes. This is however easier said than done! These
agencies have limited resources and a lack of knowledge to eliminate the predisposing
factors and this inhibits their success in this field. They have to compete with many other
institutions that are also involved with the upbringing of children. They also have to
compete with a vast number of other factors that may negate the positive influence of
road safety education. The influence of the parents for instance is a major factor in the
shaping of a juvenile's character. We all know what the perceptions of many adult road
users are in connection with road policing. We cannot expect that all parents are going to
teach their children to have respect for traffic law enforcement officers and thus also for
the laws of the country. Their attitudes are constantly being shaped by negative contact
with law enforcement officers and the re-enforcing effect produced by the constant stream
of negative media articles regarding traffic law enforcement practices.

Secondly, we all realise that law enforcement agencies struggle as it is just to cover their
basic responsibilities in terms of law enforcement, never mind creating a perception of
being everywhere all the time. They have little chance of creating this perception of
omnipresence.

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The best they can hope for is to use their resources to the best of their ability. This is
where the important role of traffic leaders comes into the equation. They have the
responsibility to balance the needs that exist in a skilful and professional manner!

Are you a leader that merely deploys the available human and other resources based
on a superficial examination of what is required from you, or are you a professional
practitioner that manages to deploy your resources in such a manner in order to
maximise output with limited input?

3.4 Data utilisation

A law enforcement supervisor cannot hope to achieve success if he does not evaluate all
the available data (statistics) that is generated by the law enforcement agency. A well-run
law enforcement agency generates reports on crash patterns, causative factors, etc. either
at regular intervals or upon request from traffic law enforcement practitioners.
Supervisors have a responsibility to enquire about the range of services that are rendered
by the agency's Accident Bureau. A responsible supervisor should also enquire from the
Accident Bureau whether other types of statistics can be generated to suit individual
requirements. Any professionally run Accident Bureau will be too happy to generate
reports to assist with the needs of supervisors. At least this will establish a support base
for their services. Many officers in Accident Bureaus complain to management that law
enforcement supervisors neglect to utilise the data that they generate for policing
purposes. It is virtually impossible to establish a successful system of selective traffic law
enforcement if you have no information regarding where, when and why crashes occur.
But let us start at the beginning. This is the recording of crash information by traffic law
enforcement officers. Have you ever heard of the principle - "GIGO" This relates to
"garbage in - garbage out?" If officers do not complete the accident report forms as
accurately and comprehensively as possible, it will have the effect that this information
is captured in its defective format. It will make the collated data unreliable. Traffic law
enforcement supervisors have a responsibility to ensure that accident report forms are
completed accurately, and the only way to ensure that this is done, is to inspect every
form that is handed in by law enforcement officers and to refer it back to the officer until
you are completely satisfied that it complies with departmental standards. 8 Only then
should it be forwarded to the relevant units that are responsible for the capturing of the
reports. This will not only ensure that the information is accurate, it also provides the
supervisor with an excellent opportunity to monitor the standard of work of officers.
There are too many law enforcement supervisors that see this checking of forms as a
nuisance factor. Apart from the fact that crash data enables the supervisor to develop
effective deployment strategies through the collated data, these forms are also made
available to those road users involved in crashes as well as to a variety of insurance
companies. The standard of some of these forms are so poor that it puts the law
enforcement agency's reputation in the spotlight. It is often not possible to remedy poor
administration at a later stage as this may be challenged by external stakeholders such as
legal practitioners and insurance companies. The crash report often reflects on the level
of professionalism of the officer that completed it. Spelling often spoils an otherwise fine
report.

____________________
8
It is also advisable to develop a quality control model that will measure the law enforcement agency's
performance insofar as the completion of crash reports is concerned.

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3.5 Model for crash prevention
The following is the basic "formula" that should be used for the development of a crash
prevention model for a law enforcement administrators' area of responsibility.

IDENTIFY
High frequency Crash Locations - Days and Times
THEN
Create an Image of Police Omnipresence at the Highest Crash Locations
ON
The Highest Accident Days during the Highest Crash Times
CAUSING
Alterations of Driver Behaviour
CAUSING
Reduction of Violations
RESULTING IN
Reduction of Crashes

This model implies that reactive law enforcement alone will not solve the road crash
problem. It implies that visibility is as important as law enforcement, as the latter will
alter driver behaviour. I will now continue to explain two methods to increase police
visibility at the highest crash locations without necessarily deploying more human
resources. Once the supervisor has established from crash data where the most dangerous
locations are, as well as when the majority of crashes occur, he has the basic building
blocks for a visibility improvement strategy.

Research in almost every country in the world has revealed that the human factor is the
biggest contributory factor to crash causation. It is said that:-

 Human factors are responsible for approximately 90 percent of crashes;

 The vehicle is responsible for approximately 7 percent of crashes;
 The road environment contributes to approximately 3 percent of crashes.

The following drawing explains another view on crash causation. It is a hypothesis that
any of a number of contributory factors, if removed will reduce crashes. Let us now look
at a number of factors that individually will not cause a road crash, but when combined
lead to a "point of no return." The blocks that are stacked vertically each represent
different causative factors. Once these combined factors reach the horizontal line a crash
will occur. At this point the combined effect of various causative factors cannot prevent
the crash from taking place. The important aspect of this model is that if only one of the
causative factors is removed, a crash would not occur. It may sound somewhat of a
hypothetical argument, but a careful analysis will reveal the value of good enforcement
practice. Even minor offences can contribute to crash causation. Remember that every
aspect of the Road Traffic Act is geared towards road safety. A cracked window may not
seem to be of critical importance for road safety until that vehicle is used on a public road
after hours when it rains.

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The headlights of an oncoming vehicle may deflect its light in such a manner that the
view of the driver is severely obstructed. A dirty window can further aggravate the
situation. Traffic law enforcement must therefore be based on an overall view that all
offences and the road worthiness of vehicles are critical to reduce crash rates. The number
of un-roadworthy vehicles has increased considerably over the years. Road blocks should
also be used to inspect vehicles for roadworthiness and if found to be serious, the use of
these vehicles has to be terminated.

3.5.1 Crash causation

It is not always an easy task to categorise the causes of crashes. This is mainly due to the
fact that most crashes have more than one contributory factor. It is widely accepted that
the following six factors cause most crashes:- (www.sixwise.com)
 Driver distraction;
 Driver fatigue; Intoxication;
 Speeding;
 Aggressive driving;
 Weather conditions.

In South Africa an extraordinary high percentage of pedestrians are killed in road crashes.
Pedestrians are not involved in 50 percent of all crashes but the fatality rates indicate that
more than 40 percent of all fatalities are pedestrians. This is due to the risk exposure of
pedestrians.

South African research indicated the major causes of fatal road crashes in 2005 as
follows:- (Botha, G. et. al. 2006)9

____________________
9
Based on these statistics it must be assumed that Arrive Alive Programs are misdirected. The focus should
be on the pedestrian safety problem in South Africa. Prosecution data does not correspond with the causes
of fatal crashes!

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 Factor Category Percentage of total
Jay walking
High/inappropriate speed
Turn in front of oncoming vehicles
Unsafe/unlawful overtaking
Intoxicated driving
Ignore traffic signals/stop signs
Fatigue
Intoxicated pedestrians
Unsafe following distances
Total
The above relates to driver and pedestrian factors

Factor Category Percentage of total

Tyre burst
Smooth tyres
Defective brakes
Defective lights
Defective steering
Vehicle overloading
Total
The above relates to vehicle factors

Factor Category Percentage of total

Poor visibility
Poor street lighting
Poor road conditions
Slippery roads
Narrow road lanes
Sharp bends/road curves
Blind rise/corners
Poor road signs
Road works
Stray animals
Total
The above relates to the road and environment factors

3.6 Horizontal residual effect

Residual means that the impact of something continues for a while even though it is not
there anymore. It is almost like eating something very hot. Even though you have
swallowed the last bit of the "hot" stuff, you still have its taste in your mouth. The same
principle is applied here. Horizontal residual effect implies that the supervisor places a
patrol officer at a hazardous location for a specific time over a number of days. The
motorists driving on this route will soon realise that there is an officer at that location and
their driving behaviour will change accordingly. After a few days, the officer is removed
and placed at another hazardous location. The drivers at the

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first location still expect to find the officer at this location for a few days, where-after
they realise that the officer is not there anymore. Deviant behaviour will then re- emerge.
When the officer is re-deployed back to this location the cycle starts afresh. One officer
can therefore effectively be deployed to monitor a number of localities. It is however
important to keep the officer at a particular location until driver behaviour changes. Driver
behaviour can be measured by means of a statistical analysis of the rate of contraventions
at the locality.

A critical difficulty in deterring speeding offences using traditional methods is

maintaining the effect over time and space. The longevity of enforcement effects can be
expressed in terms of a 'halo" which is the spatial or temporal extent of the deterrence
effect from the enforcement officer(s). The residual effect was investigated by Hauer and
Ahlin (1982) by measuring vehicle speeds before, during and after enforcement using
stationary, marked police vehicles on semi-rural two-lane roads. It was found that the
residual effect quickly dissipated downstream of the enforcement site. Average speed was
depressed for a period of 3 days after a single enforcement activity and up to 6 days with
repeated enforcement. (Managing Speed, TRB. 1998) In a review of European studies,
Ostvik and Elvik concluded that enforcement intensity must be increased significantly -
to more than three times the initial level – before there is an appreciable effect on the
perceived risk of detention or a reduction in the number of speeding offences. The quick
dissipating impact of enforcement requires huge input from enforcement agencies. This
is why speed limits should be set at a level that they become self-enforcing (85th
percentile speed). Enforcement is largely a game of play i.e. trying to create a perception
of omnipresence. It is due to this phenomenon that the value of hidden speed cameras is
disputed by some agencies.10

3.6 Vertical residual effect

Vertical residual effect operates on the same principle as described above, with the
difference that an officer is deployed to patrol a specific street or area at different times
of the day or night. Regular users of that street or area will after some time become aware
of the continual presence of an officer and this will (hopefully) alter driver behaviour. It
may take longer to achieve positive results, due to the fact that the officer will not
necessarily be visible to every road user. The advantage of this type of patrol is that larger
areas can be covered. Officers can either be stationary or moving within the
predetermined area. The impact of the patrol function can be enhanced if more than one
patrol officer is deployed on the route, particularly if it is a very long road or stretch of
road.

3.7 Severity Index

Not all crashes have the same value. Naturally law enforcement officers would like to
give more attention to fatal and serious injury crashes. Let us assume the following:-

___________________
10
Automated speed enforcement must not be used as an income generating exercise, but should be reserved
for enforcement activities where normal speed enforcement cannot be conducted without endangering the
lives of officers and road users.

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 Locality A Locality B
Fatal crashes 3 2
Serious injury crashes 8 9
Slight injury crashes 24 26
Damage only crashes 52 64

TOTAL 87 101

Which one of these two localities has the most severe accident rate?
In order to weigh the various hazardous localities in a supervisor's area of jurisdiction,
some sort of rating system will have to be developed. This is to give more attention to
more serious crash prone intersections and road sections!

This can be achieved by the following formula:-

47.7( + ) + +11.8( )+

Where:-
 F - refers to fatal accidents
 Se - refers to serious injury accidents
 SL - refers to slight injury accidents
 D - refers to damage only accidents
 N - refers to the total number of accidents for that locality

And where 47.7 and 11.8 are constants

PRACTICAL EXERCINE
Determine which of one the two intersections referred to above is the most serious in
terms of crash severity!

3.8 Pareto principle

The formula referred to above should be applied to all the intersections that a supervisor
wants to include in a special project. This brings us to the next issue. How many locations
out of hundreds must be included in a project to minimise crash risks through the
deployment of patrol officers, i.e. to increase officer visibility? This problem can be
solved through the Pareto Principle. This principle is also commonly referred to as the
80/20 principle. Basically what it means is that statistically there is some sort of
consistency in many socio-economic phenomena as well as other issues in life. In terms
hereof 20 percent of the population has 80 percent of all the wealth in a country. Stated
the other way around it means that 80 percent of the country's population owns only 20
percent of its wealth. Applied to crime, it means that 80 percent of all crime in the country
is committed by 20 percent of the population. Statistically it then implies that 80 percent
of all crashes occur at 20 percent of the intersections or road sections in any particular
jurisdiction.

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This allows a law enforcement practitioner to narrow down the number of locations that
require attention in a selective traffic law enforcement plan - (S.T.E.P.). It can further be
extrapolated to traffic crimes; 80 percent of all crashes are caused by 20 percent of
offences. A professional law enforcement practitioner will be able to determine the 20
percent most prevalent crash causative offences. Once the law enforcement practitioner
has this information it is relatively easy to develop a model for the effective and efficient
deployment of officers to minimise crash risks through preventative and reactive patrol
activities.

3.9 Development of a mini project

You are now in a fairly good position to commence with the deployment of your patrol
officers. Something to remember - don't expect results over a short period of time. A law
enforcement supervisor should use this method over a period of at least six months to
measure positive results. In real life it is not so easy to develop and implement a selective
enforcement program effectively. This is due to a severe shortage of officers and a vast
array of other functions that have to be performed; often at short notice. Despite these
setbacks, the supervisor should still continue with this strategy with whatever patrol
resources are available. Remember to get the buy-in from your team members. Once your
team understands what is expected from them they will participate fully. Regular
feedback to your team is also important in order to keep them interested and on track.
Keep administrative records of whatever you do in terms of such a project. To monitor
progress you will have to compare the times spend on this project with a corresponding
time frame prior to the commencement of the project. This will allow you to do a
comparative analysis of the outcomes of your efforts.

3.10 Enforcement Index

It is important to establish the types of offences to concentrate on. These offences must
directly link to the types of crashes identified by the law enforcement agency's Accident
Bureau. It speaks for itself that a law enforcement team will not concentrate on parking
offences when speeding has been identified as a major contributory factor at one of the
localities identified through the 80/20 - principle. If unsafe overtaking is a contributory
factor; surely they will not concentrate their efforts on the overloading of commercial
vehicles. Remember however, every enforcement action has an effect on crash causation.
It may not necessarily be the best action, but it nevertheless serves a general purpose. In
some cases a law enforcement agency may prioritise certain issues as important from
another perspective. For instance, the overloading of commercial vehicles damages the
road infrastructure and as an economic crime, it also requires the law enforcement
agency's attention.

There are various ways to develop enforcement indexes. Research has indicated that there
are approximately 100 000 traffic offences for every fatal crash that takes place. The
number of fatal crashes for a particular location or area can be multiplied by 100 000 to
determine the number of traffic offences for that location.

It has also been argued that there should be at least 100 arrests for serious offences in
respect of every recorded fatal and serious crash to maintain a desirable enforcement
index. (Booth W.L. 1986) It is also possible to establish a weighting system for every
type of prosecution. A prosecution for a defective steering mechanism may weigh 6 points
out of 10, whereas overtaking on a barrier line may weigh 9 points.

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In this manner the law enforcement practitioner can determine which of the officers under
his command concentrate on the more serious offences. Some officers may have fewer
prosecutions, but their prosecution average in terms of weighting may be higher.

3.11 Prosecution targets

There are traffic law enforcement supervisors that merely set enforcement targets without
any sound basis for such a practice. This often leads to resentment among officers and is
often portrayed negatively in the media. There are many States in the USA that have
introduced legislation to restrict the setting of enforcement targets by law enforcement
agencies. This is not the case in South Africa, but it still remains a contentious issue which
must be treated with circumspection. So, if this is such a reprehensible practice, how are
we going to get our patrol officers to prosecute enough offenders to make a difference to
the crash rates in this country? This is a complicated issue because there are a number of
factors that may impact on the prosecution rates of traffic law enforcement officers.

Targets must be set by the group. This is probably the best way to establish what is
achievable and creates a platform to identify under-performers.

There is a simple formula to determine an average. Once this has been achieved for a
specific period of time, preferably not less than three months, it becomes easy for the
supervisor to determine which officers do not perform to the group standard. Corrective
action is then appropriate. There are advanced formulas to determine a standard deviation
from the mean, which gives an accurate statistical analysis of under- and over performers.
It will not be covered in this program as it requires a minimum standard of competency
in statistics and mathematics. Keep in mind that there may be specific reasons why some
officers record fewer prosecutions than others. This is why it is so important to first
discuss an officers' performance with him/her before drawing any conclusions.

In my career as a law enforcement administrator I have worked with many good officers,
but many of whom just could not make the grade when it comes to the identification and
citing (prosecution) of offenders. There are a number of reasons why this occurs. Firstly;
an officer may have less developed observation skills, may have personality traits that
affects his ability to confront offending motorists, etc. Supervisors are advised to establish
these underlying issues and deal with them as best as possible.

3.12 Fishing holes

The setting of unreasonable or arbitrary targets may tempt some traffic law enforcement
officers to become very selective where they perform law enforcement. Fishing holes may
often be selected where a high rate of offences occur, without any corresponding crash
risk. Law enforcement agencies are often criticised for doing speed enforcement at sites
which do not warrant extensive enforcement. A stop sign in a minor road, which may not
even be warranted, may yield many prosecutions, but also considerable criticism and
negative perceptions about the law enforcement agency's enforcement practices. It is the
responsibility of senior law enforcement practitioners to identify those officers who
exploit fishing holes purely to chase targets or to satisfy a supervisor's quest for higher
arrest and prosecution rates.

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This can be done through the generation of reports by the departments' prosecution data
system. If this is not possible, a manual inspection of citations handed in by officers, can
easily yield information regarding the prosecuting modus operandi of an officer. The
existence of fishing holes often means that there is an underlying problem with road signs,
speed restrictions or some other technical issue that precipitates deviant driver behaviour.
An inspection of such a site often reveals these latent issues. Once identified it should be
remedied by the department or referred to the road engineers for a thorough audit and
corrective action. It is imperative that the perception of road users be influenced
positively, but this is only possible if they agree with the policing practices of the law
enforcement agencies.

3.13 Saturation patrols and specialisation

The term "Saturation Patrols Units" was coined by the erstwhile Germiston Traffic
Department. The establishment of saturation units was as a result of the continuing
escalating trend in crime and the pressure placed on traffic law enforcement agencies to
assist in the fight against crime.11 Specialised units were established to move from a
specific demarcated area to another and to saturate the area with traffic enforcement
actions. This proved to be very successful and corroborated research abroad that traffic
law enforcement activities can be used effectively to minimise crime and to displace
crime from a specific area.

The establishment of specialised units is often considered by law enforcement

administrators as a cure-all by law enforcement agencies, especially when a specific
offence or category of offences necessitates such dedicated attention. Specialised units
are also considered when a specific offence requires specialised technical skills. The
degree of specialisation within a department may have a serious impact on the provision
of general law enforcement services. Officers attached to specialised units have a
tendency to only perform the tasks for which that unit was established and ignore other
issues and offence types if it is not directly related to their primary objectives. In this way,
we often find that officers ignore even blatant transgressions committed in their presence,
often to the dissatisfaction of the motoring public. This is one of the major disadvantages
of specialisation! On the other hand, it is almost inconceivable not to establish special
units in the larger law enforcement agencies. Law enforcement administrators have to
find a balance between the need for specialisation and generalisation. The best would
have been to develop "specialist generalists." This however requires a dedicated effort i.e.
to build capacity over an extended period of time. Saturated patrols are effective when
traffic and or other crime categories have reached unsatisfactory high levels. Arrive Alive
projects could be classified as a type of "saturation" patrol function."

3.14 Officer rotation

Whenever there is a need for special units, law enforcement administrators must ensure
that officers are rotated at pre-set intervals.12 It is unfair to keep specially trained officers
on a specialised unit ad infinitum. This leads to officer complacency. The rotation policy
must be sensible, transparent and be accepted widely as fair.
____________________________
11
A study conducted by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) within the erstwhile
Greater Germiston Council indicated that residents believed that the Traffic Department had better response
capabilities than the South African Police Service.
12
Rotation policies should be properly motivated and approved by the Council. Unions should preferably
also be consulted on this issue as it affects their members directly.

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You also don't want to rotate highly trained officers to a unit that for instance do parking
control. This will de-motivate those officers and may precipitate a higher resignation rate.
The best probably is to set the criteria for placement on a specialised unit well in advance.
This will temper officers' expectations and pre-determine the conditions for deployment
in those so-called elite units. Whenever highly trained officers are rotated back to normal
patrol units, make sure that they are given tasks and responsibilities that are
commensurate with their experience and level of expertise. They could also be requested
to assist with the mentoring of less- experienced officers in a structured and controlled
manner. There are also other reasons to rotate personnel at frequent intervals, such as the
possibility of corruption, criminal syndicates and related criminal activities. One
technique that may be considered is to give the normal patrol units special projects and
utilise them for short periods to saturate an area or to attend to a pre-selected problem.
This will motivate them and re-assure them that their patrol capabilities are recognised
and appreciated. The purpose of this advice is not to provide perfect solutions, but merely
to open up discussion and to allow law enforcement administrators to think "outside the
box" regarding their patrol units and the need to diversify their officers' focus. There are
very few things more frustrating for a law enforcement officer than to be deployed on a
specific patrol, observing the same offence types year after year, i.e. without the prospect
of developing more advanced skills.

3.15 Profiling offenders

Profiling refers to the tendency that some officers display e.g. to concentrate their law
enforcement efforts towards specific target groups for dubious reasons. Examples of this
would be when an officer stops and prosecute only drivers from a specific racial group,
gender group or vehicle type. Profiling, especially racial profiling is extremely
detrimental to the image of a law enforcement agency. Racial profiling has lead to protests
and civil disturbance in the USA. Minorities often feel that they are being singled out for
police action, whether real or imagined.

There are also examples of officers that target specific companies for law enforcement
based on a previous bad experience with them or their drivers. This may also be the result
of collusion with a competitor of such a company for financial gain i.e. corruption.
Although a good leader will sense signs of profiling practices, it generally comes to the
fore when complaints start to surface. When this occurs, it should be taken seriously and
should be examined by means of a thorough analysis of such an officer's prosecution data.
Officers should be offered an opportunity to fully explain their motives for the
concentrated focus on a specific target or road user group. There are often valid reasons
why some officers have higher than average prosecution rates for specific target groups;
such as a special enforcement project, specialised enforcement units, etc. Taxi drivers and
operators are very sensitive to profiling and are quick to criticise traffic enforcement
agencies that they focus all their attention unfairly towards their industry, often with
undesirable conflict.

Traffic administrators have a responsibility to approach special projects such as

outstanding taxi warrants with sensitivity. These projects must be planned with input from
all affected role players and preferably with sufficient media coverage. This would negate
retracting from these special projects due to political influence and/or the threat of
violence, public disturbance, protest action, etc.

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I most definitely do not profess to have perfect solutions to quell profiling problems, but
what is certain, is that if these issues are not addressed by police management it tends to
escalate out of control. Profiling must always be handled in a sensitive manner, especially
when it becomes an institutionalised issue. Officers who make themselves guilty of racial,
gender or sexual orientation profiling practices should be referred for counselling as these
practices potentially have major implications for policing. In a racially sensitive country
such as South Africa law enforcement officers must be seen to be above bias based
policing. The proliferation of media access makes it possible for an aggrieved citizen to
send a distorted (one-sided) view of a police-citizen interaction throughout the world in
a few hours. Negative perceptions are not easy to remedy and takes a long time to
dissipate.

3.16 Conclusion
Traffic law enforcement is not a dull issue. Neither is it an inferior policing activity. It is
as exciting as any other form of police activity. All that is required from good leaders is
to develop a professional and scientific approach to traffic law enforcement, crash
prevention and an analytical approach to supervision. No supervisor can say that there are
no challenges left in terms of road safety. A single crash suggests a break in road safety
strategies and will require attention. Once the supervisor adopts a more analytical
approach to traffic law enforcement practice, a whole new world of opportunities will
open up to be explored. This approach will ensure continued growth in the supervisor's
stature as a professional law enforcement practitioner.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 4

POLICE ETHICS

After you have completed this unit you should be able to:

 Indicate how modern police principles compare with Peel's principles of policing.
 Reflect on how the public's image of the police is formed.
 Analyse the importance of police policies.
 Discuss the theories that affect the role of the media in shaping the public's
perception of the police.
 List the policing processes that have an effect on police public relations.
 Explain police discrimination.
 Identify the role of the supervisor to minimise corruption by patrol officers.

4.1 Introduction
Ethics refer to the study of the principles of good conduct (by the police) and "systems"
of moral values. Ethical behaviour relates to conduct that conforms to accepted principles
of morality. The word ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, meaning character,
conduct, or custom. (Ortmeier and Meese, 2004, p. 59)

Crime and related issues are not unique to South Africa, although it cannot be disputed
that we have a particularly serious problem with violent crime and road crashes. The
following is an extract from a web-article that highlights the crime wave that was evident
in England prior to the establishment of the first modern police service.

"The first police force in Britain was Alsatia, the district between Fleet Street and
established at Bow Street, London, in the the Thames, was notorious; no honest man
early eighteenth century. The "Bow Street dared venture into that network of crooked
Runners" were established under the control lanes and fetid slums. The region round
of a magistrate. In 1753, upon the Covent Gardens was studded with "night-
recommendation of the magistrate and houses," low taverns where every form of
novelist Henry Fielding, more forces were villainy could be indulged in. Between St.
created in London along these lines. The Katherine's Dock and Limehouse the
Marine Police were set up in 1798 to control riverside was lined with the haunts of the
the alarming rise in thefts from the quays and water rats that robbed the shipping in the
warehouses along the north bank of the Thames to the tune of some R3 million per
Thames (river), between London Bridge and year. In all these districts, and many others,
the Tower. Sir Robert Peel, Home Secretary, every street had its thieves' den, its receiving
to check a state of rampant criminality shop, and its brothel. In 1796 there were in
almost unbelievable to the modern mind, London 3000 old iron and rag shops, of
founded the Metropolitan Police Force in which Besant says "they were universally,
1829. Solely criminals inhabited whole areas and without exception, and notoriously
of the town. receivers of stolen goods." At the same time
the City contained

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over 5000 public houses and beer-shops, most part composed of aged, decrepit or
many of which were little more than infirm dodderers, whom terrorism or bribery
rendezvous for the highwayman, kept well out the way when any villainy was
housebreakers, cardsharpers and counterfeit toward. Of arrested criminals many never
coiners. Counterfeit coining was carried out reached a prison cell. The constable in
on a prodigious scale. In 1790 there were in charge of the lock-up could be bribed; so
London forty or fifty mints engaged in this could witnesses and the jurymen.
illicit industry. Burglary and and Magistrates were equally corrupt. Until 1792
housebreaking were daily occurrences, and all fines levied by Justices of the Peace went
the citizen's only defence was a stout cudgel into their own pockets, and it can be readily
or a brace of pistols. There was no police understood why criminals with means
force, or at least none of any consequence. sufficient to tempt gaoler or magistrate
What there was both inefficient and corrupt? laughed the gallows." (www. at
The watch, which nightly patrolled the gendocs.demon.co.uk/police)
streets with staves and lanterns, was for the

The "new police" of 1829 was met with much opposition and considerable hostility, not
only from the mob but also from magistrates. This they overcame by producing results
that could not be questioned, a rapid decline in crime and increasing safety of life and
property. Within seven years the area over which they had control - originally a radius of
twelve miles from Charing Cross, was extended, and the River Police were brought into
the new organisation. The above-mentioned illustration of the terrible crime situation in
England and the resultant success of the newly established police force clearly indicate
that it is indeed possible to win the war on crime.

The police, as the visible entity of state power, should command the highest possible
respect from the citizenry. This respect, and also trust must be earned by police officers
that are seen to be fair, decisive, and upholding all the laws of the country, particularly
human rights as well as the other rights enshrined in the constitution. In the United States
of America, the police constantly rank among the institutions and "occupations" (note not
profession) in which the public expresses the highest confidence and trust. This is not true
for South Africa as law enforcement agencies are plagued by poor service delivery,
corruption and on a more serious note accusations of human rights abuses.

Citizen's experiences with the police form the basis that affects their overall assessment
of the police. The media also plays an important role in shaping the perceptions of the
citizenry as well as word-of-mouth information from other persons who either had a
negative or to a lesser extent positive interaction with law enforcement officers. The very
nature of traffic policing brings the police into close contact with the public and it is often
here where perceptions are formed that will have a long-term impact. Previously held
experiences tend to have a long-term effect that will be extremely difficult to change. The
average person may have only one contact with the police in many years, and a negative
experience thus forms the basis of perceptions that cannot easily be changed by 'spin-
doctors'. It will thus be difficult to make any significant improvements in their overall
public image by the direct contact they have with the police. Patrol officers play a vital
role over a prolonged period of time i.e. to instil trust and confidence, and unfortunately
it is here where the most inexperienced and poorly trained officers are deployed in a law
enforcement agency. Officers who have completed their basic compulsory training are
almost immediately deployed on operational duties without any further mentoring or field
training. These officers are more often than not, still young and lack basic human relations
skills.

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They are by the very nature of their age - active, energetic but also prone to aggressive
behaviour without considering the consequences for the law enforcement agency
specifically and policing in general. This should be a matter of concern for police
administrators if they are serious about police reform. The authority that accompanies a
police uniform is immense (they can under certain circumstances legally kill a person)
and police administrators have a duty to temper and mould officers to use their vast
powers sparingly and within the confines of what the law permits. Another area where
the public frequently comes into contact with the police is at police service centres where
they can report or obtain information on a variety of issues. In the case of traffic law
enforcement agencies such as traffic departments and metropolitan police departments
interaction is often directed towards obtaining road crash information and for the purpose
to pay traffic fines. Other contact points refer to the communication centres of these
agencies. Response times relating to telephonic interaction is often poor or very poor! Do
we really put enough effort into ensuring that only the best qualified and experienced
officers serve the public at these points, or do we place those officers in these centres as
a punitive measure? Many investigations go awry due to the poor quality of statements
taken by law enforcement officers that are not trained to render an effective service.

Based on what was stated above it can safely be said that the vast majority of the public
form their perceptions of the police on what the mass media reports. This is their primary
source of information about law enforcement agencies and the latter's ability to police
professionally. Managing the patrol function thus remains a critical aspect for police
administrators and supervisors, from first-line supervisors up to the highest-ranking
officer. Minorities in other countries often have a more negative perception about the
police and there is no reason why it will be different in South Africa. Police administrators
must ensure that policing is executed impartially as these groups will elevate every
incident out of proportion. Race effects appear to be particularly enduring for citizens'
assessment of police fairness and the use of force. It must also be borne in mind that
incidents in other agencies, will also impact on every other police agency. The public
does not necessarily make a distinction between the agency that employed an errant
officer and other law enforcement agencies. The duty to offer professional police services
therefore rest on the shoulders of every police administrator. Police brutality in particular
has a lot of newsworthiness, and has long lasting implications for the police. Law
enforcement officers should never be permitted to establish a pattern of "us versus them"
in society, as the public and the media will surely win this battle!

The overall legitimacy of the police depends much more on citizens' perceptions of how
the police treat them than on their perceptions of police success in reducing crime. The
current trend to publish annual police arrest and prosecution statistics and not to give
proper attention to complaints of police abuse and corruption must therefore be
questioned! Public confidence in and support for the police depends much more on
citizens' perceptions of police officers' motives than whether the outcome was personally
favourable to the citizen.

The public's perceptions of how the police treat them appear to affect their willingness to
obey the law and the police. Community policing may have a modest long-term positive
influence on citizens' satisfaction with the police, but is unlikely to produce a 'quick fix.'

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The role of first-line supervisors and precinct (area) commanders can thus never be
underestimated as they are the closest to the patrol officers who largely shape the image
of the law enforcement agency. Are they trained sufficiently and are they committed to
produce the type of patrol service that will enhance service delivery and promote police
professionalism?

4.2 Peel's principles of policing

Sir Robert Peel is considered by many scholars in police science as the father of modern
policing. He cited the following: -

 The basic mission for the police's existence is to prevent crime and disorder;
 The ability of the police to perform their duties is dependent upon public approval
of police actions;
 Police must secure the willing cooperation of the public and voluntary observance
of the law to be able to secure and maintain the respect of the public;
 The degree of co-operation of the public that can be secured, diminishes
proportionately to the necessity for the use of physical force;
 Police seek and preserve public favour not by catering to public opinion but by
constantly demonstrating absolute impartial service to the law;
 Police use of physical force to the extent necessary to secure observance of the
law or to restore order only when the exercise of persuasion, advice and warning
is found to be insufficient; Police, at all times, should maintain a relationship with
the public that gives reality to the historic tradition that the police are the public
and the public are the police; the police being only members of the public who are
paid to give full-time attention to duties which are incumbent on every citizen in
the interests of community welfare and existence;
 Police should always direct their attention strictly towards their functions and
shall never usurp the powers of the judiciary;
 The test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder, not the visible
action of police action in dealing with it. (Is this still true today?).

4.3 The image of law enforcement

According to a study that was commissioned by the International Association of Chiefs
of Police (IACP) the police image can be categorised into the following:-
 General image;
 Outcomes and;
 Process.

The following comprises aspects that will affect the general image of the police:-
 Confidence in the police;
 Satisfaction with the police;
 Trust in the police;
 Respect for the police;
 Support for the police;
 Police performance in general.

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These aspects provide a "general" sense of how positive or negative the public is towards
the police. These attributes are vague as it is not always clear what it is that pleases or
displeases them about the police. It is also difficult to pinpoint accurately the reasons for
the happiness or unhappiness. One can however be certain that the total police function
over an extended period of time will either positively or negatively influence these
attributes of the general police image. This is why law enforcement supervisors can never
relax their efforts to ensure that the officers under their command comply with the set
standards of the department. Law enforcement agencies must have appropriate policies
and procedures to govern the conduct of their officers. An officer sitting in the boot of a
patrol vehicle whilst writing a ticket is perceived as highly unprofessional.

With respect to outcomes, the following attributes are the most important categories:-

 Reducing crime, crashes and disorder;

 Reducing the fear of crime and disorder;
 Solving neighbourhood problems and improving the quality of life, and;
 Developing greater community cohesion.

Most of the above can be improved by effective patrol operations, crime prevention
activities and community interaction. The visibility of the law enforcement officers and
their ability to respond to calls for intervention are examples of what is important to
improve the image of the police.

The last aspect is the police "process" that impact on the image of the police. The
following are important in this respect:-

 Integrity - avoidance of corruption and the abuse of power for personal gain,
dishonesty, tolerance, minimum use of force, and dishonesty among fellow
officers.(Traffic law enforcement officers are particularly susceptible to bribery
due to the vast number of offences and the ease with which corruption can take
place) Officers that want to 'extort' money from motorists often overstate the
seriousness of the offence, the extent of the fine or the threat of arrest for relatively
minor offences);
 Fairness - treating people with respect. (Traffic law enforcement officers often
discriminate in the manner that they enforce traffic legislation. Some motorists
are warned, others are cited and others are arrested. The fairness of their actions
is often questioned);
 Responsiveness - giving people what they want, showing care and concern for
their problems (This often does not happen as officers ignore the problems that
motorists experience with traffic signals that are out of order, ineffective road
signage at construction sites, etc. Their response times to attend to crash scenes
are often questionable! Such neglect can either be ascribed to laziness or as a result
of inadequate training;
 Police presence - being available and accessible to provide police services in a
timely manner. (This aspect is also related to the above issue of responsiveness.
Officers are often seen at localities where they do law enforcement only to find
that other traffic conditions require their attention further down a street);

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  Appropriate use of force - using only that level of force necessary to achieve
legitimate goals. (The media often report on incidents where motorists allege that
they have been abused verbally and physically if they challenge an officers'
authority in any way that is perceived by the latter as 'threatening');
 Competence - having the knowledge and skills to do their work. (Traffic law
enforcement officers often complete traffic tickets that are so 'defective' that it
beckons to be thrown out of court).

These are all issues that can and should be addressed by law enforcement supervisors and
administrators. The relative importance of the individual attributes listed above is not
easily determinable and the agency's strategy should rather holistically focus on all of
them. Certain of the attributes cannot be defined in tangible and measurable objectives
but many can. What is however true of these attributes is that the role and influence of
patrol officers cannot be underestimated! Patrol officers have an impact on every one of
the attributes, whether knowingly or not. Patrol presence influences the general image of
the law enforcement agency directly and indirectly.

The perception towards the police nationwide is dramatically affected by highly

publicised (which may include highly localised) events. In these cases the police
administrator must be prepared to provide a balanced picture the event. If the event is
atypical of policing, then the administrator must be prepared to provide convincing
evidence to the contrary, that does not appear to be merely self-serving. If the problem is
of widespread concern, the administrator must be in a position to show that he appreciates
the scope of the problem and is taking action to rectify matters. Responding to problems
that emanate from the patrol function, almost always requires a 'reactive' approach.

ANY COMMITMENTS GIVEN MUST BE FOLLOWED THROUGH AND

BECOME AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE POLICIES OF THE AGENCY
TO MINIMISE A RE- OCCURRENCE OF SIMILAR INCIDENTS.

On the other hand, if the image of the law enforcement agencies is affected by trends in
crime, economic factors and other social indicators, then a more long-term approach is
required that allows for proactive policing. In the South African context it is worthwhile
to note that the escalation in drug abuse requires intervention from the police. How will
the agency react to minimise this phenomenon? What role will patrol officers' play to be
seen to address the illegal selling and abuse of drugs? The public is concerned about how
the police will deal with this and other similarly important crime issues. The authority
given to the police to deal with these crimes is important and the public expect results,
but how the police use their powers in pursuance of results, is even more important. Any
abuse of the authority bestowed upon them must be exercised in a manner that will ensure
that the public support their efforts. The patrol officer has an important function to
enhance the trust of the public and not to act in a manner that will redirect the attention
of the public and the media away from police abuse and incompetence, instead of them
dealing effectively with the issues at hand. The good work of the police can be annihilated
by a single incident of indiscretion by a law enforcement officer. It often seems as if road
policing issues are condensed to a few projects per annum, most notably around Easter
and the December holidays. The investigation of crash scenes is almost non-existent and
this

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does not instil trust in the minds of the public. Major crashes that result in multiple deaths
reflect poorly on the traffic law enforcement agencies. Many of these major crashes are
investigated, but they rarely result in a successful prosecution.

(WHO MUST ENSURE THAT PATROL OFFICERS ACT IN SUCH A MANNER

THAT IT WILL INSTILL TRUST IN THE PUBLIC?) and (HOW WILL THE
POLICE ADMINISTRATOR ENSURE THAT THE GENERALLY NEGATIVE
IMAGE OF THE POLICE BY ETHNIC AND RACIAL MINORITIES IS
ADDRESSED?)

There is fundamental tension in the police role that highlights the classic ends-means
philosophical problem: when if ever the ends justify the means? In "true" democratic
societies, culture places a high value on the accomplishment of lofty goals, such as peace
(absence of crime and disorder) and that these are achieved by peaceful means (such as
negotiation, persuasion and education). The police however have been entrusted to when
these means do not work, to use “dirty” – that is other coercive methods to accomplish
peace. This does not mean that they can abuse these powers and it will not mean that
society's concern about the philosophical dilemma of deciding when the ends justifies the
means, and when not, will evaporate. Truly democratic societies place a higher value on
achieving peace and minimising crime, but they also appear to be very concerned that this
is not accomplished by the most effective and efficient means only, but also how it is
done without infringing on the rights of the individual. Patrol supervisors must always
have a hands-on approach in respect of how their subordinates respond to these societal
pressures. It is very easy for patrol officers to get entangled in confrontations where the
goals discussed above are thrown out of the window with disastrous consequences for the
agency and its leadership. There should always be policies; procedures and practices that
will counteract any improper conduct by law enforcement officers. Police reform is a
constant. They are continually criticised when their methods and its application seems to
have less than desirable effects. When police administrators seek the cooperation and
acceptance from the public their first reaction is to over-emphasize the arrest and
prosecution aspects of police work (crime reduction statistics) and neglecting aspects of
legality and service provision. Another important aspect that is often downplayed is the
lack of successful prosecutions due to poor investigative work by the police!

One of the best instruments to determine the state of the public's image of the police is to
conduct surveys. Very few, if any; law enforcement agencies in South Africa are involved
or have commissioned research institutions to conduct surveys to accurately determine
which factors require remedial action to improve the image of that agency. There is thus
little or no concrete evidence to gauge the public's image of police agencies in this
country, particularly at local and metropolitan government levels. We therefore have to
rely on overseas research and assume that based on the very nature of police work, that
those issues that affect these agencies could be related to our policing environment. Police
image is generally constant over short periods of time and trends can only be accurately
seen over a number of years. It is therefore necessary to conduct regular surveys to
establish these trends and to implement remedial action to reverse declining trends. There
is a direct correlation between a citizen's personal experience with the police and this is
affected by selective perception and by stereotyping; those who hold generally favourable
views of the

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police are more likely to evaluate their contacts with the police favourably; and those who
hold generally unfavourable views are more likely to evaluate their contacts
unfavourably. There are three theories about the role of the media and its role to form the
public's image of the police.

4.3.1 Media theories

Firstly the "hypodermic needle" theory that assumes that the public takes in media
presentations like a drug, which produces powerful and long-term effects on their views
of institutions like the police. Media presentations form part of their answers about the
police and from which they formulate attitudes and perceptions of the police.

The "limited effects" theory also assumes that the public uses the media for information,
but it argues that individuals evaluate that information in the context of what they know
from other sources such as direct contact, family, friends, co- workers etc. These pre-
existing and more-or-less independent impressions are believed to constitute powerful
influences that will compete with the media presentation. Under such circumstances the
role of the media is a factor, but limited.

The "subtle/minimal" theory falls in between the previously mentioned theories. Here
the hypothesized media effects are neither overwhelming nor minimal, but rather work in
special ways by; (a) agenda setting, i.e. to instruct the public what to think about the most
important issues of the day, whether the police are an important issue, and (b) priming.
Associating certain institutions or agencies with particular issues (e.g. associating the
police with crime fighting) and lastly (c) framing, shaping you how to think about a given
issue by either identifying general trends or covering specific events, (e.g. how often
police officers take bribes or abuse their power.)

The constant media coverage of crime creates a perception that it is out of control and
that the police are mere onlookers and do not play a major role in crime prevention. If
this is coupled to frequent media presentations of police abuse, corruption and the too
often referral to them being involved with crime, creates a recipe for “terrible” public
perceptions of the police. The article in the daily newspaper - “Beeld" of the 9th May
2005 of a taxi driver that was involved in an accident whilst he had several outstanding
warrants of arrest against him is a good example of negative views on the (metro) police.
We all know how taxi drivers use the roads and the perception exists that the police are
either involved (corrupt) or incapable of dealing with this industry in general. More
recently there were attacks against buses during the introduction of the Rapid Bus
Transport System in Johannesburg.

4.4 Media frenzies

When something does go wrong and the media picks it up, it can soon escalate into media
frenzy. This can be related to a number of sharks that attack a prey and emotions play
little part, but those raw instincts of feeding. The Schabir Schaik trail into alleged
corruption is a good example of media frenzy. In an article that appeared in the Star of
Friday the 11th March 2005, whilst the guilt or innocence of the accused, Schaik has not
been proved, Jovial Rantao asked the following "Is the deputy president fit for the top
job? The deeper you look, the more queries arise". Chiefs of police are also very
vulnerable to media frenzies, as the public expect from top cops to lead by example and
not to get their hands dirty. The media frenzy related to Chief

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Robert McBride of the Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Police Department is well known and so
too that of the “fall" of Mr Jackie Selebe, former National Police Commissioner of the
South African Police Service.

A new trend is the emergence of - "tabloid justice". The mass media have entered a period
where they concentrate on the “sensationalistic, personal, lurid, and tawdry details of
unusual and high profile trials and investigations". Tabloids such as “Die Son" often
focuses on the above-mentioned aspects and very little of objective reporting is found in
these newspapers.

Officers involved in the patrol function, also cannot escape scepticism and ridicule if their
supervisors get entangled in media frenzies and vice versa. This indicates clearly that the
public expect higher ethical and moral standards from its police officials than from
ordinary citizens.

Similarly, it can be said that a law enforcement officer residing in a neighbourhood will
always attract the attention of neighbours. An officer that fails to observe the road rules,
or who returns to his/her residence when supposed to be on patrol reflects extremely poor
on the supervisory status within the department as well as the level of discipline. Officers
should lead exemplary lives although it may be argued that it is unfair to expect higher
standards from them than from the general public. Their visibility as law enforcement
officers clearly does not allow them this luxury. Law enforcement officers can contrary
to popular belief also be charged with misconduct when off-duty.

The general performance of the police is difficult to quantify and we get a feel for this
phenomenon in the media. Very little or no research is undertaken on a regular basis that
would indicate the level of satisfaction with police service, particularly at metropolitan
and municipal level. Does the public have confidence in national and local law
enforcement agencies? - Probably not if we look at the exponential growth of the private
security industry and the large number of gated communities! Do these communities have
respect for the police? - Once again difficult to say, but the large number of incidents
involving bribery and corruption may indicate - NO! Do they support the police? - Again
not so if we look at the low turnout of members of society that attend community policing
forums. Are they happy with the general performance of law enforcement agencies? - No,
not if we carefully examine the extremely low percentage of case dockets that go to court
and the even lower conviction rates. This indicates the ineffectiveness of the law
enforcement agencies in dealing with crime and disorder. Very few drivers that were
involved in fatal and serious crashes end up being prosecuted for traffic related crimes.

4.5 Public perceptions of the outcomes of policing

Outcomes refer to the following categories:-
 Reducing crime, crashes and disorder;
 Reducing the fear of crime;
 Solving neighbourhood problems and improving the quality of live;
 Developing greater community cohesion.

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As the term indicates, ‘outcomes' reflect on those issues the public expect from the law
enforcement agencies to achieve in other words - results. Outcome-orientated elements
refer to the goals citizens expect the police to achieve. These elements include goals that
have long been part of the police mission, such as the solving of crimes and the causes of
road crashes. They also fall under the rubric of community policing, which include
aspects such as reducing the fear of crime and lawlessness. The hypothesis is that these
elements also play a major role in shaping the public's image of the police. Those law
enforcement agencies that are primarily responsible for traffic policing also suffer from a
lack of respect from the public. They are mostly seen as agencies geared towards the
generation of funds for the authorities.

Traditional performance measures, such as crime rates, arrests, clearance rates, and
response times, are still used regularly. Contemporary researchers argue that these
measures of performance are limited because they fail to capture the many important
contributions that the police make to the quality of life of citizens. The measurement of
the police's image therefore must include measures to determine how the public perceive
the efforts of the police and their success to improve quality of life issues. David Bayley
(1994) calls these outcome orientated elements "direct soft" performance indicators.
“Direct measures refer to what the police have achieved over time, and soft indicators
focus on 'subjective' perceptions of change. First we can identify outcomes related to
traditional police efforts concerning crime, such as providing protection, solving cases
(including road traffic crashes) and prevention. This can be termed the "police - crime"
dimension. The second distinction concerns the community. Here we take into account
two factors; the citizens' perceptions of the social conditions of their neighbourhood and
the residents' perception of crime. This is called the "community - social" dimension.
Citizens' perception of neighbourhood crime, include such measures as the fear of crime,
perceived crime, perceived social disorder and physical decay, and the risk of
victimization.

Patrol officers once again have a major role to play in the publics' image of the police.
The mere visibility of a patrol officer can reduce the fear of crime. It is however important
that patrols are conducted regularly, that they be perceived to be in control and that they
act when called upon to do so, whether it is as a result of a call from the community, or a
self-initiated response to a problem perceived by a patrol officer. An officer who visibly
ignores a potential conflict zone, crash scene or incident accentuates a negative feeling of
insecurity, particularly if the victims or potential victims are vulnerable.

Vivi Stavrou provided a useful exposition of some terms (definitions), which are relevant
to us:-

 Perception of crime refers to an individuals' personal estimation of the nature

and incidence of crime in his environment and perceived risk of becoming a victim
of crime;
 Fear of crime refers to an individual's subjective view of their personal risk of
victimization, and their differential levels of vulnerability, depending on factors
such as age, health, wealth and personality.

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The Institute for Democracy in South Africa (IDASA) released its findings on a number
of issues, including crime perceptions. In an article posted on the web- IAFRICA on the
11th March 2005 the following was said:-
 HIV/AIDS is now tied with crime in the public mind as the second most important priority
facing South Africa.
 43 percent of the respondents felt that people were safer from crime and violence today
than five years ago, while 30 percent said it was worse.
 One in six South Africans say they have "feared crime" in their own home in the past
year, virtually the same as in 2000 and 2002.
 34 percent said that they or someone in their family has had something stolen from the
house, and 20 percent said that they or someone in the family have been physically
attacked.
 Black South Africans were the most likely to feel insecure in their homes and to have
themselves or family physically attacked.

In a study conducted by Stavrou – “PERCEPTIONS AND FEAR OF CRIME: THE

ALEXANDRA COMMUNITY CRIME SURVEY" residents inter alias cited that poor
and inadequate policing were significant local factors in the escalation of crime and
political conflict. One of the striking findings of this study was that 94.1 percent of the
respondents stated that the police were involved in political and other criminal violence.
Whether there is any truth in this or not, the perception of the Alexandra residents is a
fatal indictment of the police and their ability to police professionally.

4.6 Public perceptions of policing processes

A law enforcement officer can be very polite to the public and still render an appalling
quality of service or on the contrary an officer may neglect to greet a member of the
community and still render a high quality investigation. Both these two are examples of
poor service. Mastrofski in Skogan (2004) has outlined six characteristics that Americans
associate with quality service delivery from their police i.e. attentiveness reliability,
responsiveness, competence, manners and fairness. A seventh issue, integrity was added,
although not unique to law enforcement agencies, it is a crucial issue for the public image
of the police worldwide.

4.6.1 Attentiveness
It is fairly difficult to define exactly what is meant by the term; attentiveness. One
example of this is the counselling given to the victims of crime and crashes. Victims of
crime and crashes are generally less satisfied with the police than non-victims. Assisting
them to prevent future victimization mitigates the effect of the incident on their perception
of the police. Officers on patrol could also contribute to improve the police's image by
listening comprehensively to complainants and by providing feedback on their
investigation or actions taken. Ignoring a complaint or a request will merely exacerbate a
negative perception, if it already exists, or diminish a positive outlook of the police.
Assisting a stranded motorist who requests information from an officer requires little
effort. A non-care approach or inadequate assistance on the other hand, will precipitate a
negative attitude towards the police. A resident that reports an errand driver in a
neighbourhood and then waits in vain for the law enforcement officer to arrive, also
exacerbates a view that the agency does not respond positively to requests for service.

4.6.2 Reliability
According to Mastrofski, "people expect a degree of predictability in what police do".

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They want service that is timely and error-free. McDonald's the food chain succeeds not
because the food is superb but because it is predictable and more-or-less error free. The
same is expected from the police. Reisig and Chandek (2001) applied a concept from
consumer psychology called "expectancy disconfirmation" to the study of citizen
satisfaction with police in both voluntary (such as seeking assistance) and non-voluntary
(such as a traffic stop). Encounters are influenced by the citizens' initial expectations
about how the police would behave. They found that when the police's performance
exceeded the citizen's prior expectations, the citizen tended to be more satisfied with how
the officer handled that event. When police performance fell below prior expectations,
then the citizen tended to give police performance lower ratings for that event.

4.6.3 Competence
"Getting the job done right” is another element of acceptable service delivery. It is
difficult to accurately define what competency is, as the expectations of individuals vary
on arbitrary scales from totally dissatisfied to total satisfaction. One person may tolerate
some level of incompetence that may be totally unacceptable to another. Dealing with
complicated issues such as domestic violence and serious road crashes may exacerbate
the perception of competence or incompetence. This is mainly due to the relative large
number of responses (options) that a responding officer may select to exercise.
Interventions that would resolve disputes and not merely postponing conflict would count
as a competent intervention as supposed to the second alternative. Dealing with
neighbourhood disturbances is another example where the wide variety of responses will
be judged upon the long term effects thereof. A person that complains to the police about
late-night noise will be dissatisfied with the police's response (competency) if the noise
continues soon after their departure. Repeated requests to intervene will most definitely
result in a perception that the law enforcement agency is too incompetent to deal with the
issue. The same can be said about a motorist speeding up and down a residential street.
The response time of patrol officers and their ability to apprehend the offending motorist
will have a profound impact on the publics' perception of the police. A complainant could
argue that if the police cannot even deal with such a “minor issue” how will they be able
to respond to more difficult crime issues? On the part of the police such a complaint may
be viewed as insignificant and that they would rather concentrate their attention and
efforts to more important crime problems. This is true, but it must be borne in mind that
in the eyes of the complainant, his/or her problem is paramount. The public do not have
the full picture about crime problems and would then query the police's competence to
render a proper service. Law enforcement officers must therefore be sensitised that their
actions in resolving conflict and the manner in which they deal with complaints have a
profound effect on the perception of the public towards the law enforcement fraternity.
An officer that fails to accurately record the information of the parties involved in a road
crash may strengthen the view that officers are so incompetent that they cannot attend to
even minor law enforcement activities.

4.6.4 Manners
Citizens also want a law enforcement officer to act in a polite, friendly and well- behaved
manner. They must have a good temperament and must treat them well. "Research
suggests that police temperament, politeness and deportment are important contributors
that shape the public image of the police" For instance, Stone and

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Pettigrew (2000) found in their study of police "stop-and-frisk" practices in England that
negative feelings from stops resulted when officers were patronising, arrogant, aggressive
or intimidating. The manner in which a law enforcement officer tells a motorist to get out
a motor vehicle is potentially more damaging to the image of the law enforcement agency
than the instruction itself. The tone of the officer's voice also has an impact on the view
of the motorist towards the officer.

One would expect this to be one of the easiest aspects to remedy in a law enforcement
agency and yet it keeps haunting law enforcement administrators. Complaints about the
officers' conduct often supersede complaints about the merits of an arrest and prosecution.
What do officers expect from an encounter with the public? Must the motorist display a
sense of respect, subordination or what, or should the officer maintain a high degree of
professional conduct even in a 'hostile' encounter? The officer as an agent of the state
should remain calm and collected and should always remain in control of the situation
irrespective of the level of antagonism and verbal abuse from an irate citizen. Although
officers are also just human beings who will react to a situation based on their
predisposition, it is possible to recruit law enforcement officers that display
characteristics that will allow them to subtly take control of any situation however hostile
it may become. These characteristics can also be enhanced through a proper regime of
appropriate training. Police - public relations are further complicated in a highly
heterogeneous society such as South Africa with a history of discrimination and adversity
between races. This should entice law enforcement administrators to invest heavily in the
training of their officers as this would strengthen the objective of a partnership between
the public and the police.

4.6.5 Fairness
This dimension of service quality is the most researched aspect of police processes.
Research has indicated that race has an important effect on perceptions of fairness. Stone
and Pettigrew (2000) found in their British study that "public trust and confidence is
primarily based on being treated fairly and with respect and being given a good reason
for the stop, rather than changes in procedure." Research also consistently indicates that
African Americans express the belief that that they are being treated less fairly than whites
by the police. Younger, low income and single persons have also reported less favourable
views of the police. Superficially it therefore seems as if fairness can be equated to
feelings of discrimination, which naturally evokes a strong sense of discontent and
abhorrence towards the police. Race riots in the USA after individual incidents that
involve patrol officers are not uncommon. The Rodney King incident sparked widespread
race riots in the early nineties that lead to billions of dollars of damage to property.
Complaints of racism in South African law enforcement agencies are also not uncommon
and police administrators must never ignore it when reported to the police. Traffic
enforcement practice in particular can precipitate allegations of selectivity in the
application of the law. Traffic enforcement must be based on a scientific analysis of data
and the reasons for focussing on a specific aspect of the law must be clearly
communicated to patrol officers, who in turn must inform the public of the objectives of
the enforcement actions. We often hear that too much emphasis is placed on speeding
offences and that taxi-drivers are ignored. The selection of sites where officers conduct
speed enforcement often becomes a bone of contention.

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Do first-line supervisors select these sites based on a thorough analysis of crash data or
not? There is also a very fine distinction between discrimination and the use of
discretion.13

Officers must take into account that fairness is a very subjective issue that is almost
always based on the personal experience of an individual and accentuated by second hand
information from relatives, friends and colleagues. Prejudices are preconceived attitudes,
beliefs or opinions. A person can have both positive and negative prejudices. The largest
component of prejudices is based on race/ethnicity and gender, although there are a
multitude of other issues that can precipitate a prejudice homosexuality (sexual
orientation) etc. Discrimination starts when a person reacts on the basis of such a
prejudice. Incidents of discrimination can contaminate a whole department, particularly
if it becomes institutionalised. Discriminatory practices can be passive, (failure to act) or
active, (over-react). It can also occur within a department, i.e. amongst the members of
the law enforcement agency or externally, i.e. towards non-members of the agency.
“Koenig (1978) found that the strongest declines in evaluation of the police were seen
among those who had experienced, or personally observed, what they perceived to be
improper field practices i.e. during atrol operations:-

 Impolite or rude treatment;

 Unfair treatment;
 Unfair treatment when arrested or suspected of a crime;
 Physical mistreatment;
 Police cover up for colleagues;
 Taking sides in an argument, etc.

4.6.6 Integrity
Police integrity and corruption are synonymous. Police agencies have since the
emergence of modern policing, been plagued by corruption and the abuse of power.
Policing is a highly discretionary, coercive activity that routinely takes place in discreet
surroundings, out of sight of supervisors. (Clockars, et.al. 2000) They continue as
follows:-

"Corruption the abuse of police authority for gain is one type of misconduct (crime) that
has been particularly problematic. The difficulties of controlling corruption can be traced
to several factors: the reluctance of police officers to report corrupt activities by fellow
officers, ("The Code, Code of Silence or The Blue Curtain"), the reluctance of police
administrators to acknowledge the existence of corruption in their agencies, the benefits
of the typical corrupt transaction to the parties involved, and the lack of immediate victims
to report corruption. Goldstein cited that contemporary theories of corruption are based
on four organizational and occupational dimensions. These dimensions will now be
discussed in more detail.

4.6.6.1 Organisational rules

This dimension deals with how the law enforcement agency establishes and
communicates its rules that govern corruption and also how all officers understand it.

_________________________
13
Many law enforcement officers cannot distinguish between the concepts - discrimination and discretion

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The decentralised system of policing in South Africa makes it difficult to establish a
uniform set of rules, and it vastly differs from one agency to the other. This is
particularly true for marginally corrupt or "mala prohibitia" behaviour, such as off- duty
employment, the acceptance of favours, small gifts, free meals or discounts. Many
agencies prohibit this type of behaviour officially, but unofficially it is tolerated as long
as it is within acceptable parameters. Unofficial tolerance of these practices creates
many subsidiary problems as the parameters then become vague and any subsequent
disciplinary steps will be severely challenged. The level of tolerance will differ among
supervisors. The Independent Complaints Directorate (ICD) that has been established to
investigate complaints against members of the South African Police Service and
Metropolitan Police Departments. It does not have the authority to investigate
complaints against members of traffic departments and provincial traffic departments. If
these departments fail to establish the required systems to monitor and to investigate
complaints against members of their departments, then a vacuum is created for police
malpractice to flourish. The South African Police have the power to investigate charges
of corruption against members of these agencies, but due to a heavy workload and the
fact that these officers often know each other make successful prosecution of reported
cases highly unlikely.

4.6.6.2 Prevention and control measures

This dimension focuses on the array of control mechanisms that are put into place to
prevent and control corruption. It focuses on training and education in ethics, proactive
and reactive investigation of complaints received by the agency, internally as well as
externally, whistle-blowing procedures, etc. It may also include integrity testing prior to
appointment, and deterrence through a vigorous regime of prosecution of offenders.
Larger agencies have specialised units that specifically concentrate on these
investigations - such as an Internal Affairs Unit.

4.6.6.3 The Code

This third dimension deals with the institutional culture of policing. The department
must encourage a culture that will break down the 'blue curtain effect' which
discourages officers from reporting their colleagues who contravene the rules of the
agency. The 'blue curtain effect' can differ vastly between different agencies, but also
between different units, precincts etc. within the larger agencies. There must be a
common understanding between the supervisors in the agency as to what is acceptable
and what not!

4.6.6.4 Public expectations

The fourth dimension of police corruption deals with the social; economic and political
environments in which police agencies operate. Some communities will be more
tolerant of corrupt police practices than others. There are also different perceptions
among different sectors of society. Taxi drivers may have a very tolerant perception as
it favours them to offer bribes to patrol officers to let them "off-the- hook" as the bribe's
monetary value is far less than the official sanction (fine). When fines are increased to
unacceptably high levels, the incentive to bribe officers becomes more advantageous to
them. We all heard the rumour that many drivers nowadays keep a banknote in their
I.D.- document and hand this over to police officers when they are stopped for an
alleged offence. Some motorists view this practise as a financial transaction and the
lesser amount that they have to pay - the more they score. The introduction of the
demerit point system; part of the anticipated

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Administrative Adjudication of Road Traffic Offences Act (AARTO) may have a
compounding effect on the level of corruption amongst law enforcement officers.

4.7 The role of supervision in corruption

Police supervisors have an important role to play in their efforts to minimise corrupt
police practices. They must be vigilant and pay attention to any rumour regarding officers
under their command, and if it is warranted, request the investigating unit to probe the
matter. Supervisors can also implement administrative monitoring mechanisms to
indicate possible errant behaviour.

4.8 Early warning systems

An early warning system should be introduced in every law enforcement agency to
supplement performance reviews and productivity measurement policies. Such an early
warning system should identify those officers whose performance and behaviour becomes
problematic. An early warning system can only succeed if first-line supervisors have the
time and the resources to do their jobs in a proactive and professional manner. Senior
management should hold supervisors accountable for any pattern of misconduct. A
threshold number of complaints should serve as a trigger to initiate an administrative
review of a supervisor, just as it does for an officer. Officers should be transfeed and
supervisors rotated in their assignments with greater frequency. The need for expertise in
specialised units should be balanced with the possibility of problems if a supervisor stays
to long in a specific unit. Law enforcement agencies should have policies that govern
rotation within there departments. No incumbent should be appointed in a specific unit or
division for life. This is a recipe for problems.

4.9 Ethical Leaders

An ethical leader is one who possesses a philosophical moral foundation upon which
decisions and behaviour are based. An ethical leader is trustworthy and possesses good
character, competence, and commitment. No person is perfect, but a ethical leader will be
able to inspire others to a shared vision of morality and standards of police conduct that
will be beyond reproach. The test whether this is achieved will nestle within the midst of
the leaders, peers, subordinates and the public. An unethical leader is deceitful, often
denies that they have any knowledge, and withholds information followers need, use
information for personal benefit only, violate the rights of others, and release information
to the wrong people. Unethical leaders often act in an egotistical and arrogant manner.
(Ortmeier and Meese, 2004) They often hide their unethical actions by an aggressive
approach to any person that they perceive might challenge or expose them. They believe
in the adage that "attack is the best defence." Law enforcement officers of all ranks
perform as leaders in society and must therefore be seen to be ethical leaders. Vernon
stated that when you become a police officer, you must accept the mantle of leadership
that comes with the job, regardless of rank" (Bennet and Hess. 2007) Patrol officers have
the most direct contact with the citizenry and their conduct is scrutinised on a continuous
basis. They have to develop skills that will instil confidence in the minds of their clientele.
Corrupt police practices erode the confidence of the clientele in the police. Policing in
general is perceived as one of the top occupations insofar as corruption is concerned.
Traffic policing practices are often seen as the most susceptible component of corruption
in policing institutions.

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4.10 Conclusion
It is important for every law enforcement agency to put in place systems that will improve
the public image of the police. Firstly, a corrupt police system may affect the confidence
that investors have and may thus influence their decision to invest in an area or country.
Police partnerships may become strained if the police's image deteriorates. Another
consequence is that the public may become uncooperative and withhold important
information on crime. This will make police work much more challenging. More police
cases will fail the tests of the judicial system due to the unwillingness of the public to
become involved, provide information and to testify in court on behalf of the prosecution.

In severe cases i.e. where the public has lost all confidence in the police it may result in
protests and even violence. Such protests can precipitate the establishment of
commissions of enquiry and internal review procedures. In the case of metropolitan police
departments, the MEC and the Commissioner of the South African Police Services have
wide ranging powers to take charge of the administration of such departments and to
investigate and implement reform measures to remedy structural and operational
deficiencies. The institutionalisation of corruption for instance may severely impact on
the morale of the officers in a department and may lead to the emergence of strong “mafia-
like" groupings that have an influence over large sections of the law enforcement agency.
This may make control by police administrators virtually impossible. A tainted police
image will also strain the relationship between police administrators and their political
structures, as politicians are in close contact with their constituencies. Rumours about
police misconduct, corrupt practices, maladministration, etc. always reach the ears of
politicians. Police administrators must therefore implement proactive measures to
improve the image of the law enforcement agency and to vigorously deal with deviant
behaviour.

What is important to remember is that deviant behaviour tends to spread very fast in an
agency where internal control mechanisms are weak. To establish clean administration
and a favourable public image of the police is a long and arduous process that can take
years to accomplish. This however can be achieved by a dedication to establish
professionalism in law enforcement.

It is difficult to say what the threshold is where the public's image of the police becomes
severely tainted, but in the USA it is said that when around 20 – 25 percent of the
community identifies themselves as victims of the police, then a police administrator
should become very uncomfortable with the situation in his department. At this level one
can also assume that the chief has lost effective control of his agency.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 5

LEADERSHIP IN TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES

After you have completed this unit you should be able to:-
 List and analyse various leadership styles.
 Differentiate between leadership styles.
 List the traits required to improve a persons' leadership skills.
 Explain the importance of power versus authority.
 Indicate good police deployment tactics.
 Discuss the issues that constitute the optimal utilisation of police resources.
 Differentiate between management and leadership.

5.1 Introduction
The deployment and supervision of (traffic) law enforcement officers probably form the
single most important aspect of traffic police work, and yet in many instances it is totally
neglected. Law enforcement supervisors, especially first-line supervisors have the
responsibility to ensure that the human and other resources of the law enforcement agency
is utilised optimally. It is not acceptable to merely take roll call and then to allow officers
to depart on patrol without a properly structured plan that is goal-driven. In the scenario
sketched above, it can be expected that patrol officers will develop their own 'patrol'
strategies, which may or may not coincide with that of the law enforcement agency. They
will in many instances keep a low profile, engage in activities that are not conducive to
good police work, ensure that their prosecution activities are of such a nature that it
merely satisfies the requirements expected by the supervisor, or agency and will depart
from their patrol routes to engage in inappropriate activities. The control and supervision
of traffic patrol officers is at the best of times difficult as they are spread-out over a large
geographical area. Supervisors have to devise innovative strategies to ensure that they
instil a sense that they are fully in control of everything that occurs in a specific precinct
area. This Chapter will interrogate some of the measures that can be implemented by
supervisors to affect proper control over patrol officers.

Leadership can be defined as: a trait, the focus of group process, the art of inducing
compliance, and exercise of influence, a kind of behaviour or act, a form of persuasion, a
power relationship, a facilitator for goal attainment etc. (Ortmeier and Meese, 2004, p.
41) Leadership is a power relationship because leaders are in positions of power.¹4 There
is also a distinct difference between managing and leadership. In a study conducted by
Drucker in the Los Angelis Police Department he cited "You police are so concerned with
doing things right that you fail to do the right things"14

_____________________
14
See section 5.5.2

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In other words managers do the things right and leaders do the right things" (Bennet,
W.W. and Hess, K.M. 2007) Managers focus on tasks and leaders focus on people. Things
are managed and people are lead!

5.2 Leadership
Leadership style will be used synonymously with supervisory style. The supervisory style
of the first-line supervisor has a distinct influence on subordinates. The moment that the
patrol officer leaves the precinct station, the impact of the supervisor has an enduring
(halo) effect on the officer. A shift supervisor's style therefore has a profound effect on
patrol officer behaviour. That's particularly true of the 'active' style of supervision. But
let us first examine the traditional categorization of leadership styles. They are as
follows:-
 Autocratic;
 Bureaucratic;
 Laissez-faire and;
 Democratic.

5.2.1 Autocratic leadership style

This is often considered the classical approach. Here the law enforcement supervisor
retains as much decision-making authority as possible. The supervisor will most probably
not consult with subordinates, nor will they be given any opportunity to provide input.
Law enforcement officers are expected to obey without receiving any explanations.
Creating a structured set of rewards and punishments produces motivation. This
leadership style (often found in military and quasi-military environments such as law
enforcement agencies) has been the subject of criticism over the past 30 years or so.
Organisations with many autocratic leaders have higher staff turnover and absenteeism
rates than other organisations.

Autocratic supervisors:-

 rely on threats and punishment to influence subordinates;

 do not trust their officers and;
 do not allow for their input.

However, there are times when this type of supervision is more effective such as:-

 for new recruits who do not know what to do or which procedures to follow;
 effective supervision where detailed orders and instructions have to be followed;
 where employees do not respond appropriately to other forms of supervision;
 when there is limited time to make a decision;
 when an employee challenges a supervisor's authority;
 when operations are coordinated with other institutions.

This supervisory style should be avoided when:-

 officers become fearful, tense or resentful;

 officers expect their opinions to be heard;
 officers depend on the supervisor to make every decision and;

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  when there is low morale, high turnover and absenteeism or a decline in
productivity or work stoppages.

This leadership style has limited benefits, but in a law enforcement environment it may
often be useful to act in an autocratic manner. This however, must be restricted to specific
events that require such an approach. Many law enforcement supervisors display traits of
a split personality disorder when they are in uniform compared to when not.

5.2.2 Bureaucratic leadership style

The bureaucratic supervisor manages strictly according to "The Book." Everything must
be done according to the rules, procedures and policies of the law enforcement agency.
In reality, this leader is more police officer than leader. This style of leadership can be
effective in certain instances such as:-

 when officers are performing routine tasks over and over;

 when officers need to understand certain standards or operating procedures;
 when officers are working with dangerous or delicate equipment that requires a
specific set of rules to operate;
 when officers are undergoing training i.e. fire arm training.

This supervisory style becomes dysfunctional when:-

 officers lose interest in their jobs;

 officers start to do only the bare minimum of what is expected from them.

Traffic law enforcement patrols may become very monotonous if law enforcement
supervisors fail to introduce innovative ideas for implementation. The job of a traffic law
enforcement supervisor is very demanding and can be highly interesting. There is thus no
need to do everything exactly according to the book, but deviant behaviour by law
enforcement officers should not be tolerated.

5.2.3 Democratic leadership style

Democratic leaders are also referred to as participative leaders as they encourage the law
enforcement officers under their command to become part of the decision-making
process. This type of leader keeps his subordinates well informed about everything that
affects their work and shares decision making and problem-solving responsibilities with
them. This leader gathers information and suggestions from the subordinates before
making a final decision. Democratic supervisors are capable of delivering high quality
and high quantity work for long periods of time. Subordinates prefer the trust placed in
them and respond with cooperation, team spirit, and high morale.

This leadership style allows for:-

 officers to evaluate their own performance;

 officers to establish goals;
 officers to grow on the job and prepare them for promotion;
 recognition and encourages achievement.

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This leadership style is most effective when:-

 the supervisor wants to keep officers informed about matters that affect them;
 the supervisor needs input from his/her subordinates before making decisions that
affect them directly;
 there is a large or complex issue that requires lots of input from officers;
 changes have to be made that affect the officers;
 the supervisor wants to encourage team building and participation.

This leadership style is not recommended when:-

 there is not sufficient time to obtain everyone's input;

 it is easier and more cost effective for the supervisor to make the decision;
 mistakes and experimentation cannot be afforded;
 the supervisor feels threatened by this type of management style;
 officer safety is of critical importance.

This leadership style is recommended in a traffic law enforcement environment as it

develops astute officers that can think independently, but with responsibility. There are a
multitude of challenges that face traffic law enforcement officers daily and they have to
develop the required skills to react responsibly to such a divergent range of challenges. It
is however advisable for the supervisors to develop the skills of their subordinates over
time and they have to monitor how the subordinates develop and use the opportunities
available to them.

5.2.4 Laissez-faire leadership style

This leadership style is also known as the "hands-off" style. Here the supervisor provides
little or no direction and gives law enforcement officers as much freedom as possible.
The supervisors' authority is handed over to the officers under his command and he
expects from them to determine goals, make decisions, and resolve problems on their
own. Often these supervisors relinquish their responsibilities due to their incompetence.

This style is effective when:-

 officers are highly skilled, experienced, and educated;

 officers have pride in their work;
 officers are trustworthy and experienced;

This style is inappropriate when:-

 officers feel insecure about the non-availability of the supervisor;

 regular feedback is needed to officers to check on their attainment of goals and
objectives;
 the supervisor does not grasp the gravity of a situation that requires decision
making.

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5.3 Alternative approach to leadership styles
There are of course many other categories that distinguish between different leadership
styles. An interesting categorisation is that of Hybels (2002) which has been adapted to
fit in with a law enforcement environment. The following reflects the adaptation of his
view of leadership styles.

5.3.1 Visionary leadership style

This leader has a crystal clear picture in his mind of what the future holds. The leader
casts powerful visions and has enthusiasm for turning those visions into reality. They
shamelessly appeal to anybody and everybody to get on board with their vision. They are
not easily discouraged or deterred. They respond to opposition by digging in their heels
and raising their voices even louder. They can inspire their "troops" They may or may not
have the required skills to put a plan together, to set goals, or manage a process towards
achieving their vision, but will find others to assist them to reach their goals. It is often
these leaders that surround them with other "strong" leaders to support them. They are
successful if they manage to identify the real issues that affect the incidence of crime and
road crashes within their respective areas of responsibility.

5.3.2 Directional leadership style

This leader's strength is an uncanny ability to choose the correct path for the agency as it
approaches a critical intersection. A critical intersection is that point when the agency
starts asking; should we stay on the same course or is it time for fundamental change?
They constantly ask themselves questions about the way forward. Even in the face of
insurmountable obstacles they will find a route through all the obstacles. These leaders
can carefully assess the values of the organisation, the mission, the strengths, and his
followers' openness to change. With remarkable wisdom, the directional leader will point
the organisation in the right direction. Law enforcement supervisors with these leadership
traits will continuously scan their environment to ascertain what is required at a particular
point in time. They often react positively to criticism in the media and re-direct their
subordinates to a satisfactory outcome. For instance, if they find that there are roads
within their precinct areas that are congested during peak hours; investigate a range of
variables to minimise the impact of the congestion.

5.3.3 Strategic leadership style

Strategic leaders have the ability to take an existing vision (goal) and break it down into
a series of sequential, achievable steps. The advantage of this leadership style is to move
intentionally toward the actualisation of goals and objectives. The vision, mission, goals
and objectives of an agency may inspire officers, and may compel them into action, but
unless they see progress towards the fulfilment thereof, they will conclude that the leader
is purely dreaming and their morale will plummet. Strategically orientated leaders form
a "game plan" that everybody can understand and participate in. They then challenge their
subordinates to "work the plan" In other words -- they plan to work and then work the
plan. They assist their subordinates to realise the plan in incremental steps until the plan
eventually leads to the actualisation of the vision. They also have the ability to align all
the sub-groups of the organisation and focus their energy towards realising what they
have set out to achieve.

5.3.4 Managing leadership style

The term “managing leader" is an oxymoron. This is based on a review of what managers
do and what leaders do. It is said that “leaders” do the right things, while

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"managers" do the things right. These leaders salivate at the thought of bringing order out
of chaos. They find deep satisfaction in monitoring and fine-tuning a process and then
motivate officers by establishing appropriate markers on the road to the destination. It is
surprising how many visionary leaders are inept at managing people, processes and
money.

It's also surprising how many directional and strategic leaders are incapable of actually
putting the officers and resources in place to achieve the goals of the organisation.
Managing leaders seldom captivate attention as the afore-mentioned leaders, but in the
day-to-day world, someone has to manage people and resources to move the organisation
towards its goals. This is the world of the managing leader!

5.3.5 Motivational leadership style

Motivational leaders have the ability to keep their subordinates "fired-up" They are
constantly looking out for "sagging shoulders and dull eyes” They react quickly to inject
the right kind of inspiration into those officers who need it most. They also have a keen
sense about who needs official recognition and who needs just a private word of
encouragement. They seem tow exactly when an officer would get the necessary boost
from a day off, an office move or a training opportunity. It is sometimes argued that these
leaders are in the lightweight division, but it would be a mistake to underestimate the
value of this style. Hybels cited that he'd be glad to have a lower-voltage vision caster, an
occasional bad call at an “intersection, or a periodic lapse of managerial effectiveness, if
his leader consistently fires him up, get the best out of him, celebrate his accomplishments
and inform him that his contribution was important to the cause. He would follow such a
leader to the grave. Motivational leaders don't get bitter or vengeful when morale dips.
They view it as an opportunity to dream of new ways to inspire and lift the spirits of
everybody in the team.

5.3.6 Team-building leadership style

These leaders know the vision and understand how to achieve it, but they also realise that
to accomplish it, will take a team of leaders and workers. Team-builders have a
supernatural insight into people that allows them to successfully find and develop the
right people with the right abilities, the right character and the right chemistry with other
team members. They then know how to put these officers in the right positions for the
right reasons, thus freeing them to produce the right results. After the appropriate people
have been placed in the appropriate positions, the team-builder leader says to the team: -
“You know what we're trying to do. You know what part of the mission you're responsible
for. So head out and get on with it. Work hard, communicate, create action and get the
job done!" The unique strength of team- builder leaders is that they have a stranglehold
on the strategy and an acute insight into people that allows them to deploy officers into
critical roles. They may or may not have good managerial skills, but believe that if the
right people are doing the right things for the right reasons, these people will accomplish
their goals, irrespective whether someone is looking over their shoulders.

5.3.7 Entrepreneurial leadership style

Entrepreneurial leaders may possess any of the elements of the above-mentioned
leadership styles, but what distinguishes them from the others is that they function best
from start-up mode. They constantly look for new things to do, or otherwise they lose
their energy. Once a project is up and operational, things normally get more

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complicated and require endless discussions about policies, systems, control mechanisms
etc. then these leaders lose their enthusiasm, focus and even confidence. They may feel
guilty at abandoning the project, but their urge to start with something new, overshadows
their feelings of guilt.

5.3.8 Re-engineering leadership style

Whereas entrepreneurial leaders thrive on new endeavours, re-engineering leaders
perform best by fixing up troubled organisations (Units). They love to fix situations where
officers are in the wrong units, where there are no goals and objectives and to turn it
around. They always argue - this must be my lucky day, I can fix this mess. They are
normally good in uncovering the original mission, strategies and values. They repeatedly
meet with officers to help them figure out where the "old" went wrong and what the "new"
should look like. They love to patch up, tune up and revitalise ineffective agencies, but
when things run smoothly again they do not remain motivated to stay on.

5.3.9 Bridge-building leadership style

These leaders have the ability to unite a wide range of constituent groups under their
leadership umbrella. This enables complex organisations to stay focussed on a single
mission. They are very flexible and have the ability to be very flexible, to compromise
and to negotiate. They are specially gifted to listen, to understand, and to think outside of
the "box". They have the ability to unite employees, and to deal effectively with group
dynamics. Bridge-builders are most energized when facing the challenge of drawing
together and meeting the needs of varied constituents. Under their leadership an
organisation can have huge impact, and the officers motivated.

5.4 Synopsis
There are strong points as well as negative points to every leadership style discussed
above. It can be argued that in a law enforcement agency, there is a need for almost every
type of leadership style. The functions performed by law enforcement agencies vary
considerably and in the larger institutions the issues raised in the discussion, all occur in
different degrees. What is important is that you will see where you fit in and what you
need to do to become a better leader. There is no perfect leader, but if you build on your
strong points and minimise your weak traits, you will become an effective leader that will
contribute to the success of your chosen career. Your leadership style will undoubtedly
have an impact on the performance of the officers under your command. By studying
leadership styles you can attempt to understand your own weaknesses that in turn should
inspire you to improve yourself. Many police supervisors are promoted to higher
positions based on their success achieved thus far, but when in a higher position of
authority, may not necessarily remain that highly competent officer. Supervision at every
level of the organisation requires new skills and knowledge. A successful law
enforcement practitioner may not necessarily be a successful leader (supervisor).

The USA Department of Justice has researched the question how police supervisory styles
influence patrol officer behaviour. The following section deals primarily with this issue.
Frontline (first-line) supervisory styles influence patrol officer behaviour, such as making
arrests, issuing citations (tickets) using force and engaging in community policing
activities. Four different supervisory styles have been identified:-

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  Traditional supervisory style;
 Innovative supervisory style;
 Supportive supervisory style and the;
 Active supervisory style.

5.4.1 Traditional style supervisors

The traditional style of leadership generally expects aggressive enforcement from
subordinates rather than engagement in community-oriented activities or the policing of
minor disorders. They tend to take decisions because they want to take over encounters
with citizens or they tell the officer(s) how to handle an incident. They are highly task-
oriented and expect subordinates to produce measurable outcomes particularly arrests and
citations - along with paperwork and documentation. They are less inclined toward
developing relationships, give more detailed instructions and are more inclined to punish
their subordinates than to reward them. Their ultimate concern is to control their
subordinates' behaviour. They also tend to support those policing initiatives that are
consistent with aggressive law enforcement. They overwhelmingly agree that enforcing
the law is by far a patrol officers' responsibility, compared to innovative supervisors who
place law enforcement as a low priority. They enforce rules and regulations strictly and
adhere to the chain of command.

5.4.2 Innovative supervisors

Innovative supervisors are characterised by a tendency to form relationships, a low level
of task orientation, and have a more positive view of subordinates. They prefer to
encourage their officers to embrace new philosophies and methods of policing. These
supervisors strongly feel that "a good patrol officer will try to find out what residents
think the neighbourhood problems are". They assist their subordinates to implement
community policing and associated problem solving strategies by coaching, mentoring
and facilitating. They are not as concerned with the enforcement of laws as traditional
supervisors are. They inform subordinates how to deal with problems and will not get
involved themselves. In other words they delegate decision- making to subordinates.

5.4.3 Supportive supervisors

Supportive supervisors protect their subordinates from discipline or punishment that is
perceived as unfair. They often serve as a buffer between management and protect
officers from criticism and discipline. They give their subordinates space to perform their
duties without the fear of disciplinary action. This style of supervision can lead to police
misconduct. They are also less concerned with enforcing the law, rules and regulations
and dealing with paperwork. They may encourage their officers through praise and
recognition, act as councillors, or display concern for subordinates' personal and
professional well being.

5.4.4 Active supervisors

Active supervisors embrace a philosophy of leading by example. Their goal is to get
involved with everything alongside their subordinates. They control their subordinates by
being with them and thus perform the function of patrol officer as well as supervisor.
These supervisors spend more time on patrol than the other supervisory categories. They
attempt to strike a balance between being active in the field and controlling subordinate
behaviour through constant direct supervision. They may

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think that they have considerable influence over their subordinates, but they are less likely
to encourage team building, coaching, or mentoring.

It is important for first line supervisors to be aware of the fact that their style of
supervision has a direct influence on the effectiveness and efficiency of the law
enforcement agency in general.

5.5 The impact of supervisory style on other issues

Leadership style has a profound effect on a number of other issues. Despite this some
issues in a law enforcement agency are of critical importance to ensure its long term
viability and success.

5.5.1 Discipline
Discipline in a law enforcement agency is of utmost importance and law enforcement
supervisors have a primary responsibility to ensure that high levels of discipline are
maintained. They too must be highly disciplined and must set an example to their
subordinates. The sound principles governing discipline must at all times be adhered to.
They have to be mindful of the different styles of discipline, how to inculcate discipline
and must have a thorough knowledge of the agency's internal disciplinary processes.

Discipline starts with self-discipline. The supervisor must set an exemplary example
insofar as discipline is concerned. They have to obey all the rules, policies and procedures
of the law enforcement agency. They must display superiority in terms of knowledge of
these rules etc. as well as their knowledge of general police functions. To this end, they
have to stay abreast of all that is happening in the organisation, the direction that it has
taken and the goals and objectives that it wants to achieve.

5.5.2 Power versus authority

Coercive, reward, and legitimate powers are linked to rank. Expert and referent powers
are linked to individuals. Coercive power is based on penalties, reward power depends on
the ability to deliver something of value, and legitimate powers are linked to position of
rank. Knowledge, education, credentials and skills build expert power. Subordinates are
more satisfied and productive when their leaders rely on expert and referent power.15
(Johnson in Ortmeier and Meese, 2004)

There is a distinctive difference between the terms; power and authority, and to be a
successful supervisor it is useful to fully understand the difference between the two terms.
Authority is the legal sanction, or rank bestowed upon an individual, normally by means
of a promotion to a higher position within the rank structure of the agency. This allows
the person (supervisor) to assume certain responsibilities and to make certain decisions.
In law enforcement the first-line supervisor will be entitled to deploy his subordinates, to
give them specific tasks and to generally monitor that it be executed. This authority comes
with the rank that the supervisor wears. Officers who fail to comply with the supervisors'
instructions become susceptible to disciplinary action. Power on the other hand can in
this context be seen as the knowledge that an

___________________
15
Ortmeier and Meese, 2004, provide a comprehensive overview of the concepts and dynamics of
leadership.

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employee has. A person with a rank lower than his superior officer(s) also has the
potential to exert more influence on his peers and even higher-ranking officers.

 Authority can be described as having the power or the right to do something, or

having the right to require others to do it. It can be used either positively or
negatively;

 Power means the ability to do something. Power over something is the ability to
make others do something. It can be used positively or negatively;

 Leadership is the ability to inspire and influence people, and develop their
confidence, so that they want to carry out necessary tasks;

 Responsibility means being obliged to do something. Taking responsibility means

doing something even if one does not have responsibility for it;

 Accountability means being answerable to those who give authority or

responsibility.

5.5.3 Good and bad managers

The difference between good and bad managers can be categorised into a number of traits.

5.5.3.1 Good managers

The "good manager" will:-

 help individuals and groups identify with goals, objectives and priorities and
develop action plans to achieve them;
 consult, listen, learn and share;
 take responsibility, make decisions and get things done;
 are firm but not rigid, and understanding but not soft;
 manage their time and energy effectively;
 delegate responsibility;
 trust people to get on with their work, and them support without being intrusive;
 are appreciative when people produce good work, and constructive when they do
not;
 inspire confidence in themselves, in the management process and the organisation.

5.5.3.2 Bad managers

A bad manager will:-

 abdicate responsibility and are indecisive, unreliable and uninformed;

 undermine and obstruct other people;
 will not consult, listen, learn or share;
 make judgements about people based on stereotypes and prejudices;
 create a "blame culture" so people are not encouraged to admit and learn from
their mistakes;

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  generate a lack of confidence in them, management and in the organisation
(Adirondack, S. 1998)

Unfortunately we have in law enforcement agencies too many first-line supervisors that
do not appreciate the important role that they play in the success or failure of the
organisation.

They also, in many instances, do not understand the basic rules of supervision and
leadership and the effect that they have on the performance of their subordinates. In a
policing milieu, it is expected from supervisors to interact in a peculiar way with fellow
officers to get the best possible performance out of them. They are constantly in the "firing
line" either from hardened criminals, the general public, colleagues or from their
supervisors. They have to balance a wide array of interests, ranging from service delivery
to arrests, even the lawful killing of persons, to the normal administrative duties
associated with the police function. An unforgiving clientele often humiliates them. They
often attend scenes where people have been wounded or injured, children have been
abused etc. and all of these play a debilitating effect on the emotions of an officer and
supervisors must sensitised to look for tell-tale signs that an officer is under duress. They
have an important role to ensure that officers experience a reasonable degree of job
satisfaction. Issues such as marginalisation, alienation etc. must be on the mind of a
successful supervisor.

It is in this context that we have to view the difference between authority and power as
was described above. A successful supervisor will have both authority and power.
Authority is delegated to the supervisor by the organisation, but power is something that
they acquire through a thorough understanding of human conduct and a superior
knowledge of law enforcement work. A supervisor that merely relies on his authority to
get the work done may have short-term success, particularly in the face of a crisis, but a
supervisor that wants to ensure long-term success must amass both authority and power.

5.5.4 Job satisfaction

Supervisors have a primary responsibility to ensure that officers under their command
experience the highest level of job satisfaction possible. This by itself is a daunting task
considering the nature of the police function. Police officers experience high levels of
stress. The effects of post-traumatic stress syndrome and a high incidence of alcohol
abuse coupled with marital problems make the police function a complicated milieu.

"The extent to which police officers find satisfaction in their work is a prickly issue. On
the surface, law enforcement and job satisfaction appear to be mutually exclusive. It is
hard to imagine officers deriving a sense of achievement and accomplishment from being
witness to avarice, violence, brutality, and perfidy. In reality “...what may appear
shocking, horrifying, or revolting to a lay person may be only technical problems to the
police officer." The repulsive incidents "...apparent to a lay person's eye are less important
to police officers due to their organizational membership and consequent perception of
these events as an everyday aspect of their job" (Trojanovicz. R.C. & Banas, D.W. 1985)

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Police officers over time develop a “shield” around them that diminishes these effects and
thus making it more palatable and casting them in positive terms. They often experience
feelings of guilt, but they also become more determined to ensure that those who are
responsible can be held accountable. Even hardened officers at times state that a particular
incident has had a major emotional effect on them. This is particularly true in the case of
murders, abuse of children and horrifying crash scenes.

They thus find fulfilment from converting emotional experiences into a quest to render a
service to the public. They assist, comfort and contribute to remedy a situation that affects
family members.

Apart from these external influences, there is a wide array of internal influences that may
negatively affect the officer. This is the arena where the supervisor can play a
distinguished role i.e. to assist in making the work of the law enforcement officer more
satisfying and rewarding. "As one delves more deeply into the various factors that shape
police functioning, one finds that laws, public expectations, and the realities of the tasks
in which police are engaged in require all kinds of compromises and often place the police
in a no-win situation". "Social schizophrenia aside, the degree to which police are
integrated into or alienated from the communities they serve is an important element of
job satisfaction. The police officer “... is frequently in an adversarial relationship with his
public. Unlike firemen...the policeman in the routine case is often (though not always)
dealing with his clientele as an antagonist; he issues fines, makes arrests, conduct
inquiries, searches homes, stop cars, testifies in court, etc." If the communities perceive
the police as entirely alien beings, uninitiated into the secrets of normative behaviour and
territoriality, the exercising of the law enforcement role becomes difficult and onerous.

In a study by Caplan (1981) of 23 occupations; he found that job satisfaction was most
strongly influenced by the following factors:-

 Underutilisation of skills and abilities;

 Simple and repetitive work;
 Little participation in decision-making processes;
 Job insecurity;
 Limited mobility;
 Inadequate social support from immediate superiors and colleagues.

"How subordinates view their supervisor is important in a police agency, for it has a major
influence upon morale. In one study after another, the administration, management and
supervision of police agencies have emerged as critical variables contributing to the
overall level of satisfaction. One researcher reported that officers, otherwise content with
and comfortable in their role, bitterly accused police leadership... as being unfair, rigid,
and archaic." (Trojanowicz R.C. & Banas D.W. 1985)

Supervisors have a responsibility to continuously scan the working environment of the

officers under their command and to identify the factors; particularly those within the
internal organisational milieu and then to seek remedies that will ensure officers are
relatively satisfied with their working conditions. Keep in mind the factors listed above
and ensure that they are minimised as far as possible. Discuss the working

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environment with your subordinates and implement variety and challenging tasks that
require higher order cognitive thinking from them. Law enforcement supervisors also
have the responsibility to contribute to the development and implementation of a system
that monitors performance and productivity. The internal environment requires from
officers to excel in terms of certain identifiable productivity measures such as prosecution
rates, arrests, crashes investigated etc. A greater emphasis on community policing will
have an impact on the measures introduced.

Measuring performance requires cognitive thinking, as many aspects of community

policing are "grey" and not easily identifiable. The use of discretion and autonomy in
police work should be encouraged but how to monitor these aspects remains a thorny
issue.

It has become "fashionable" for officers to downplay citation and arrests rates against
their perceived community policing roles. When confronted about low prosecution rates,
officers often reply that they were involved in crime prevention activities, such as patrol
and visibility. This may be true to some extent, but to strike a healthy balance between
the more traditional measures of productivity and the greater emphasis on community and
problem-oriented policing will remain a debatable issue for some time.

Law enforcement agencies must guard against any invitation to increase speed
prosecutions by automated enforcement practices to improve production rates and to
ignore arrest and citation ratios of individual patrol officers. The setting of minimum
targets also is counterproductive and can easily become a breeding ground for media
frenzies. The setting of arbitrary minimum quotas' by law enforcement agencies is
prohibited in legislation in many states in the USA.

It is also noteworthy for supervisors to note that not all officers have the same
observational skills and "instinct" i.e. to identify offences and criminal activity. To
establish general minimum criteria places immense pressure on these so-called non-
performing officers. Training in a variety of aspects may improve production rates, but it
remains a fact that not all officers can produce the spectacular results of some of their
peers. This does not mean that these officers are under-performing; it merely indicates
that they could be deployed in roles and in units that have a greater responsibility for
educational and social crime prevention objectives.

5.5.5 Optimal utilisation of resources

Supervisors have a responsibility to ensure that all the resources made available for the
patrol function, are utilised as effectively and efficiently as possible. This includes human
resources, assets, consumables etc. First-line supervisors are the closest to the level where
these resources are deployed and they have to assume the responsibility to closely monitor
that the community (who funds law enforcement) get value for money. The policing
function, although monies are derived from a variety of sources, is principally a function
that is funded from rates and taxes, and also cross-subsidised by commercial services,
such as the distribution of water and electricity. Very few, if any, law enforcement
agencies in South Africa generate sufficient funds from traffic citations to be self-
sustainable. Policing is thus a consumer of finances and not a generator of funds. Income
generation should not be seen as the primary reason for

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the rendering of a traffic policing service. If we then accept that law enforcement agencies
are reliant on external funding, it places an additional burden on them to ensure that they
spend it wisely and closely monitor that officers understand that they must be careful
when using it. Any traffic law enforcement supervisor will tell you that they still have
officers who do not have the slightest respect for patrol vehicles and that they are more
involved in motor crashes than other government departments. They may argue - yes this
could be true but remember that we have to pursue other vehicles at high speed; we have
to exceed the speed limits to respond to calls for service, etc. This is correct, but a counter
argument will be that they should be trained to such a level that they can still operate
patrol vehicles safely at high speeds and with due care to the safety of other road users. It
is expected from officers to have more advanced driving skills than the average road
user.16

It is imperative that the law enforcement agency maintains proper records of every driver
of a patrol vehicle on a daily basis as well as of all incidents and crashes in which the
vehicles are involved. Raw numbers, although helpful to provide a holistic picture of the
extent of the accident problem, must be further refined to a variety of ratios before it will
make proper sense. In a statistically acceptable manner, it will be possible to closely
monitor accident trends and comparisons with previous corresponding periods, etc.

5.6 Effective management and leadership

The following guidelines reflect on aspects of good management and leadership:-
(Bennet, W.W. and Hess, K.M. 2007)

 Know your work and those you manage;

 Know how to get and retain the cooperation of others;
 Learn everything that you can about decision-making;
 Learn as much as possible about the traits that distinguish good leaders from bad
leaders;
 Learn how to give praise and constructive criticism;
 Learn how to think positively and how to influence others to think positively;
 Learn how to deal with bad situations as well as good situations;
 Learn when to discipline your subordinates and when to be participatory;
 Learn how to improve your subordinates and learn them to improve themselves;
 Be honest with yourself and your officers;
 Expect total honesty from them;
 Maintain high standards of integrity and expect the same from your officers;
 Do not over-supervise;
 Remember you are part of management and do not downgrade management or
managers;
 Make your meetings worthwhile -- they must produce results;
 Develop officers who can differ from you rather than clones of you;
 Be consistent, be direct, be honest and be fair;
 Listen and lead by example;

____________________
16
Advanced driving skills are not a license to drive disrespectful or to contravene road rules and regulations
such as using a mobile phone whilst driving, etc.

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  Take risks but not in a reckless manner.

There are many other traits and practices that will assist an officer to become a
distinguished leader. Remember that leadership is not the rank insignia on the shoulder,
but the person in the uniform. There are many good leaders at every rank within the law
enforcement agency.

5.6 Conclusion
Policing is a highly complex quasi profession. Law enforcement officers are constantly
in the public view and their performance is susceptible to public scrutiny. Officers on
patrol often have to endure physical and verbal attacks irrespective of whether they think
they have done a good job. Supervisors require special skills if it is hoped to improve the
image of law enforcement. Many officers are promoted through the ranks without a
proper understanding of their role as supervisor and how their behaviour affects the
morale and level of performance of subordinates. Only a small percentage of officers have
the requisite supervisory skills as a natural leader to be successful. The largest component
of supervisors has to be trained to become effective in this demanding role.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 6

PATROL OBJECTIVES, PATROL TECHNIQUES AND RELATED ISSUES

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 Distinguish between vision, mission, values, goals, objectives and activities

relevant to the patrol function
 Differentiate between the goals, objectives and the techniques of traffic patrols
 List the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of patrol
 Explain the traditional goals of the patrol function

6.1 Introduction
The patrol function is the oldest and the most important of all the police functions. All
other functions performed by a law enforcement agency are subservient to the patrol
function. Patrol functions have already been performed by the Romans approximately
400BC. Patrol techniques have developed over time but the basic objectives have
remained the same since its inception more than 2000 years ago. An officer on patrol is
the most visible of all police functions. Law enforcement agencies go to extra- ordinary
lengths to increase officer visibility by marking their patrol vehicles in a conspicuous
manner. Law enforcement officers also wear distinctive uniforms in order to attract
attention. Sweeney remarked that patrol officers have to be “master generalists" in order
to deal with a myriad of activities and responsibilities and a mind-boggling range of calls
for assistance. (Wrobleski, H.M. and Hess K.M. 2006) A traffic law enforcement officer
also deals with an extra-ordinary number of functions - ranging from assisting a
pedestrian to find a destination to reconstructing complicated crash scenes with little
information. Patrol officers have an unenviable difficult job. They are the face of the law
enforcement agency. They have to portray a positive image of their employers and are
often subjected to physical and verbal abuse, yet have to remain friendly with everyone
with whom they come into contact with. They must therefore be specialists in a wide
range of general issues!

Many law enforcement officers strive to work in specialised units; probably due to the
glorified image that the media has portrayed over time of these so-called "elite" units. Yet
the general patrol function is the most specialised of all the patrol functions. This however
can only be construed as fact if the officers on general patrol perceive their role in society
as a specialist function. These officers are most of the time first at the scene of a crime or
crash and must have a wide array of skills to deal with complicated issues. The visibility
of patrol officers is primarily aimed at crime prevention. Officers also react to incidents
of crime; uphold the rights of citizens in terms of the Constitution, restore peace etc.

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If you ask applicants when interviewed for a post of law enforcement officer why they
want to join the agency, almost everyone will reflect on their desire to serve the
community. The pity is that patrol officers are the lowest paid of all officers in the agency
and they have this constant desire to be promoted in order to get better remunerated. They
will forsake their ideals to serve the community for the better salary at a higher rank. The
best performing officers are normally promoted with the result that mediocrity remains a
hallmark of the patrol function. Law enforcement agencies have a major responsibility to
advance ideas how to attract and retain the services of the best human capital for this the
most important police function rendered by police departments. The challenge is to create
a career path for patrol officers. This will ensure long term success for patrol activities.
The public, who has more contact with patrol officers than some senior officers, must be
able to attract officers with a passion for service excellence. In a diverse society such as
South Africa officers of the highest calibre are required to ensure that race relations are
promoted. Law enforcement officers endure verbal abuse from many people, especially
when they enforce traffic laws. The constant adversarial relationship between the law
enforcement officers and their clientele precipitates conflict that many officers cannot
deal with effectively. This often precipitates negative psychological issues. The reaction
to constant conflict must be monitored by the agency. Complaints against specific officers
may increase and this should alert the supervisor that something is wrong. Maintaining
the services of experienced professional patrol officers is of the utmost importance for
the law enforcement agency. These seasoned professionals must assume the
responsibility to mentor newcomers to the beat. Rookie officers must be trained by
experienced officers. Unfortunately it is also true that many seasoned officers fall into the
trap of unprofessional and criminality such as corruption, crime, collusion etc. These
officers tend to recruit new officers into this trap of criminality. They rely on the so-called
"blue curtain" to keep their activities secretive.

6.2 Vision, mission and values

Before the goals of the police are further explored, it is necessary to look into the various
strategic concepts that “drive” an institution, including law enforcement institutions. The
following classification of the terminology is important:-

The vision defines the desired or intended future state of an organisation or enterprise in
terms of its fundamental objective and/or strategic direction. Vision is a long term view,
sometimes describing a view of how the organisation would like the world in which it
operates to be. For example a charity working with the poor might have a vision statement
which read - "A world without poverty"

The mission defines the fundamental purpose of an organisation or institution, basically

describing why it exists and what it does to achieve its vision. A corporate mission can
last for many years, or for the life of the organisation. It is not an

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objective with a timeline. It is rather an overarching goal that is accomplished over many
years as objectives are achieved that are aligned with the corporate mission.

The values are beliefs that are shared among the stakeholders of an organisation. Values
drive an organisation's culture and priorities.

Many people confuse vision statement for a mission statement, and sometimes one is
simply used as a longer term version of the other. The vision should describe why it is
important to achieve the mission. A vision statement defines the purpose or broader
goal(s) for being in existence and can remain the same for decades if crafted well. A
mission statement is more specific to what the institution can achieve. The vision should
describe what will be achieved in the wider sphere if the organisation is successful in
achieving its mission. (www.wikipedia.org)

6.3 Goals, objectives and activities

Goals and objectives are statements that describe what the organisation will accomplish.
Goals are high level statements that provide overall context for what the organisation is
trying to achieve. Objectives are lower level statements that describe the specific, tangible
products and deliverables that the organisation will deliver. The definition of goals and
objectives is more of an art than a science, and it can be difficult to define and align them
correctly. The following provides some insight into the difference between the goals and
objectives:- (www.kidasa.com)

 Goals are broad and objectives are narrow;

 Goals are general intentions; objectives are precise;
 Goals are intangible; objectives are tangible;
 Goals are abstract; objectives are concrete;
 Goals can't be validated as is; objectives can be validated.

6.3.1 Goals
Goals are high-level statements that provide the overall context for what the law
enforcement agency is trying to accomplish. Let's look at an example and some of the
characteristics of a goal statement. One of the goals of a law enforcement agency might
be to "increase the overall satisfaction levels of those clients contacting the law
enforcement agency's emergency call centre" (www.supportstep.com)

 Because this goal is at a high-level, it may take more than one project and many
interventions to achieve. In the above example, for instance, there may be a
technology component to increasing client satisfaction. There may also be new
procedures, new training classes and a reorganisation of the call centre. It may
take many projects over a long period of time to achieve the stated goal.

 The goal should reference the organisational benefit in terms of cost, speed and /
or quality. In this example, the focus is on quality of service. Even if the project
is not directly in support of the organisation, there should be an indirect link. For
instance, an IT infrastructure project to install new web servers may ultimately
allow faster client response, faster response times or

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 other community benefit. If there is no organisational or community value to the
project, the project should not be started.
 Generally, non-measurable: If you can measure the achievement of your goal, it
is probably at too low a level and is probably more of an objective.
 If your goal is not achievable through any combination of projects, it is probably
written at too high a level. In the above example, you could envision one or more
projects that could end up achieving a higher level of community satisfaction. A
goal statement that says you are trying to achieve a perfect client experience is not
possible with any combination of projects. It may instead be a vision statement,
which is a higher level statement showing direction and aspiration, but which may
never actually be achieved.

6.3.2 Objectives
Objectives are concrete statements describing what a project is trying to achieve. The
objective should be written at a lower level, so that it can be evaluated at the conclusion
of the project to see whether it was achieved or not. Goal statements are designed to be
vague. Objectives should not be vague. A well-worded objective will be:

An example of an objective statement might be to "upgrade the emergency call centre

system by December 31 to achieve average client wait times of no more than 60
seconds"17

 Note that the objective is much more concrete and specific than the goal statement;
 The objective is measurable in terms of the average client wait times the new call
system is trying to achieve;
 It must be assumed that the objective is achievable and realistic;
 The objective is time-bound, and should be completed by December 31.

______________________
17
Many organisations - private and public have problems to ensure that their clients can contact them with
ease. In the case of the police contact in life-threatening situations is of paramount importance.

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Objectives should refer to the deliverables of the project. In this case, it refers to the
upgrade of the telephone system. If you cannot determine what deliverables are being
created to achieve the objective, then the objective may be written at too high a level. On
the other hand, if an objective describes the characteristics of the deliverables, they are
written at too low a level. If they describe the features and functions, they are
requirements, not objectives. The following checklist can be used to check whether an
objective complies with the requirements for objectives:-

 Project expected improvement;

 Are measurable;
 Are meaningful;
 Are challenging, but realistic;
 Support more broadly stated goals;
 Are supported by program activities;
 Specify timeframes and benchmarks of progress.

6.3.3 Activities
An activity is a specific action or set of tasks undertaken to reach each objective. A good
activity meets the criteria of being linked, focused, feasible, and appropriate. Each
objective may have many different activities. Activities are useful to break down an
objective into chunk-sized pieces in order to give structure and purpose to attain the stated
objective. In African culture it is asked - How do you eat an elephant? The answer is -
piece by piece! How do you solve the crime problem? - By focussing on each issue that
causes crime.18

Activities comprise the plan of operation for a project. In a detailed and terse way they
describe how each objective will be achieved. The activities are vital ingredients to
achieve the objectives of the law enforcement agency. For each objective one or more
activity will describe; who, what, when, why, how, how many, and how much (budget).
The patrol officer is directly involved with the execution of the activities of the law
enforcement agency. They must have a clear understanding of the objectives and goals of
the agency it they want to contribute to its success.

6.4 Vision, mission and values of law enforcement agencies

Most law enforcement agencies have a stated mission. Many portray their mission
statements on their patrol vehicles. The following are examples:-

 We protect and serve;

 A Safer Community (Peel Regional Police - Canada);
 A Century of Service - Aspen Police - Colorado – USA);
 Serving our Community - San Antonio Police - Texas - USA).

The mission statements reflect on the reason for the agency's existence and what it wants
to achieve.

____________________
18
The causes of crime may not necessarily be relegated to one specific issue.

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6.5 Goals of law enforcement
Each law enforcement agency must develop its own goals and objectives. There are no
prescribed goals. It can however be expected that many goals established by law
enforcement agencies will overlap due to the synergy between them and the fact that
many have corresponding challenges. The following are examples of goals to indicate
how they are phrased:- (www.ojp.usdoj.gov)

6.5.1 Law enforcement/Policing goals

 Identify ways that police and law enforcement agencies can improve their
effectiveness, efficiency, and productivity;
 Enhance officer safety while minimising unnecessary risks to suspects and others;
 Improve the ability of police organisations to collect, analyse, disseminate, and
utilise information effectively and to communicate reliably and securely.
 Identify procedures, policies, technologies, and basic knowledge that will
maximise appropriate and lawful police actions;
 Enhance local investigative resources by identifying and disseminating
investigative best practices and by developing technologies and techniques that
help locate suspects and establish guilt.

6.5.2 Crime prevention/Causes of crime – goals

 Increase the practical knowledge of those factors (individual, peer, community,
and societal) that may lead to delinquent or criminal behaviour;
 Develop knowledge of programs, interventions, and strategies that prevent crime
in at-risk populations;
 Improve the ability to prevent crime in specific contexts, including schools, using
selected physical design, access control strategies, and technologies;
 Develop knowledge relevant to community-based and faith-based approaches that
prevent crime;
 Improve the understanding of deterrence mechanisms that prevent crime.

6.5.3 Violence and victimisation goals

 Develop knowledge of strategies to prevent sexual assaults and victimisation of
children;
 Develop knowledge of practical approaches to reduce domestic/intimate partner
violence;
 Identify ways to prevent repeat victimisation;
 Expand knowledge on the nature of white collar crime, identity theft, fraud and
develop strategies to prevent victimisation;
 Develop practical knowledge of approaches to reduce community violence;
 Evaluate policies and interventions to address crime victims' needs.

6.5.4 Drugs, alcohol, and crime goals

 Increase understanding of relationships between drugs, alcohol, and crime;
 Identify ways to disrupt/deter drug markets and drug sales;

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  Develop strategies to prevent or detect drug or alcohol-related crime;
 Evaluate strategies to reduce drug dependency among offenders, including
specialised courts and drug treatment in correctional facilities.

6.6 The traditional goals of patrol

The primary goal of police patrols is to maintain law and order in society. Traditionally
law enforcement agencies deployed their officers on random routine (general) patrol in a
designated area. This meant that when a law enforcement officer reported for duty, he
would be given the patrol vehicle, a designated patrol area for the shift and the officer
would drive around and wait for calls to respond to. It was expected of the officer to
institute a few prosecutions for whatever offence is detected. The officer would attend to
crash scenes and other crimes committed on his beat. Crimes however were referred to
detectives for follow-up investigation.

Over the last few decades patrol activities became the subject of much investigation given
the fact that it is the single most expensive component of police work. In a high-tech
society no law enforcement agency can afford to allow its employees to operate in the
manner described above. Patrol activities can be structured in a much more effective and
efficient manner if for instance the officers are deployed where they can concentrate on
the areas where and when most of the problems, crimes and crashes occur. Such an
approach would ensure that the law enforcement officers prevent crimes and react more
efficiently to incidents that are reported.

Where the agency engages in a more scientific approach to the crime and crash problem,
it can be expected that the response to these issues would be more effective. No law
enforcement agency can afford its officers to patrol without any clear objectives. Such an
approach is too expensive and it does not guarantee success. Most public law enforcement
agencies deploy between 60 and 70 percent of their total uniformed staff on the patrol
function.

The traditional objectives of the patrol function were:- (Dempsey, J.S. & Forst, L.S. 2010)
 The deterrence of crime;
 The maintenance of a feeling of security and;
 Twenty-four hour availability for service to the community.

These objectives included the following activities; enforcing laws, prevention of crime,
maintain law and order, keeping peace, enforce traffic laws, keep traffic flowing, record
crash scenes, assist those who call for service and to summon assistance from other
emergency services. Traffic law enforcement officers in South Africa are trained to ensure
that they prevent crashes, ensure a free flow of traffic, and enforce the traffic laws as well
as to assist the public.

The 24-hour availability of law enforcement agencies created a situation where citizens
call law enforcement agencies for every possible situation when they do not know who
else to contact. The police therefore became the "face" of government for many citizens.
Over years the role of the police has escalated and many new responsibilities were added,
even though they have little or nothing to do with the

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original goals of police work. The added responsibilities make the role of the patrol officer
more complicated. Law enforcement officers employed by local authorities and
metropolitan councils not only perform traffic related functions; they also prevent crime,
assist in community policing activities, investigate crashes, interact with engineers and
city developers, advise a range of institutions on local issues, perform crowd control
functions and a host of other issues. Whenever an emergency arises and citizens do not
know who to contact, they call the police! It now becomes clear why patrol officers the
first responders have to be specialist generalists. They must have the requisite skills to
remain calm and to sum up any situation and to take immediate control. In doing so they
are observed by many bystanders and criticised whenever it is perceived to be the wrong
option. They also operate in a hostile environment where any wrongful action leads to
civil claims and media exposure.

6.7 The objectives of patrol

It has already been stated that the patrol function is the most important function of a law
enforcement agency. In a traffic enforcement agency it is even more important due to the
fact that the identification of errant driver behaviour is highly dependent on officer
availability. Traffic law enforcement officers cannot sit at the office and wait for calls
about driver behaviour. They have to be on the road where problems are anticipated. No
traffic law enforcement agency can allow its patrol function to be neglected.

The following objectives are important components of the traffic patrol function:-
 Protection;
 Dialogue;
 Assurance;
 Law and order;
 Service rendering.

6.7.1 Protection
The presence of a patrol officer minimises the opportunities for a potential offender to
commit a traffic crime and thereby increasing crash risks. Just a fool will attempt to
commit a traffic offence in the presence of a traffic law enforcement officer. It can
justifiably be stated that the officers' presence establishes a level of protection to the
innocent against the risks created by traffic offenders. The fact that the traffic law
enforcement officer is present and visible on the road eliminates the opportunities to
commit traffic crimes. In this sense it is a form of protection to law abiding road users.
The problem with law enforcement visibility is that its effects are short lived. As soon as
visibility decreases, crash risks increases. (Van Heerden, T.J. 1982) Traffic law
enforcement agencies must ensure that their officers are deployed at the locations with
the highest incidence of offences and concomitant crash risks. This will increase the level
of protection that they offer to road users. It serves little purpose if traffic law enforcement
officers are allowed to patrol at will, avoiding the high frequency crash locations. The
officers must be present at those locations with the highest crash rates. Their success is
therefore highly dependent on the level of their omnipresence. If they can achieve higher
levels of omnipresence and thereby creating a perception in the minds of the road users
that they are everywhere they would be more successful in protecting society. It can thus
be said that police visibility equals citizen protection.

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6.7.2 Dialogue
Dialogue refers to the interaction between the traffic law enforcement officer and the road
user. Healthy interaction is a prerequisite to stimulate a reciprocal understanding between
the officer and the citizen. Creating healthy perceptions between the officer and the
citizen is not the exclusive task of specialised units that are established to create
community participation. Every law enforcement officer has a major responsibility to
create acceptable interaction between stakeholders. Traffic law enforcement is at the best
of times not the type of policing activity that creates healthy relationships between the
officer and the offender. It is the responsibility of the traffic law enforcement officer to
remain professional during any altercation with an offender despite the fact that there may
be high levels of provocation. Traffic offenders traditionally have a tendency to react
abusively towards traffic law enforcement officers. The objective of the officer must be
to remain in charge of an emotionally charged interaction. The offender must not be given
the opportunity to incite a negative reaction from the officer. If this occurs, the officer
will begin to react in a manner unbecoming that may precipitate reports of officer
misconduct. Dialogue takes the form of a formal charge, written warnings as well as
verbal warnings and offering advice. An officer conducting point duty on a public road
also constitutes communication with the road user. The manner in which point duty is
conducted also says a lot about the officer. The signals and instructions of the officer must
be professional and must not leave any doubt in the minds of a driver. This is the hallmark
of a professional traffic law enforcement officer. Some traffic officers have an inclination
to act like comedians when they perform point duty. Their hand signals often do not
comply with the prescriptions contained in the Road Traffic Act and Regulations and may
even precipitate traffic conflict and increase crash risks.19

6.7.3 Assurance
The presence of a traffic law enforcement officer assures the citizen that policing
activities are offered and that the roads are safeguarded. This feeling of assurance is
closely associated with the protection offered described in 6.7.1 above. The more the
officers are visible, the higher the level of assurance. Assurance has the following
meaning:-

 A statement or indication that inspires confidence; a guarantee or pledge;

 Freedom from doubt;

 A binding commitment to do or give or refrain from something; "an assurance of

help when needed"

 A (written) assurance that some assistance or service will be provided or will meet
certain specifications;

 An unconditional commitment that something will happen or that something is

true; "there is a guarantee that they are not lying"

__________________
19
Dialogue in a broader context can also imply interaction with communities such as at Community Police
Forums (CPF's)

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  The act of binding yourself (intellectually or emotionally) to a course of action;
"his dedicated commitment to police service"

Based on the above it is clear that the citizens of a country want an assurance that the law
enforcement agencies will protect and serve them.20 They want to feel save and protected
from criminal threats and crash risks. The manner in which and the commitment of the
law enforcement agencies to achieve this objective is concretised in the patrol function.
Traffic law enforcement officers must execute the law in a professional ethical manner
that conforms to the ideals enshrined in the Constitution. Being visible, being able to
respond to incidents and calls for service within reasonable limits, being able to be
contacted with ease, etc. all conspire to create a perception of assurance in the minds of
law abiding citizens. The manner in which the law enforcement officer deals with crimes
and crashes can either add to or diminish the level of assurance that the citizens feel about
their police services. It therefore implies that assurance does not only mean something far
away or in the minds of people, it is something concrete, the quality of service offered by
individual officers. A crash victim wants the "assurance" that the crash will be
investigated thoroughly and that an offender will be prosecuted if the investigation reveals
that an offence was committed.

6.7.4 Law and order

Law and order can be described as a state of society where the vast majority of the
population respects the rule of law, and where the law enforcement agencies observe laws
that restrict their powers. Maintaining law and order implies firm dealing with
occurrences of theft, violence, disturbance of the peace and rapid enforcement of penalties
imposed under criminal law. (www.businessdictionary.com) Ever since the 18th century
it has been universally accepted that one of the main foundations of a civilised society is
the rule of law. It implies strict control of crime and repression of violence and disorder,
sometimes involving the possible restriction of civil rights.

No society can expect to flourish and develop without law and order as an intrinsic value
system accompanied by the requisite mechanisms to enforce compliance when voluntary
compliance cannot be secured. It also presupposes that there must be order on the road
network. Drivers cannot be allowed to determine their own rules for road use. This will
create disorder with a concomitant increase in the risk of crashes. The notion by many
drivers that they can safely manoeuvre their vehicles at speeds in excess of the prescribed
speed limits, fall into this category. Even though there may be substance in such
perceptions it cannot be allowed as this will create disorder. Excessive speed for
circumstances and speed variance for instance may precipitate additional risks to other
road user groups such as pedestrians. In this sense it means that the civil liberties of an
individual will be restricted to ensure the safety of the group. The level of compliance
with traffic laws is a very visible indication of the level of law and order in society. In
South Africa the taxi industry is notorious for flouting traffic laws without a real risk of
apprehension and prosecution by the law enforcement institutions. This disrespect for law
and order has the potential to escalate to other groups.

___________________
20
Deaths in the custody of the police create a perception that the police cannot guarantee the safety of those
who are under their custody/care.

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It also leads to a feeling that the law enforcement fraternity is unable to assure society
that they have the capacity to protect them from crime. Seen in this context it is clear that
the traffic law enforcement agencies have a major role to play to create law and order in
society. Their success will be measured by the level of voluntary compliance with the
laws of the country. The manner in which we drive and maintain road etiquette is a
measure of how civilised we are. Generally we are safe to say that in South Africa we fail
the test of a civilised country considering the carnage on our roads.

6.7.5 Service motive and ad-hoc functions

One aspect that has changed over the years is a growing demand for the services offered
by law enforcement agencies. Mostly these services have no direct relation to the original
objectives which led to the establishment of police departments. Traffic law enforcement
agencies became more involved with education and engineering as components of a
holistic approach to traffic policing. Traffic law enforcement agencies for instance are
involved in offering advice and assistance to motorists that are involved in crashes and
where their vehicles have to be removed to places of safety. Controlling trafic is also seen
as a service as it does not directly relates to an enforcement activity. It is a form of
dialogue but the function in itself is a service rendered to motorists. The same goes for
assisting children to cross a road at schools. Traffic law enforcement officers assist at
elections e.g. to transport election officials and materials to voting stations. Agencies
collate crash data and make it available to motorists and legal practitioners to settle
claims. Abandoned vehicles are removed from public roads and sold at auctions if they
are not claimed by their rightful owners. Officers assist victims of natural disasters, etc.
Officers often assist engineers with data collection and traffic studies in order to improve
roads and infrastructure. Law enforcement agencies are also intimately involved in
disaster management activities. They are more often than not first at the scene of a
disaster.

6.8 Conclusion
Law enforcement activities have evolved over time. Patrol officers are responsible for an
ever-increasing number of activities many of which cannot be described as law
enforcement in nature. The 24-hour availability of law enforcement agencies make them
the target of government and civil society to execute tasks that should be assigned to other
agencies. The traditional role of policing however is still a major part of the police role.
Traffic law enforcement agencies are in a similar position. Their roles and responsibilities
have also evolved over time.

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 CHAPTER 7

DEPLOYMENT AND CONTROL OF TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT

PERSONNEL

After you have completed this unit you should be able to: -

 Analyse a law enforcement agency's deployment practises.

 Indicate the importance of daily police on-duty parades.
 Describe the different issues that affect police supervisors.
 Explain the importance of police deployment practices.

7.1 Introduction
The deployment of police personnel is probably the most important component of a first-
line supervisor's responsibilities. Effective and efficient deployment policies and
procedures will contribute towards acceptable service delivery. This is a primary function
of the law enforcement supervisor and yet it is one of the most neglected functions in
traffic law enforcement. Traffic law enforcement supervisors have a variety of tools
available to deploy resources effectively but often operate on a gut- feel instead of using
crime and crash data.

The basis of patrol officer deployment is a thorough understanding and knowledge of

everything of consequence that occur in a precinct/patrol area. This information is
obtained from a variety of sources and must statistically make sense to the supervisor and
subordinates. We hear all too often from patrol officers that they are merely booked on
duty and instructed to patrol an area. Officers are not briefed regularly regarding general
and area specific problems. Patrol beats are not structured along crime and crash patterns.

7.2 Daily routine activities

Supervisors must plan their patrol operations daily and weekly in advance. This will be
dependent on the type of patrol unit that they command. Generally they should take the
following into consideration:-
 Long-term strategies of the agency;
 Medium-term goals;
 Short-term objectives;
 Daily activities;
 Special events;
 Ad-hoc operations;
 Requests from other agencies;
 Complaints from the public that requires immediate attention;
 Complaints that require regular follow-up attention.

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These activities must be scheduled in such a manner that there is still time left to ensure
that routine patrols can be conducted. The law enforcement officers must also be deployed
in such a manner that the area of responsibility is covered adequately to ensure a quick
response to calls for assistance. This it seems requires a hands-on approach by the
supervisor. The supervisor must have constant contact with his/her subordinates and must
have the authority to redeploy officers during the course of a shift. Once this command
and control function is relinquished to other lower-ranked officers, the supervisor will
have to rely on the subordinates' sense of responsibility to maintain order on the shift.

Due to the large range of activities that requires a hands-on approach, the supervisor will
have to plan in advance to ensure that officers are briefed comprehensively of what is
expected from them during an on-duty parade. When supervisors neglect to plan in
advance, they lose the moral high ground (the power) that characterises true leadership.

7.3 Parades
The daily parade (before the commencement of duties) is an aspect that is often neglected
by shift supervisors.21 It must be reiterated that the parade is an important aspect of the
command and control function that must be exploited by supervisors to subtly re-enforce
their position. The parade must not be relegated to a daily routine that is abhorred by
officers. It must also not be used as a method to denigrate officers who have erred or who
do not comply with the required standard of neatness. The supervisor should however be
on the look-out for non-compliant behaviour and officers should be called to the
supervisor's office in such a manner that he/she may in private address an issue that
requires remedial action or intervention. Subordinates must never be humiliated in front
of colleagues when on parade. The resentment of officers that are placed in such a
situation will have a long-lasting effect on his/her morale. Issues that affect the whole
shift may however be addressed in a professional manner, even if it requires a stricter
approach to get a message through.

Officers must have their pocket books whilst on parade and a brief synopsis of the daily
duties must be recorded. If planning requires a more descriptive exposition of duties,
providing officers with a written document of what is required can achieve this. Duty lists
can also be generated electronically and printed for distribution to patrol officers.

The parade therefore allows supervisors to visibly inspect the appearance of their
subordinates, check their protective gear, appointment certificates etc. The parade does
not necessarily have to entail standing on attention in a row. It can take place in a briefing
room too. Supervisors must be mindful not to allow the parade to become an informal
talk shop. The officers must show the necessary respect to their supervisor. It is unclear
why many officers have a negative attitude towards parades. If handled professionally it
should not resemble a school parade where absolute obedience is required. Parades offer
an ideal opportunity to create structured interaction between the supervisor and officers
and amongst the officers respectively. It also allows officers to interact with each other
before they depart to their patrol areas.

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21
Parades can also be conducted upon termination of a shift.

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7.4 Vehicles and equipment
Apart from the human resource component, a patrol vehicle is probably the most
expensive item available to the supervisor to ensure that effective policing takes place.
Vehicle replacement policies generally do not allow for a quick replacement in the event
that a vehicle is written off as a result of a crash. Repair and maintenance is also a factor
that may affect the supervisors' ability to effectively deploy officers. The non-availability
of patrol vehicles is probably one of the most annoying issues that law enforcement
supervisors have to deal with in police work. A law enforcement agency must have
appropriate policies that deal with vehicle care and maintenance. Regular inspection of
the vehicle and its equipment cannot be overemphasised enough. Officers must have
respect for their patrol vehicles and must have an understanding of the costs involved
when they are not cared for in a responsible manner. All incidents and crashes must be
reported in the prescribed manner. When vehicles are handed over to another driver on
the next shift, (hot-seat system) it is important for the officer to inspect the vehicle prior
to him/her departing for patrol duties. Vehicles must also have a list of the equipment that
is kept in the vehicle that do not form part of an individual officer's issuance. It is often
reported in the media that law enforcement officers patrol in vehicles which are not
roadworthy! This creates a very negative perception towards the law enforcement agency.

7.5 Supervision by remote control

Police supervisors do not have the luxury of having all their subordinates under one roof
where daily activities can be visually monitored. Law enforcement supervisors have to
use other tactics to ensure that their subordinates are being supervised effectively. This
can be described as supervision by remote control. One thing is certain; once patrol
officers realise that they are not being supervised effectively, they tend to stray, and often
become involved with activities (legal and illegal) that are counterproductive and may
precipitate disciplinary action, even dismissal. So - how can the supervisor control his
subordinates?

7.5.1 Scheduled activities

As was stated earlier, it is important for supervisors to ensure that officers get a healthy
dose of daily and weekly activities to keep them fully occupied. Lazy supervisors will
plan the minimum activities and get a minimum return on their investment. The activities
must include a variety of issues to counteract monotony. Some issues that may require
more active involvement, perhaps from other institutions or departments may be
considered. Once a manageable number of activities have been delegated to a subordinate,
it becomes easier to monitor their progress in achieving them. Activities must also include
observation of certain categories of offences and crimes. This will ensure that they do not
over-emphasise the importance of activities that focuses more on "softer" issues where
prosecutions are not so important.

7.5.2 Contact with subordinates

Some supervisors remain a spectator of what occurs on their shifts, and do not attempt to
intervene by means of radio control. The two-way radio is currently the best technology
to monitor the activities of subordinates. Supervisors must keep their ears to the ground,
and check whether the patrol officers operate as per their instruction/schedule. Patrol
officers tend to develop their own codes to communicate certain secretive messages.

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I have had exit interviews with officers that have resigned from the law enforcement
agency who stated categorically that they worked without any supervision and that they
could do anything without a supervisor knowing it. Some officers return to their places
of abode after they have been booked on duty. The use of cell phones has made it easy
for errant officers to deviate from their scheduled activities to engage in mischievous
endeavours. They at times befriend radio operators who contact them by cell phone in
order to warn them that they are being checked or called by a supervisor. A supervisor
that is worth his salt can easily counter these practices by merely fine- tuning their
listening and observational skills. There are always telltale signs in radio communication
that will provide clues that everything is not all well. Some of the larger departments are
now using GPS technology to monitor the whereabouts of patrol officers.

7.5.3 Inspections
Supervisors must never underestimate the importance of inspections during shift hours.
An element of surprise must be built into the inspections, but should not evolve into a
game of spying between supervisors and squad members. Supervisors should set personal
targets i.e. to visit every officer under his/her command at least once per day or twice per
week. This will depend on a variety of factors that may have an influence on his/her time
for this function. Officers who have proved to be unreliable and /or who are suspected of
being involved with unauthorised activities must be visited more frequently. Another
technique is to request an officer to state his locality, kilometre reading and then to check
the validity thereof. Supervisors must when they visit their patrol officers, sign their
pocket books. This will protect the supervisor as well as the officer in the event of an
administrative enquiry. Supervisors must not become the "nice-guy" type who places all
his trust in his “loyal" squad members!

7.5.4 Monitoring systems

Supervisors should also at regular intervals study the results of their subordinates' record
of activities. They have to closely scrutinise how officers spend their time and relate this
to the number and frequency of prosecutions instituted. Any perceived irregularities
should be examined in detail and if necessary the relevant officer should be called in to
give an explanation. Many patrol officers issue the required number (quota) of citations
that will satisfy the supervisor early during his/her shift and then "disappear" to engage
in unauthorised activities.22 If the agency can produce data to this effect it will ease the
monitoring task. Closely check the times that appear on the data and check whether there
is a distinguishable pattern that may point to deviant behaviour. Compare arrest data over
a period of time and query officers who have below-average arrest and prosecution rates.
Due to the vast number of activities that officers may get involved in, monitoring must
be conducted with the required circumspection! The next chapter will deal more
comprehensively with the monitoring of performance and the measurement of
productivity.

7.5.5 Complaints
Supervisors must keep record of the number of complaints received from members of the
public pertaining to the conduct of the officers under their command. Close interaction
with internal affairs and other investigative units is also a prerequisite to

___________________
22
The issue of police productivity is discussed in this manual. Traffic quotas can discredit a law
enforcement agency's reputation. Quotas are forbidden in many States in the USA.

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determine any pattern of misconduct. Reports against any one or more officers that
indicate a repetition of certain conduct must ring alarm bells for the supervisor. Complaint
investigation requires that records be kept of the whole process. Failure to do so may
result in a defective disciplinary process.

7.5.6 Informal communication channels

Supervisors should also establish and reinforce informal communication channels.
Rumours of misconduct by a subordinate are often picked-up during informal discussions,
social events etc. Supervisors must however not become embroiled in rumour mongering,
as this will erode their status as a professional police practitioner. It will do little harm if
they keep their ears close to the ground, without necessarily getting involved in a
discussion regarding the alleged misconduct of an officer.23

7.6 Variety
Patrol officers should not be deployed on the same beat for a prolonged period of time,
without any specific reason. It is important that law enforcement officers become
accustomed to a specific beat or patrol area. It may be advantageous if the officer learn
the area, get to know the conduct of community members, etc. This however does not
mean that law enforcement officers should not be rotated at regular intervals. This will
ensure that officers do not become too intertwined with some members of a specific
community. The clever law enforcement supervisor will know when and how often to
rotate officers to different patrol beats. The patrol function is the single most important
aspect of law enforcement work. Professional law enforcement supervisors will develop
their intuitive skills to deploy the officers under their command optimally. Apart from
rotation between different patrol beats it is also recommended that officers be rotated to
different shifts and patrol tactics.

7.7 Conclusion
The success of any law enforcement agency is highly dependent on the level of
professionalism of supervisors. Patrol functions can either be very interesting and
demanding or boring with no challenges at all. It is incumbent upon supervisors to ensure
that the deployment of patrol officers is controlled in such a manner that a number of
objectives are met. This is possible if sound practices are implemented. Chapter 11 deals
more comprehensively with the deployment strategies of law enforcement agencies.

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_________________
23
Law enforcement supervisors must also keep in mind that at times it may be necessary to keep an issue
confidential if this was requested by the person who communicates with the supervisor.

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 CHAPTER 8

MEASURING ENFORCEMENT PERFORMANCE

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 Discuss the importance of police performance measures.

 Differentiate between goals, objectives, measures and standards.
 Determine and calculate a few police performance measures.
 Identify the pitfalls of evaluation.
 Assess the role of decision making in performance measurement.
 Apply the different sources of information in a law enforcement environment.
 Describe the role and development of a business and strategic plans.
 Describe the processes pertaining to the development of a business plan.
 Identify issues of performance management in national legislation.

8.1 Introduction
Performance management is not a luxury neither is it a nice-to-have! It is a legal
prescription that a law enforcement agency must establish and implement a system of
performance measurement. The following part of this manual is largely based on the
research of Professor Edward R Maguire of the George Mason University, Fairfax,
Virginia, USA. Law enforcement services are very costly due to the fact that they are
labour intensive. The communities that pay for law enforcement services expect a good
service at a reasonable cost. To argue that they cannot, goes against the objectives of a
democratic government. Productivity basically refers to converting resources effectively
and efficiently in order to achieve results. (Bennet, W.W. and Hess, K.M. 2007) In this
sense effectiveness does not imply efficiency and vice versa. Effectiveness means to do
the right things and efficiency doing things right. Law enforcement productivity is
measured by the quantity and quality of services and can be measured by the level of
approval of the clientele. Overall it can be stated that the absence of crime reflects on the
success of the police. This statement cannot always be substantiated as the causes of crime
are varied and more often than not within the realm of law enforcement interventions.
Despite this, law enforcement agencies remain the thin line between order in society and
anarchy. Traditionally productivity was measured by arrests, traffic stops, traffic
citations, the reduction of crime and crashes. The problem with measurements such as the
afore-mentioned is that if there is no reduction it cannot be blamed on the police. The
connection between the crash and the presence of the law enforcement officer is
somewhat vague and not always measurable. (Bennet, W.W. and Hess, K.M. 2007)

Despite its popularity, performance measurement is an inherently ambiguous term. It is

used in many ways to refer to the performance of individuals, of products and services,
of sub-units, of projects, and of organisations. Comparative performance measures are
those that measure units and individuals over space or time.

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Comparative performance measurement is useful to compare the performance of two or
more organisations, or they can be used to compare a single organisation's performance
at multiple points in time.24 Measurement is meaningless if it cannot be compared with
something similar. To say that an officer has prosecuted 6 motorists during a shift is
meaningless if we do not know how the other officers have fared over the same or similar
shift conditions.

The measurement of police performance is almost as old as law enforcement agencies

itself. It has also evolved over time to include a multitude of measures, and yet it has not
been perfected. Performance measurement in South Africa is still in its infancy stage and
very little information is gathered nationally in terms of local law enforcement agencies.
The use of citizen surveys, which started in the late 1930's in the USA have not yet taken
off in this country. Crime and crash rates, arrests and citations, clearance rates, and
response times have become the enshrined minimum performance indicators for most
police agencies. Police use of force and mistreatment of citizens became a prominent
theme in the USA during the turbulent sixties.

8.2 Performance measures

Performance measures, if not used appropriately can easily portray a skewed picture of
the effectiveness and efficiency of a law enforcement agency. Departments that excel at
controlling crime, generating arrests, citations, clearance rates and responding rapidly to
calls for service, might still perform poorly in many other areas. They might have low
morale, poor relationships with communities, problems with corruption or brutality etc.
Numerous observers have indicated that the largest percentage (70 percent) of police
work is in any event not related to criminal activity. How is this 70 percent measured? If
the police are supposed to prevent crime and motor vehicle crashes, solve community
problems, reduce disorder, and establish lasting community relationships, then their
performance of these issues have to be measured. It remains however important to only
measure that what matters! Collating information just for the sake of collating information
is a waste of energy and resources. If the data is not going to be used in monitoring police
performance, then it can just as well not be measured at all. Non-police work consumes
up to 70 percent of a patrol officers time, and if they are burdened further with
administrative functions such as reporting their activities without a useful purpose, the
agency becomes ineffective.

8.3 Evaluation
Evaluation is the provision of necessary information to decision makers in a format
providing guidance in the choice of an appropriate course of action. More technically, it
may be considered as the identification, analysis and assessment of the performance, cost
and impacts of alternative courses of action in order to select the most appropriate course
of action. Since evaluation is performed for the purpose of making decisions among
alternative courses of action, it is important that the evaluation process be developed to
fit the nature of the decisions and decision- makers.

In the traffic and metro-police environment they have basically the following data to work
with:-
______________________
24 There are no national guidelines for law enforcement agencies to measure and compare performance.

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  Accident (crash) data;
 Crime data;
 Staffing levels;
 Prosecution data;
 Arrest statistics;
 Kilometres travelled;
 Time spent on activities;
 Training data;
 Education data;
 Clearance rates;
 Conviction rates.

There are two time frames for which evaluations are usually utilised: a-priory (before)
and monitoring (after). The a-priory evaluation is done prior to the implementation of a
change and involves forecasting, expected values for measures of performance, impacts
and cost of alternatives. Monitoring involves a before and after evaluation to determine
the worth, effectiveness or efficiency of an action, program or project. Programs (or
activities) may be evaluated both in terms of effectiveness and their efficiency. Efficiency
analysis focuses on the cost of achieving an impact without specifying what the impact
should be. Measures are often stated in terms of rates such as crashes per patrol hour.
Effectiveness analysis goes beyond efficiency analysis i.e. to consider the attainment of
objectives in relation to costs. Effective measures can be a mix of qualitative and
quantitative items. This allows for "yes" and "no" answers, "high, medium and low"
responses. (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, (NHTSA July 1990) Police
Traffic Services Performance Measures) A well-designed evaluation system allows law
enforcement administrators to review useful information in a format that supports
effective decision-making. Data that is presented in such a useful format brings a "fuzzy
picture" into focus. Maintaining a record of historical data allows law enforcement
administrators to discover trends and to compare these trends with the current situation.
Using the information to plan activities can improve effectiveness and efficiency. Data
can also be used to motivate funding for the law enforcement agency. The data also serves
a useful purpose i.e. to compare the agency's performance over space and time with that
of comparable agencies.

8.3.1 Pitfalls of evaluation

Although evaluation is useful, there are a number of pitfalls that must be considered:-

 Don't overdo it! When the number of measures selected becomes too great or it
requires burdensome and difficult processes to compile, it is necessary to consider
whether the information derived is worthwhile the resources spent;
 Interrogate the usefulness of data, and do not continue with data collection
because it is easy to collect but serves little purpose;
 Data that cannot be converted for easy consumption must also be questioned.
Presenting data in graphics instead of a large number of tabulations may influence
the type of measures used;
 Watch out for inaccurate or inappropriate data. The data used in measures must
be sound or the measure will have little value;
 Avoid inadequate data;

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  Remember - "Garbage in – Garbage out"

8.4 Goals, objectives, measures and standards

A goal is a generalised end state or direction of movement. It is too general to allow useful
measurement of its achievement. Goals are made specific by objectives, more concrete
end states or targets to be achieved by the agency. Objectives are not solutions to
problems, strategies or programs. There are specific targets for programs or strategies.
Goals and objectives often become well-meaning words that are contained in some
agency document on a shelf. They need to be made operational, and this is the job of the
measures. A measure is a decision making tool that determines the degree of attainment
of an objective by an agency. It must be quantifiable.

Data and information are two terms that are often interchanged, but have different
meanings. When the difference is understood, the value of careful use of measurement
results for facilitating decision-making can be better seen. Data (a plural form of the word
"datum") are individual or measures that are generally not organised and summarised for
any particular purpose. The term "information" is used to refer to data that have been
organised, summarised and formatted for a particular purpose. Data are the building
blocks for information. The manner in which data are assembled into information can be
critical to its usefulness for the decision maker. (NHTSA. 1990) The value of information
is for guidance in decision-making. Decision-making is done at all levels of the
organisation. Even the officers on patrol are constantly making decisions. Police
administrators continuously make decisions concerning the management and direction
that the agency must take. The nature of the information needed by the different ranking
officers may be quite different, but everyone is a decision-maker.

8.5 Decision making

A decision involves making a determination to take some kind of action (including not
taking any action at all). Decision-making can be described in terms of evaluating
something and choosing among alternative actions. For those who have to take strategic
decisions there are five types of activities that are involved viz:-

 Problem identification;
 Countermeasure selection;
 Evaluation of previous decisions/actions, or proposed alternatives, both in terms
of process and impact;
 Planning of operations;
 Administration.

From the above, it can be deduced that police administrators will in order to take effective
decisions require more comprehensive information than first-line supervisors. If a
decision-maker were handed a book in which were recorded all the data elements
collected by the agency that would not be of much use in making a decision. However, if
selected data from that book were combined, summarised and graphed to provide
information regarding a particular measure, or set of measures, related to the issue at
hand, then the decision-maker will have a better basis for making the needed decisions.

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If the information is to be effectively used for supporting decision-making, it should be:
 Timely;
 Useful (Applicable);
 Understandable;
 Absorbable and;
 Accurate.

Important is that the information, and therefore the data upon which it is based, must be
available when the decision needs to be made. Some decision-making can be anticipated,
but some not. It is therefore useful for the agency to develop databases for that
information that are at frequent intervals required to determine a course of action.
Imminent problems that require an immediate response require information to be
accessed immediately upon demand. (NHTSA. 1990) Even if the information is available
when needed, it may not be in the form which fits the situation, making it difficult, if not
impossible, to use. Users of information often find that the format in which information
is presented, are either buried with it or it is presented in a manner that is almost
impossible to grasp. This may be due to poor layout of the information being presented.
Closely related to this problem of having understandable information is having
information presented in a format which is too complex to absorb.

If well-presented information is not accurate, it may result in a poor decision. The

accuracy of the data, which underlies the information, is an important feature. The
compilers of data must be satisfied that the data is correct and reliable. First-line
supervisors are often the closest to the source of data and they therefore have an important
role to ensure its successful application. Due to the decentralised nature of policing at
metropolitan and local government level, it is difficult to compare the data of different
agencies as local conditions may vary. More important for the law enforcement agency
is to appreciate that data must relate to its historical situation in order to track its
performance in a specific field over time.

Finally it is also important not to get so carried away with statistical testing that sight is
lost of what is being done. There is a difference between the statistical significance
discussed above and the practical significance of a change.

8.6 Criteria for performance measures

Hereafter follows some of the criteria that are currently used to indicate performance.
8.6.1 Crime rates In South Africa crime rates are collated and disseminated by the South
African Police Service (SAPS). Information on these parameters are obtained from the
SAPS and then utilised by local law enforcement agencies. These agencies also collate
data on arrests made by their own officers, but it becomes part of the official statistics of
SAPS. It remains a useful tool to monitor arrest rates by local law enforcement agencies,
but due to the dualistic policing system, any upward or downward movement cannot be
ascribed to the success or failure of any one of the two. The goals of the organisation
however, may prescribe whether success has been achieved or not, particularly in those
areas of policing where the local agency establishes some

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sort of a monopoly, i.e. arrests for driving whilst intoxicated. George Kelling has argued
that "measuring police performance solely by crime statistics simply ignores
consequential values... such as justice, integrity, fear reduction, citizen satisfaction,
protection and help for those who cannot protect themselves, and many others." The
police are not the only institution that has an influence on crime rates and it would be
unfair to ascribe to them the success or failure for changes in crime rates. Crime is a
product of a complex array of social, economic, and political forces. Sometimes crime is
reduced through the efforts of the police while other times it is reduced through factors
having nothing to do with the police. Similarly, sometimes when a variety of social factors
coalesce to increase crime, it is inappropriate to blame the police for factors beyond their
control. The same goes for vehicle crash rates. Even with higher visibility of patrol
officers it is not always possible to eliminate vehicle crashes, as they are also caused by
a variety of factors over which the police have little control (adverse weather conditions,
driver fatigue, etc.) Another factor is that not all crime is reported to the police e.g. rape,
corruption, fraud, and generally where citizens are of the opinion that the reporting of a
crime will serve little purpose.

8.6.2 Arrests and citations

Arrest and citation statistics are widely used by law enforcement agencies. It tells us a lot
about the efficiency of the agency, but not necessarily about its effectiveness. There are
in excess of 1000 different charges that emanate from road traffic legislation. It speaks
for itself that not all of these categories and sub-categories will receive the same amount
of attention. It is important to note that the largest percentage of the agency's prosecutions
should be in line with the goals and objectives of the agency, section or unit.

Let us take the following example:-

Officer A's weekly report indicates that he has instituted prosecutions for the following
offences: -
 Parking 7 citations
 defective lights 3 citations
 taxis (documentation) 4 citations
 stop street violations 4 citations
 mobile phones 6 citations
 seat belts 9 citations

TOTAL 33 citations

Officer B reported the following: -

 stop street violations 4 citations
 robot violations 3 citations
 barrier line overtaking 2 citations
 mobile phones 4 citations
 inconsiderate driving 2 citations
 pedestrians on freeway 3 citations

TOTAL 18 citations

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 WHICH OF THESE TWO OFFICERS WAS THE MOST EFFICIENT AND
WHICH OFFICER WAS THE MOST EFFECTIVE?

Discuss the difference between the following two statements:

DOING THE RIGHT THINGS and DOING THINGS RIGHT

Determine the percentages and averages for the examples cited above!

The application of measures in managing a shift must be done with some caution and
circumspection. The purpose of measures is to assist supervisors (and law enforcement
administrators) to make decisions on those aspects that the law enforcement agency
considers important. The measurement of certain activities can help to paint a picture of
what happens in the agency for any given period in comparison to previous corresponding
periods. It highlights the current and past state of operations.

The indiscriminate setting of ticket quotas for performance measurement purposes is not
only unprofessional but may discredit the law enforcement agency. Many states in the
USA have adopted legislation that prohibits the setting of targets. It is however acceptable
to monitor a group of officers and to ascertain their average prosecution rates. The average
prosecution and other performance rates can be used to identify poor performers. In this
instance it is neither the agency nor the supervisor that sets arbitrary quotas. It merely
allows management to compare the officers with each other.

Substandard performance may include repeated work evaluations that indicate that the
officer does not perform at a comparable rate compared to that of other officers. The
minimum rules for a statistical evaluation of law enforcement officers include the
following:- (AELE Monthly Law Journal, 2010)

 Comparisons must be made over a sufficiently extended period of time so as to

eliminate the effect of any fluctuations due to transitory conditions;
 The officer and other members of the group must perform comparable activities
under comparable conditions;
 The officer used for comparison must reflect the range of activities in which the
employee and members of the group were engaged;
 The criteria used for comparison must reflect the range of activities in which the
officer and members of the group were engaged;
 The group with whom the officer is compared must be sufficiently large; and

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  Group members must be selected in a way that assures a fair representation of
those performing similar duties to that of the officer.

Valid statistical evidence depends on ceteris paribus, a Latin phrase meaning that all other
things are the same - although the variables rarely are completely identical.

REMEMBER; IF YOU DON'T MEASURE, YOU DON'T MANAGE!

8.7 Implementing a system of performance measurement

A law enforcement agency that wants to introduce a system of performance measurement
must consider the following six inter related steps:-

 The law enforcement business plan;

 Structuring performance measurement;
 Collecting and analysing data;
 Creating performance measures;
 Identifying meaningful measures;
 Creating commonalities.

8.7.1 Developing a strategic/business plan

Law enforcement practitioners must appreciate the fact that law enforcement agencies
also run on many of the principles that drive businesses in the private sector.

Very simply put, strategic planning identifies where the organisation wants to be at some
point in the future and how it is going to get there. The "strategic" part of this planning
process is the continual attention to current changes in the organisation and its external
environment, and how this affects the future of the organisation. Skills in strategic
planning are critical to the long-term success of an organisation. This form of planning
includes:- (McNamara, 2008)

 Taking a wide look around at what's going on outside the organisation and how it
might affect the organisation (an environmental analysis);
 Taking a hard look at what's going on inside the organisation, including its
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (a SWOT analysis);
 Establishing statements of mission, vision and values;
 Establishing goals to accomplish over the next (usually) three years or so, as a
result of what's going on inside and outside the organisation; Identifying how
those goals will be reached (objectives, responsibilities and timelines).

Strategic planning determines the overall direction and goals of the organisation.
Consequently, strategic planning influences numerous aspects of the organisation,
including:-
 The services that will be provided by the agency and how the services will be
delivered;
 Organisational design and roles are needed by the organisation;
 Performance goals are established for positions throughout the agency;

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  Approval of the plan by the relevant governing structures;
 Resources required reaching those goals and consequently, how much money is
needed to procure those resources ultimately, the goals determine the content of
various budgets.

Two key points to remember while proceeding through this exercise:-

 The planning process is at least as important as the planning document itself;
 The planning process is never "done" - the planning process is a continuous cycle
that's part of the management process itself.

8.7.2 Benefits of a strategic/business plan

Strategic planning serves a variety of purposes in an organisation, including to:

 Clearly define the purpose of the organisation and to establish realistic goals and
objectives consistent with that mission in a defined time frame within the
organisation's capacity for implementation;
 Communicate those goals and objectives to the organisation's constituents;
 Develop a sense of ownership of the plan;
 Ensure the most effective use is made of the organisation's resources by focusing
the resources on the key priorities;
 Provide a base from which progress can be measured and establish a mechanism
for informed change when needed;
 Bring together of everyone's best and most reasoned efforts have important value
in building a consensus about where an organisation is going.

Other reasons include that strategic planning:-

 Provides clearer focus of the organisation, producing higher levels of efficiency

and effectiveness;
 Bridge the gap between the local authority's Integrated Development Plan (IDP)
and that of the law enforcement agency;
 Builds strong teams in the law enforcement agency and the political oversight
structures within local government;
 Provides the glue that keeps the agency together;
 Produces great satisfaction among planners around a common vision;
 Increases productivity from increased efficiency and effectiveness;
 Solves major problems.

8.7.3 Problems with strategic/business plans

One of the biggest problems in strategic planning is; - The Plan Isn't Implemented! At
this point in planning, planners are sometimes fatigued from completing the earlier phases
of planning. Action planning may seem detailed and tedious compared to earlier phases
of strategic planning which often seem creative in nature. Therefore, action planning is
too often ignored, leaving the results of earlier stages of planning much as "castles in the
air" -- useless philosophical statements with no grounding in the day-to-day realities of
the organisation. Meaningful stages of earlier planning then become utterly useless.

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The organisation's commitment to strategic planning is commensurate to the extent that
(a) the organisation completes action plans to reach each strategic goal and (b) includes
numerous methods for verifying and evaluating the actual extent of implementation of
the action plan. Developing action plans (or work plans) entail a number of issues that
need to be considered:-
 Actions plans specify the actions needed to address each of the top organisational
issues and to reach each of the associated goals, who will complete each action
and according to what timeline;
 Develop an overall, top-level action plan that depicts how each strategic goal will
be reached;
 Develop an action plan for each major function in the organisation, e.g.,
prosecution imperatives, crime and crash problems, media relations,
development, finance, training requirements, personnel, and for each
program/service, etc. These plans, in total, should depict how the overall action
plan will be implemented. In each action plan, specify the relationship of the
action plan to the organisation's overall, top-level action plan;
 Ensure that each law enforcement administrator/supervisor (and, ideally each
employee) has an action plan that contributes to the overall strategic plan. These
plans, in total, should depict how the action plans of the major functions will be
implemented. The relationship of these action plans to the organisation's overall,
top-level action plan must be indicated.

The format of the action plan depends on the nature and needs of the organisation. The
plan for the organisation, each major function, each administrator and each employee,
might specify:-
 The goal(s) that are to be accomplished
 How each goal contributes to the organisation's overall strategic goals
 What specific results (or objectives) much be accomplished that, in total, reach
the goal of the organisation
 How those results will be achieved
 When the results will be achieved (or timelines for each objective)

8.7.4 Developing objectives and timelines

Lastly it is important to include the objectives and the timelines within which the various
activities will be completed:-
 Objectives are specific, measurable results produced while implementing
strategies;
 While identifying objectives, keep asking "Are you sure you can do this?"
 Integrate the current year's objectives as performance criteria in each
"implementer's" job description and performance review;
 Remember that objectives and their timelines are only guidelines, not rules cast
in stone. They can be deviated from, but deviations should be understood and
explained.

It is at this level where law enforcement supervisors will be intimately involved with the
strategic imperatives of the law enforcement agency. It can therefore be stated
categorically that individual patrol officers have to work within the broad framework

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of what is considered important to the local authority and elected political office bearers.

8.7.5 Performance management (Municipal Systems Act - Act 32 of 2000)

As stated above, there is a legal prescription pertaining to performance management that
local authorities must comply with. The Municipal Systems Act, 2000- Act 32 of 2000
inter alias prescribes the following:-

"Performance management is an inter-active process of setting targets, monitoring

performance against those targets, and taking steps to improve performance. It can help
municipalities to work more effectively towards meeting development challenges,
because it allows them to assess the impact of the various strategies they are pursuing. It
can also enhance accountability, because it allows municipal councillors and staff, and
local communities, to monitor whether they are receiving value for money spent on
various services.

Every municipality must establish a performance management system. The performance

management system must be suited to the municipality's circumstances. It must also be
in line with the priorities, objectives, indicators and targets contained in the municipal
Integrated Development Plan (IDP).

A municipality that has identified the extension of water services as a key priority may
want to design its performance management system to enable it to measure the increase
in access to water services in the area. A municipality that has identified inner city
renewal as a key priority may wish to measure indicators such as investment in the inner
city, the state of housing stock in the inner city, crime levels in the inner city, and so on.
Municipalities with more capacity will probably decide to measure their performance
against more indicators than municipalities with less capacity.

Performance management is not only about monitoring and measuring. It is also about
organisational culture; the attitudes and practices which inform how municipal staff
works on a daily basis. Municipalities must promote a culture of performance
management in their structures, political offices, and administration. In other words,
municipalities must encourage working practices which are economical, effective,
efficient and accountable."

8.7.6 Responsibility for developing a performance management system

If a municipality has an executive committee or executive mayor, they are responsible for
the municipality's performance management system. If a municipality does not have an
executive committee or executive mayor, it must appoint a committee of councillors to
manage its performance management system.

The executive committee, executive mayor, or committee of councillors must:

 Manage the development of the municipality's performance management system;

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  Assign responsibilities for the performance management system to the municipal
manager and;
 Submit the proposed performance management system to the municipal council
for adoption.

8.7.7 Core components of a performance management system

The key steps in a municipal performance management system are setting performance
targets and performance indicators, monitoring performance against these indicators,
taking steps to improve performance, and reporting on performance.

Every municipality must set performance targets with regard to each of the development
priorities and objectives in their integrated development plan, and set appropriate key
performance indicators as a yardstick for measuring performance towards achieving those
priorities and objectives. The performance indicators must allow for measurement of
outcomes and impact.

For example, let's say that a municipality has noticed that health conditions are very poor
within informal settlements in its area. The municipality identifies the development of a
healthy living environment as a priority. They set themselves the objectives of improving
the quality of water, sanitation and refuse removal services in informal settlements as a
way of improving health conditions. For each of these services, they set performance
targets, for example, to provide 100 new water connections in each informal settlement
and ensure that refuse is collected on a weekly basis. These are output indicators, which
measure the municipality's outputs (e.g. - 100 water connections). The municipality may
also wish to measure their efficiency, or how much it cost them to install the new water
connections.

It is important that the municipality also sets impact or outcome indicators. These
indicators will help the municipality to work out if it adopted the right strategy towards
addressing health problems in informal settlements. For example, the municipality may
monitor infant mortality in informal settlements, as a measure of the impact of their
strategy.

Once they have chosen key performance indicators and targets, municipalities must make
their indicators and targets known, both internally and to the general public. The
municipal council must decide how to disseminate this information.

Municipalities must monitor their performance against the indicators which they have set
for each development priority and objective, and measure and review their performance
at least once a year. Municipalities must take steps to improve performance with regard
to those development priorities and objectives where performance targets are not met.

Municipalities must establish a regular process of reporting. The process of reporting

must make information of performance available to the council and specific structures
and political office bearers of the municipality; as well as to the public and appropriate
organs of state. Reports on municipal performance should act as an "early warning"
system for underperformance. In other words, performance reports should point to
potential problems before they become crises.

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8.7.8 Community involvement
Municipalities must involve the local community in the development, implementation
and review of the municipality's performance management system. In particular, the
community must be allowed to participate in the setting of appropriate key performance
indicators and performance targets for the municipality.

8.7.9 Reviewing the performance management system

It is unusual for a municipality (or any organisation) to develop a performance
management system which works well in their circumstances overnight. Rather,
municipalities will need to learn as they go along. For example, municipalities may
discover that their targets were not realistic, or that the indicators they used last year did
not allow them to measure what they wanted to measure. Because establishing
performance management systems is a learning process, the Municipal Systems Act
requires that municipalities establish mechanisms to monitor and review their
performance management system. This will allow for the system to be adjusted and
strengthened over time.

8.7.10 General key performance indicators

The National Minister for local government may set general key performance indicators
that apply to all municipalities. Before setting these indicators, the Minister must consult
with the MECs for local government and with organised local government nationally.

In most cases a general key performance indicator will apply to all municipalities, and all
municipalities must include that indicator in their performance management systems.
There may be some cases where a general key performance indicator is not relevant to a
municipality, for example, if the indicator deals with a service that a specific municipality
does not deliver because that service is delivered at a district level. In these cases, the
municipality does not need to incorporate the general key performance indicator into its
performance management system.

8.8 Improving productivity

Often the difference between ideas and producing good results is a good supervisor.
Performance parameters are set at the top but they are mostly accomplished by officers
in the lower ranks. According to Bennet and Hess productivity can be improved by:-

 Explaining organisational goals in detail;

 Permit subordinates to engage in decisions that impact directly on their activities;
 Support and encourage innovation and creativity;
 Increase individual control over the tasks for which officers are responsible.

The following are the counter-balance to the above expectations:-

 Ensure that officers are trained and gain experience;

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  Implement rewards and incentives;
 Provide them the equipment that they need to perform well;
 Invest in technology;
 Implement intelligence-led policing.25

8.9 Conclusion
Law enforcement practitioners do not operate in a vacuum. Neither can they distance
themselves from the greater structures within which they operate. They cannot and should
not alienate themselves from performance management systems on a pretext that law
enforcement activities are unique and not measurable. Law enforcement does not only
consist of arrests and prosecutions, but also a magnitude of other functions and services.
Performance measures must therefore take this into account. Organised labour should not
fear the introduction of performance measurement techniques. They should be an integral
part of this process. It may result in action taken against their members, but on the other
hand it provides some sort of objectivity in the process of ensuring that communities get
the service that they are entitled to.

0000000

_____________________
25
Intelligence-led policing refers to data and information that is required to concentrate on a specific issue.

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 CHAPTER 9

COMMUNICATING WITH SUBORDINATES

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 List and explain the issues that affect effective communication with subordinates.
 Identify and discuss the difference between knowledge, skills, tasks and abilities.
 Explain the causes of ineffective communication.
 Implement strategies to improve communication with your subordinates.
 Discuss the effects and implications of the Abilene Paradox in a law enforcement
environment.

9.1 Introduction
Communication, or rather the lack thereof, lays at the roots of many of the problems that
police agencies worldwide experience. Officers, particularly those at the lower end of the
rank hierarchy often say that they are not properly informed regarding issues that affect
them directly and that most of the time they get their information from fellow-officers.
Supervisors are duty-bound to communicate with their subordinates in such a manner that
rumour mongering and false information does not get a foothold, which may over time
diminish the positive perception that they may have of their supervisor.

9.2 Definition of communication

Communication means the transfer of a message between individuals or a group of
people. It encompasses all the means with which the supervisors inform subordinates why
something must be done, what must be done, how it must be done and by when it must
be done. Communication plays a particularly important role in all management tasks since
it provides the information necessary for work performance. The way that communication
takes place determines the relationships among employees, their attitude, the
organisational climate, morale, motivation and the performance of the officers.

9.3 Important work activities

The Transit and Railroad Police in the USA issued the following list of issues that affect
police officers. The list is in order of importance where a value of 5 is high

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Activity Importance
Getting information 4.6
Monitor processes, materials, or surroundings. 4.4
Performing general physical activities 4.2
Identifying objects, actions and events 4.0
Inspecting equipment, structures or material 3.8
Documenting/recording information 3.6
Making decisions and solving problems. 3.6
Communicating with supervisors, peers 3.4
Communicating with persons outside the organisation 3.4
Coordinating the work activities of others 3.0
Handling and moving objects 3.0
Analysing data or information 2.8
Evaluating information to determine compliance with standards 2.8

Most important abilities

Inductive reasoning 4.4
Oral expression 4.2
Written expression 3.8
Problem sensitivity 3.8
Deductive reasoning 3.6
Oral comprehension 3.4
Speech clarity 3.4
Written comprehension 3.4

Most important skills

Speaking 4.2
Active listening 4.0
Coordination 3.8
Critical thinking 3.6
Social perceptiveness 3.4
Writing 3.2
Reading comprehension 3.2
Active learning 3.2
Complex problem solving 3.2
Monitoring 3.0
Judgement and decision-making 2.8
Learning strategies 2.8
Management and personnel resources 2.8

From the above it is clear that communication skills are very important attributes for law
enforcement officers to be successful in policing.

9.4 Skills, knowledge, abilities and tasks

Although every organisation may have its own view of the traits that are important for
effective law enforcement officers, there will be overlaps in the requisite traits that make
them successful.

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In a career guide the following have been indicated as the required traits for a supervisors
in a detective or managerial position:- (Commonwealth, Career Guide for Police and
Detective Supervisors/Managers)

9.4.1 Skills
 Considering the relative costs and benefits of potential actions in order to choose
the most appropriate alternative;
 Giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand
the points being made, asking questions when appropriate, and no interrupting at
inappropriate times;
 Motivating, developing, and directing people as they work, identifying the best
people for the job;
 Talking to others to convey information effectively;
 Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative
solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems;
 Communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience;
 Understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work related documents;
 Adjusting actions in relation to others' actions;
 Bringing together and trying to reconcile differences;
 Managing one's own time and the time of others.

9.4.2 Abilities
 Communicate information and ideas in speaking so others will understand;
 Combine pieces of information to form general rules or conclusions (includes
finding a relationship among seemingly unrelated events);
 Listen to and understand information and ideas presented through spoken words
and sentences;
 Apply general rules to specific problems to produce answers that make sense;
 Tell when something is wrong or is likely to go wrong;
 Read and understand information and ideas presented in writing;
 Speak clearly so others can understand you;
 Communicate information and ideas in writing so others will understand;
 Identify and understand the speech of another person;
 Arrange things or actions in a certain order or pattern according to a specific rule
or set of rules - (e.g. patterns of numbers, letters, words, pictures, and
mathematical operations)

9.4.3 Tasks
 Explain police operations to subordinates to assist them in performing their duties;
 Inform personnel of changes in regulations and policies, implications of new or
amended legislation, and new techniques of police work;
 Supervise and coordinate the investigation of criminal cases, crashes and offer
guidance and expertise to investigators, and ensure that procedures are conducted
in accordance with laws and regulations (constitutional rights)

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  Investigate and resolve personnel problems within the organisation and charges
of misconduct against staff;
 Train staff in proper police work procedures;
 Maintain logs, prepare reports, and direct the preparation, handling, and
maintenance of departmental records;
 Monitor and evaluate the job performance of subordinates;
 Develop, implement and revise departmental policies and procedures.

A close examination of the above-mentioned issues clearly indicates that law enforcement
officers require excellent communication skills in the execution of their police functions.
A first-line supervisor therefore has to take note of the importance of the role of
communication in their daily tasks. One issue that remains important is never to ignore
an issue raised by a subordinate. If you do not have an appropriate response readily
available, you must make an effort to acquire the necessary information and to revert back
to the officer(s). It may sound insignificant to the average supervisor, but in the mind of
a subordinate it could be a very serious issue. Many protests and strikes are the result of
persons in positions of power who do not listen and respond to those under their
command.

9.5 Effective communication for supervisors

The transfer of information from one person (sender) to another person (receiver) is
known as the process of communication. People have different ways of communicating
with each other. The most important way is by means of talking and writing. People also
communicate by moving their hands (gesture) and pulling their faces (facial expression).
This way of communicating is called non-verbal communication. Communication is as
important to an organisation as a heartbeat to people. Just as a human being cannot stay
alive without a heartbeat, an organisation cannot exist without effective information and
interaction between supervisors and subordinates. Effective communication only takes
place if the receiver of the information understands the message and does what the sender
wants him to do. If supervisors don't communicate effectively, their subordinates will not
understand what is meant with the instructions. This is particularly relevant to the patrol
function. Police work changes constantly and supervisors must keep their subordinates
fully informed about the priorities of the unit/section, or precinct area. When the
supervisor assigns an officer to a specific task, he must make sure that the law
enforcement officer has a clear understanding of the issue and the required interventions.

9.6 Causes of ineffective communication

Many of the words that a supervisor uses everyday are vague or ambiguous, in other
words, they can have more than one meaning. The use of such words often causes a total
misunderstanding of the information by the receiver. The following are examples of how
subordinates may perceive a message: -

Supervisor - "Please attend to the problem of illegal hawkers at the intersection of Adam
and Beatrice Streets as quickly as possible."

Patrol officer's interpretation- 1) Immediately;

2) When I have time;
3) When my other duties have been completed.

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Supervisor - "Please patrol the southern area regularly."

Patrol officer's interpretation 1) Each day;

2) Each week;
3) Each month.

In the above-mentioned examples the supervisor is of the opinion that his communication
is clearly understood, but different persons have different interpretations of instructions.
The communication is actually ineffective in both these cases, as the receiver does not
understand exactly what the supervisor means. The supervisor has to take care to
communicate clearly by using simple language and exact words.

REPEAT THE INSTRUCTIONS ABOVE TO ENSURE THAT THE PATROL

OFFICER UNDERSTANDS EXACTLY WHAT TO DO!

9.7 One-way communication

If the supervisor solely relies on one-way communication, he will probably not know
whether a subordinate understood the message. One-way communication means that the
supervisor transfers the message but the patrol officer does not give any feedback. The
supervisor also does not ask questions to make sure whether the officer understood the
message or not. For effective communication, the successful supervisor must ensure that
there is a two-way communication process. This implies that after a message has been
transferred, the supervisor must determine whether the officers understand exactly what
is expected by getting appropriate feedback.

WHAT PEOPLE HEAR AND SEE IS GREATLY INFLUENCED BY THEIR

ENVIRONMENT, THEIR BACKGROUND AND THEIR INTERESTS.

The word "fire" in a policing milieu will probably elicit a response pertaining to the use
of a firearm, whereas in an emergency services environment it may elicit a response
pertaining to something that burns.

When a supervisor instructs a patrol officer to get rid of a street hawker the latter may
construe this as an instruction to issue a citation and hope that the hawker will vacate the
area. Another officer might view this as an instruction to arrest the offending hawker.
Someone else may elect to view the instruction as a request to confiscate the goods of the
illegal hawker. The supervisor must ensure that the officers understand exactly what is
expected from them. Ineffective communication may precipitate a negative response from
the public.

Effective communication is a two-way process of giving and receiving information

through a number of channels. Whether one is speaking informally to a colleague,
addressing a conference or meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report, the
following principles apply: - (www.uwm.edu)
 Know your audience;
 Know your purpose;
 Know your topic;

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  Anticipate objections;
 Present a rounded picture;
 Achieve credibility with your audience;
 Follow through on what you say;
 Communicate a little at a time;
 Present information in several ways;
 Develop a practical, useful way to get feedback;
 Use multiple communication techniques.

Communication is a very complex issue. When listening to or reading someone else's

message, we often filter what's being said through a screen consisting of our own
opinions. One of the major barriers of communication is our own ideas and opinions.
Remember the old communications game of where a telegraphic message is whispered
into someone's ear.

PEOPLE REMEMBER:-
 10% of what they read;
 20% of what they hear;
 30% of what they see;
 40% of what they hear and see.

9.8 Persuasion
Law enforcement supervisors should exercise the gentle art of persuasion instead of
relying solely on their authority to give instructions.26 Remember the difference between
"power" and "authority" in Chapter 5. The following principles are important in this
respect:-
 Do not oversell or overstate your case. Make use of understatement;
 Outline the topic you are trying to cover into two parts. Firstly give a broad outline
or background, while the second part provides a detailed summary;
 Persuasion depends on clarity and simplicity. Avoid jargon and the uses of buzz
words;
 Be prepared to back up claims or facts immediately;
 Incorporate major anticipated objections into your program or presentation;
 Address all relevant aspects of a topic, especially those that may affect the
functioning of an organisation;
 Where appropriate make use of graphics and audiovisuals;
 Consider ways to get meaningful input from your subordinates;
 Be wary of the effects of the Abilene Paradox.

_____________________
26
Professional law enforcement practitioners will find it easier to persuade their subordinates to comply if
they have a superior knowledge of the subject matter specifically or in general.

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 NEVER FALL INTO THE TRAP OF REFERRING TO “TOP
MANAGEMENT” AS THE SOLE DISTRIBUTOR OF "BAD" NEWS.

New ideas aren't necessarily accepted by officers. The law enforcement supervisor is the
link between the creators of new techniques and the users thereof. The supervisor must
be able to convince subordinates that a particular idea or new strategy is good and has
enough merit to warrant its adoption. Selling these new ideas require preparation,
initiative, patience and resourcefulness. In this age of information overload, a new idea
requires it to "stand out". Suggest the new ideas to subordinates regularly over a period
of time, before you can expect it to "catch on". Don't get discouraged when the first results
or responses are not what you anticipated. Perseverance is required!

REGULAR FEEDBACK MUST BE GIVEN TO SUBORDINATES TO

ALLOW THEM TO REPORT ANY DEFICIENCIES THAT THEY MAY
EXPERIENCE WITH THE NEW “IDEA”

9.9 Sending a message

Messages should be clear and accurate, and sent in a way that encourages retention, not
rejection.

9.9.1 Verbal feedback

Everyone needs the reassurance that they are reading non-verbal communication
correctly. A smile can mean - You're doing great" - "You're doing better than most
beginners" You'll catch on eventually". Use body language effectively and positively.
Consider the following aspects:-

 Focus feedback on behaviour rather than on personality;

 It's always better to focus on a specific event or behaviour than to characterise a

pattern of behaviour;

 Focus feedback on description rather than judgment. Description tells what

happened and judgement evaluates what happened. If feedback on a report is
judgemental and not descriptive the receiver will not know what to do differently.
Don't say - this is a stupid report, rather say something like, this report is not
factual enough, or it does not cover what is required from you;

 Make feedback specific rather than general. Where feedback is specific, the
receiver recognises what to do to improve it, which is not necessarily the case with
general feedback. Patrol officers often submit reports based on their experience
and do not always cover items that are important to a supervisor;

 Consider the needs and abilities of the receiver. Do not overload the receiver with
feedback. Concentrate feedback on those issues that a patrol officer has control
over. Any additional information may confuse the receiver and clout an issue;

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  Ensure that the receiver hear what is said. If the information that is send is
regarded as important, ensure that the receiver fully understands what is meant.
This can be achieved by requesting the receiver to reply to information in a polite
manner. In a policing environment, officers often work alone and without the
luxury of a supervisor that is located in an office next door that can be approached
for assistance. Patrol officers have to obtain clarity or may seek additional
instructions by means of two-way radios and they are often reluctant to seek
further clarity and then act at their own discretion, sometimes with serious
consequences.

Subordinates must continuously be informed about anything that may affect them such
as agency policies, salary increases, new benefits, etc. It is often those issues that do not
affect the patrol officer's work directly, that influence their morale negatively. Make a
point thereof to remain fully informed about everything that may be of interest or
importance to subordinates. If you do not have the information, make a deliberate attempt
to obtain the required information. A constant stream of accurate information will in all
probability put the officers at ease that their supervisor is on top of everything and that he
will guard their interests. Failing to do this will only result in the subordinates getting
information from other, often dubious sources.

9.10 Dealing with the Abilene Paradox

Thirty-years ago, Dr. Jerry Harvey published the now classic "Abilene Paradox: The
Management of Agreement." This parable begins with four adults sitting on a front
Abilene. While porch in Coleman, Texas some 80 kilometres from the town everyone
appears content drinking lemonade and playing dominoes, someone suggests driving into
Abilene for lunch. It is hot, the car is not air-conditioned and the road is dusty. Privately,
no one really wants to go. But each one goes along because each thinks this is what the
others prefer. No one speaks up and they make a long and hot drive to Abilene and back
for an unsatisfying lunch. On the way home, the truth unravels as they come to realise
that no one really wanted to go. In fact even the person who suggested it did not really
want to go, only having made the suggestion because he thought (mistakenly) that the
others were bored. The Abilene Paradox is sometimes called the crisis of agreement.
(Morton, D. 2004)

The Abilene Paradox refers to the phenomenon where people agree with a leader in a
formal discussion, and totally disagree when asked individually whether they support the
decisions taken. This phenomenon occurs in all walks of life, but is particularly evident
in policing due to the strict rank and command regime found in quasi-military
organisations. A "strong" leader also has the tendency to manipulate discussion to the
point where subordinates will not question his strategies. A good supervisor must always
provide opportunities for to subordinates constructively question/query/criticise the
decisions taken, but then they should be provoked to provide better alternatives. It is far
better to allow open critique within the parameters of a formal meeting than the
destructive critique in toilets.

The Abilene Paradox stated simply is: "Organisations frequently take actions in
contradiction of what they really want to do and therefore defeat the very purposes of
what they are trying to achieve." A major corollary of the Abilene Paradox is: "The
inability to manage agreement is a major source of dysfunction in organisations."

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9.11 Conclusion
This chapter briefly indicated the importance of communication. It is not intended as a
comprehensive guide to communication practices. It is merely included to emphasise the
importance of communication between supervisors and the officers under their command.
The patrol function creates unique challenges for supervisors in terms of communication.
The mere fact that officers are scattered over a wide geographical area and don't have the
luxury of seeing other personnel continuously creates unique challenges. Officers may be
on night shift for a week and then on an early morning shift. Their interaction with the
law enforcement agency is most of the time confined to interaction with the supervisor.
Rumours spread fast in such a milieu and may create feelings of alienation and
marginalisation. When negative attitudes set in they have a tendency to fuel further bouts
of antagonism towards the agency. The supervisor must therefore optimise every
opportunity to communicate with patrol officers.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 10

DEALING WITH PROBLEMATIC OFFICERS

After you have completed this unit you should be able to: -

 Identify the issues that govern the supervision of "difficult" employees.

 List the factors that will assist you with dealing with difficult employees.
 Differentiate between the different categories of difficult employees.

10.1 Introduction
Law enforcement supervisors should not expect to win popularity competitions. It may
look like a rosy or cosy job, but supervising a number of adults who often behave like
juveniles in a policing environment are at the best of times a difficult exercise. If we think
that cops will by nature of their job, behave and comply with all departmental rules,
regulations and policies, then we have to think again. The recruitment policies of most of
the law enforcement agencies in South Africa are not on par with developed countries
with the result that a fair percentage of our cops are not suitable “police material.”
Unfortunately these non-starters slip into the system, and it often becomes the
responsibility of first-line supervisors to control their performance to the best of their
ability. The appointment of law enforcement officers is often seen as a panacea to local
politicians who are under pressure from their communities to create opportunities for their
constituents.

10.2 Politics are everywhere

Many law enforcement officers befriend people in "high office." It is here where the
supervisor's conduct is scrutinised continuously. If you are a supervisor you have
probably been reported to people in influential positions more often than you can imagine.
Your every move as a supervisor is carefully watched and any perceived deviant conduct
on your part will be reported. You therefore have the responsibility to ensure that your
supervisory approach is above board and professional. You could easily become a victim
of "character assassination". Your future promotion to higher ranks can directly be
influenced by your subordinates' conduct. Senior law enforcement administrators are
often confronted at meetings about things that happen in the law enforcement agency. In
many instances they do not even have the faintest clue where these damaging reports
originate from. Patrol officers are often the product of nepotism in the recruitment and
appointment policies of employers. Many of these recruits have family members in senior
positions and often visit them when they are off duty (and perhaps also when they are on
duty.) A former Chief of Traffic always recommended to his senior officers to constantly
check the family and friends of the officers under their command to ensure that they stay
abreast of any negative or damaging confrontations with politicians. This will not be
necessary if a supervisor conducts himself in a professional manner.

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When a subordinate, who regularly underperforms becomes the focus of a competent,
effective supervisor, such a subordinate can subtly discredit the supervisor at his/her
"friends" in high places. This can be very damaging to the reputation of the supervisor,
especially if an element of racial or gender bias is "mixed" into the pot of allegations.

10.3 Unionisation is a reality of life

Unions cannot be wished away and supervisors will discover their influence once their
supervisory practices cannot be accounted for. A "regulatory environment" such as that
found in a law enforcement agency, can very quickly escalate into a "litigator
environment". Once you are "tagged" as a supervisor who is often involved with
arbitration issues, it will be difficult to rid yourself of this etiquette. Getting the union on
your back can either be the consequence of you supervising too rigidly i.e. according to
the "book" or to liberal and ignoring the basic principles of sound supervisory practice.
Don't expect favours from shop stewards and the unions; they tend to only protect the
interests of their members at the cost of the employer. There are a number of issues that
first line supervisors can do to prevent embarrassment at disciplinary hearings and
arbitrations. Synoptically they are as follows:-

 Be professional at all times;

 Avoid preferential treatment meted out to some subordinates;
 Monitor performance and keep records meticulously;
 Attempt to resolve issues as soon as they emerge;
 Report misconduct in the prescribed manner to your superiors;
 Know all the policies, procedures, etc of your department;
 Remain on top of everything that occurs on your shift;
 Be fair to all your subordinates.

10.4 Command hurts

It is not always easy to take command of other people. Employees are not all the same,
they come from different backgrounds, different personalities, different characteristics
and worst of all they bring some "baggage" with them that originates from their past. Dr.
James D. Sewell in an article - WHAT THEY DIDN'T TEACH IN MANAGEMENT
SCHOOL - said the following: - In the paramilitary world of law enforcement, there can
ultimately be only one boss." It is often easier to make life-or-death decisions as a police
officer than to initiate procedures that could cost officers their rank, salary or their job.
This is true also for first-line supervisors. Giving orders/instructions or to report a deviant
officer is not always easy. As a first- line supervisor you will feel the same anticipation
as more senior officers when it comes to commanding a number of subordinate patrol
officers. It will always be difficult for the supervisor to act discretionary when it comes
to officers that do not toe the line. The supervisor can easily be regarded as an inhumane
person that does not care for his officers." (www.mediawhore.com)

10.5 Stay in touch

First-line supervisors have the opportunity to get involved with issues that arise from the
patrol function. When circumstances dictate, they can take personal charge of an incident
or an investigation. This will instil a feeling among subordinates that their

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supervisor is there to assist them when the "going gets tough." Supervisors will also gain
respect when their subordinates realise that the supervisor is not always on the look-out
to “gun” them, but that they are also willing to get their hands dirty when it matters. There
are just too many supervisors who believe that when they get promoted to a higher rank,
especially that of a unit/shift supervisor, that they do not have any operational
responsibilities. Many supervisors do not even have a summons-book with them in their
official vehicles. They refuse to institute a prosecution and often call a patrol officer to
the scene to issue a ticket. This is unacceptable conduct on the part of law enforcement
professionals.

10.6 Keep records

Administrative law requires that supervisors keep proper records of everything official
that matters, even though it may not be policy of the law enforcement agency. These
unofficial records may safe you your job as a supervisor. Somebody once remarked that
these records are similar to insurance policies. Legislation permits access to the records
of institutions and you don't want to be seen as the kind of supervisor that does not have
proper control over what happens within your scope of responsibility. Supervisors are
often confronted to produce evidence to back-up their claims that a subordinate performed
poorly. In many instances supervisors only then realise that they ave no documentation
to support their case.

10.7 Difficult officers

Difficult employees can be categorised into the following:-
 Ineffective officers;
 Officers with substance abuse problems;
 Criminal activities;
 Rule violators.

10.7.1 Ineffective officers

Law enforcement officers who fall in this category normally have lower than average
performance records. Their productivity levels are lower than that of the group and this
can be seen from their arrest and prosecution rates. If they perform duties that do not
require them to arrest or prosecute offenders, their output in other fields also tends to
below that of their peers. The standard of the product that they render is of a lower quality
and generally do not meet the expectations of the organisation. The supervisor is
responsible to investigate and to remedy this as soon as possible. If the officer has a skills
deficiency, this can be rectified through skills development programmes. Some officers
will retaliate by stating that their job is not to prosecute people in order to make money
for the agency. This is correct, but neither have they been appointed not to prosecute
offenders.

10.7.2 Officers with substance abuse problems

Alcohol abuse has always been a problem within the law enforcement fraternity.
Supervisors must always be on the lookout for officers who report for duty after they have
been drinking the previous day. Despite the negative influence that it has on the
perception of the public towards the police, the risk of road crashes and workplace

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accidents rise exponentially with a higher level of intoxication.27 Most employers have
formal structured programmes in place to assist employees with substance dependency
problems. The supervisor must act as a referral agent, and later monitor that the
rehabilitation process has been successful.

10.7.3 Criminal activities

Officers in this category get involved with criminal activity, i.e. stealing, fraud, misuse
of agency property, robbery, corruption, extortion, etc. Supervisors have no option but to
act harshly with employees who are involved in criminality. If the investigation requires
advanced techniques, it is advisable to request specialised units to conduct the
investigation. Officers who are involved in criminal activity are normally dismissed after
a successful disciplinary hearing. This type of conduct cannot be tolerated in any way as
it often spreads like a cancer within the organisation until it reaches a point where deviant
behaviour becomes institutionalised. At this point it becomes almost impossible for first
line supervisors to control subordinates. "Cleaning up" of a department where criminality
has become institutionalised requires a massive effort which often results in upheaval,
low morale, low productivity, rumour mongering, mass resignations, etc.

10.7.4 Rule violators

Officers in this category include those who regularly violate the agency's rules of conduct.
These rules are generally contained in the code of conduct, standing orders, policy
documents, etc. Reporting late for duty, verbal abuse of other employees, etc. fall into
this category. Supervisors must, as was previously explained, have a thorough and
comprehensive knowledge of the range of regulatory systems to ensure that they know
when a rule has been violated. Obviously, some rules are more serious than other, and
these require a more systematic approach where less discretionary authority can be
exercised. A supervisor, who continuously ignores to firmly apply the rules of the law
enforcement agency, will find that their authority to act will diminish over time. It is not
easy to just one morning resolve that henceforth all rules are going to be enforced. Your
approach should be to consistently apply strict but fair discipline. It is imperative for first
line supervisors to call on expert assistance when dealing with a problem employee. It is
not expected from a first line supervisor to be so knowledgeable in every aspect when it
comes to dealing with these employees. Supervisors do not have to shy away from these
problems; as assistance is available from either within the law enforcement agency or
from the Human Resources division of the employer.

EXPLAIN YOUR REACTION AND ACTION WHEN YOU DISCOVER THAT

ONE OF YOUR SUBORDINATES REPORT FOR DUTY WHILST UNDER THE
INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL

_____________________
27
Despite the risk of disciplinary action, the conduct of an intoxicated law enforcement officer may
jeopardise the agency and precipitate civil action.

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10.8 Cautionary approach
A law enforcement supervisor that wants to contribute to the good functioning of a law
enforcement agency must avoid the following pitfalls:-

 Do not be exclusionary and closed. Everyone under your command must feel that
they are valuable and that they are full partners in the unit. Even the problem
officers must be treated fairly. Make an attempt to convert them to become
positive contributors in the unit. You are not going to achieve great heights as a
supervisor if you follow a policy of only valuing those officers who render
acceptable standards of service. Spend more time to assist the under-performers.
Listen to everyone and respect everyone. Make sure that everyone is consulted.
Don't become biased. Subordinates must not get the feeling that they must merely
"shut-up and do the job". Communication must become a two-way process -
downward as well as upwards. Don't be open to suggestion but fixed in thinking.
 Don't penalise subordinates who challenge the status quo. Provide space for them
to forward their suggestions and allow for open debate on the merits of their ideas.
 Don't label subordinates as "troublemakers" for challenging the system.
Subordinates must never get the feeling that they will become a target for
retaliation if they contribute by challenging the status quo. You must never be
labelled as abusive, prejudicial or discriminatory.
 Be sensitive towards subordinates who feel disenfranchised as a result of them
belonging to minority, ethnic or gender groups or those who have a different
sexual orientation.
 Keep your ears open for jokes, name-calling etc. that may offend officers under
your command.
 Don't create a "good old boy network" It is a natural phenomenon for people to
group together with like minded people. Supervisors often fall into the trap to rely
only on those officers who support them and who like to socialise with them.
 Treat everybody under your command as a valuable asset and not as a disposable
commodity.
 Don't establish "spy networks" that must report on the conduct of your
subordinates. Everyone under your command must feel that they have the
opportunity to report issues to you without fear of reprisal. Confidential issues
must remain confidential unless it is absolutely necessary to reveal your source of
information. Consult with your source in such an event.
 Internalise this diversity means strength. Homogenous groups are not "stronger"
than heterogeneous groups. Do you think that an all-white group of officers will
be able to infiltrate a black gang and vice versa?
 Don't let your subordinates say the following – yes he is a nice person but lacks
knowledge and is not supportive.
 When you are deployed to a new unit don't rock the boat immediately. Ensure that
you gain enough knowledge about the unit before you commence with the
implementation of radical new ideas and systems. Allow your subordinates to
participate in new ideas, but be firm to implement them if they have merit and is
supported by the majority.

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  Work alongside your subordinates and get a good idea of their frustrations,
problems, challenges, etc. They will appreciate your willingness to learn about
their work environment.
 Be visible and available as much as possible.
 Create teamwork where possible. Teamwork allows everyone to understand issues
from all possible angles and debate will allow you to make sound decisions.
 Learn to accept responsibility and not to pass the buck.
 Ensure that conflict is resolved and that all grievances are attended to.
 Give recognition where it is due.

10.9 Conclusion
There are no perfect supervisors in life. Every supervisor has inherent shortcomings, but
this does not mean that they cannot improve their supervisory styles and techniques to
become more effective and efficient in their work. You have an obligation to our
employers i.e. to ensure that you contribute positively to the well being of society. After
all - you work in society for society. Law enforcement officers are all members of society
that are merely being paid to do what is in effect a primary responsibility of every member
of society. Dealing with problem employees is not as difficult as it may seem. Confront
issues and seek assistance if in doubt! Ignoring a problem employee will only aggravate
the situation.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 11

DEPLOYMENT OF TRAFFIC PERSONNEL

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 List different types of patrol;

 Explain the difference between the different types of patrols;
 Differentiate between the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of
patrol;
 Use case studies to identify issues that may impact on crime prevention strategies;
 Develop an appropriate deployment strategy for the law enforcement agency.

11.1 Introduction
It was already stated in a previous chapter that human resources constitutes the single
biggest expenditure item on the law enforcement agency's budget.28 Law enforcement
administrators often complain that they do not have sufficient human resources to police
effectively. This may be true, but in order to quantify any shortages police management
will have to make a convincingly good case for additional funding. Another important
aspect is that supervisors have an important responsibility to ensure that the available law
enforcement officers are deployed in the most effective manner. It is often found that two
or more officers ride in patrol cars. There may at times be valid reasons for this practice,
but it is often the result of a shortage of patrol vehicles. It is exactly for this reason that
supervisors must be enabled to structure and deploy their available officers in such a
manner that the highest possible return on investment can be achieved.

Every law enforcement agency has its own deployment strategies based on their unique
circumstances. If it works for them, then there is no compelling reason to change it, unless
they say that it works, but cannot substantiate these claims! The main question is whether
the deployment strategies and techniques can be further refined and improved? This
manual deals with a generic approach to the deployment of patrol officers. First of all it
is important to note that the point of departure of any deployment strategy is to post patrol
officers at those localities where the highest incidence of crime and crashes are, during
the times when they occur and then to concentrate on crime and crash causative factors.
If supervisors merely use this approach in its elementary form, they will achieve some
rudimentary success. A first- line supervisor must always ask himself; what are my goals
and objectives and secondly; to what extent am I applying my limited resources toward
the attainment of these goals? It was stated earlier that the patrol function cannot be
viewed in isolation.

______________________
28
The cost of human resources - salaries etc. may consume up to 80 percent of an agency's budget. This is
particularly problematic in the smaller municipal law enforcement agencies.

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It forms part of the broader set of goals and objectives contained in the law enforcement
agency's business plan.

11.2 Uniformed deployment tactics

The deployment of uniformed law enforcement officers accentuates prevention over
apprehension and forms the backbone of patrol operations. The visibility of patrol officers
increases the perception of omnipresence by the police. Arrest is not a primary
consideration as the range of services rendered by patrol officers span much wider than
that. Although the apprehension of offenders is not a primary focus area, officers on patrol
still effect a fair share of the agency's arrests, particularly insofar as traffic related offences
are concerned. Visibility and the capacity to respond to calls for assistance accentuate the
goals of safety and security in society.

11.2.1 Static patrols

This type of patrol refers to the stationing of an officer at a specific locality/facility with
restricted mobility coupled with clear instructions in respect of his duties. This type of
patrol is primarily focused at securing a location/facility such as a shopping centre, sport
stadium, public building, airports, etc. and is aimed at:-

 police visibility;
 crime prevention;
 dissemination of information;
 public assistance;
 observation.

Some law enforcement officers abhor performing this type of patrol function as it is
viewed as the work of private security personnel. In some countries these officers are
stationed at specifically located booths to enhance their visibility and to promote access
to police services. As a general rule, supervisors should not deploy highly trained patrol
officers on this type of patrol, as it would constitute a waste of valuable resources. These
officers should rather be deployed to perform law enforcement functions that require a
high degree of expertise.

11.2.2 Random foot patrol in a designated area

This patrol tactic refers to the patrolling of an area in a random and unscheduled manner.
The fact that it is unscheduled provides patrol officers an opportunity to use their own
initiative and discretion. Random patrol is intended to maximise police visibility and
presence at unpredictable times, conveying to would-be violators an impression of police
omnipresence throughout the designated area. Officers on this type of patrol are not given
any specific instructions for activity. They are guided by the following objectives:-

 reduce or eliminate conditions that may support criminal activity;

 respond rapidly to any calls for police assistance;
 conduct preliminary investigations at crime scenes;
 enforce legislation, including citing or the arrest of violators;
 providing assistance and a sense of security to the community.

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These officers are also responsible to ensure that peace is maintained, assist with quality
of life prescriptions and should adopt a zero tolerance to disorderly behaviour, vandalism,
and graffiti, etc. It is important that officers on motorised patrols provide officers on
random foot patrol with a fast back-up service. This will not only reassure foot patrol
officers that help is readily available, but will defuse volatile situations where foot patrol
officers have to arrest perpetrators.

11.2.3 Directed patrol in a designated area

This type of patrol is based on an analysis of crash and crime data as well as complaints
from the community. Officers have to patrol a specific designated area and perform pre-
planned crash and crime related activities at specific localities. They are also responsible
to respond to any call for assistance within the designated area. The activities of these
patrols can play an important role to ensure that agency objectives are met. It can also be
seen here that this type of patrol requires more input from the supervisor i.e. to guide the
activities of officers on patrol. Planning by the supervisor is a prerequisite to ensure its
success. Many of the activities performed by these patrol officers overlap with that of the
previously mentioned random patrols, but there is the likelihood that the officers' presence
will have a greater impact on minimising crashes and crimes. A thorough analysis of
crime and crash data is required to maximise the effect of this type of patrol.

11.2.4 Visibility posts

This form of patrol refers to the posting of law enforcement officers at specific points
where they will be the most visible to the travelling public. It should preferably in close
proximity to high frequency crash locations. Officers can either be on foot or in a patrol
vehicle depending on the specific requirements. This patrol tactic is most useful during
times where a higher degree of visibility at specific locations is required e.g. during peak
periods where vehicles or pedestrian volumes increase on major routes during long
weekends and holidays. It is designed to provide the travelling public with a sense of
protection and safety. It reassures the public that the police are in control and that help is
readily available. These patrols can also be combined with other types of patrols i.e. where
the officer has to vacate his post after peak hours. Many law enforcement officers activate
their blue emergency lights during peak hour traffic conditions to further advance their
visibility.

11.2.5 Zone-wide general patrol

In this type of patrol officers are assigned to patrol an entire area or sections thereof, often
referred to as zones. This can be done in a scheduled or in an irregular or unscheduled
manner. This type of patrol requires from law enforcement officers to use their discretion
and initiative. The officers can be instructed to concentrate on a limited number of specific
issues identified by the supervisor or can be allowed to concentrate on issues that they
feel are important. When not attending to incidents, they must identify offenders and
institute an appropriate response and create an illusion of omnipresence. Throughout their
patrols officers must also interact with the public and provide assistance, and to
demonstrate their availability to intervene if required. Supervisors can also in appropriate
circumstances instruct law enforcement officers to report directly on patrol instead of
driving to the office.

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This will increase patrol time (and productivity) but it must be carefully monitored to
ensure compliance with instructions.

11.2.6 Zone-wide directed patrol

Based on crashes and crime data, law enforcement officers are instructed to patrol an area
or sections thereof, utilising pre-planned crime and crash data to deter crime and minimise
crash risks at specific locations. This type of patrol compliments the basic principle of
patrol i.e. officers must be deployed at those locations during the days and times with the
highest incidence of crashes and crimes and to concentrate on the causes thereof. The
officers' discretion to decide which issues to concentrate on is limited. A variation of this
patrol technique is the directed deterrent patrol. This attempts to attack a highly specific
crime problem at a specific locality. Officers are briefed in detail on how to approach a
problem and they therefore have little discretion to deviate from the intended course of
action.

11.3 Saturation patrols

Saturation patrol is a tactical intervention in a specific area for the purpose to create a
perception of maximum omnipresence.29 It is a very useful tactic to saturate an area with
a large number of patrol officers in order to re-establish a sense of order. It is intended to
indicate to law abiding citizens that the law enforcement agencies are still in control. It
also aims to prosecute as many offenders as possible in a short space of time. The
erstwhile Germiston Traffic Department established saturation units that were deployed
in areas with high crime rates. This was prior to the establishment of metropolitan police
departments. The traffic officers attached to these units used traffic legislation to stop and
inspect every vehicle in the targeted area. The units also worked in close cooperation with
the South African Police Service. Response times were reduced to a few minutes due to
the high concentration of patrol vehicles in the designated area. The units had a high
success rate but it was also noted that the units displaced crime to other areas. The "game
plan" was to move into an area for a week or two and then to move on to the next area.
The challenge was to identify areas which showed an increase in crime and then to focus
on those areas. The residual impact of law enforcement visibility was applied effectively
with the deployment of the saturation patrols.

Another form of saturated enforcement is the use of large numbers of law enforcement
officers at road blocks in pre-selected areas. Illegal street racing on public roads are often
the target of saturated enforcement. This entails the cordoning off of the whole area where
street racing occurs and then to systematically inspect every vehicle within the designated
perimeter for road-worthiness. The use of a vehicle on a public road is discontinued if
any defect whatsoever is found. This implies that the vehicle's licence disc is removed
and the vehicle must be presented to a testing station to get it licensed again. A road block
targeted at driving whilst intoxicated is another form of saturated enforcement. Saturated
enforcement has specific advantages but due to resource impediments it is not a
sustainable form of patrol in a large area. At best it can be argued that it supplements
other forms of patrol.

______________________
29
In a military sense saturation can be related to overwhelming the enemy with intensive bombing.

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"One of the most effective tactical operations employed by the New York City Police
Department during the 1980's was Operation Pressure Point. Located in the city's Lower
East Side, Operation Pressure Point involved using numerous young rookie officers on
foot patrol. The officers were encouraged to use aggressive field interrogation techniques
and undercover operations to combat the sale and possession of drugs, which had ravaged
the neighbourhood for years. Operation pressure Point was so successful that property
prices began to sky-rocket turning the area into a gentrified high rent section of the city.
Although crime was reduced in the targeted area, it was merely displaced to adjoining
neighbourhoods. (Dempsey J.S. & Forst L.S. 2010) This large scale saturated
enforcement project again illustrated the advantageous effect of this type of patrol but on
the counter side it re-enforced the fact that police visibility only has a short term impact.

Another study in a New York precinct indicated that an increase of 50 percent in police
officers resulted in a 30 to 50 percent decrease in crime. Another study at the subway
service indicated that an increase in police patrols during the times that robberies took
place decreased the incidence of this type of crime. However, it was later noted that there
was an increase in similar robberies when police presence was limited. (Dempsey J.S. &
Forst L.S. 2010) It again illustrates that police patrols in essence only deters crime for a
short period of time and is usually displaced.

Many of the larger metropolitan police departments deploy foot patrols in designated
areas. Officers patrol in groups of up to six and even 8 officers. The immediate question
that can be asked is whether this is an effective use of saturation tactics and whether
smaller groups at various locations would not have achieved better results?

11.4 Ancillary issues

Supervisors must also take note of the following issues that could affect their patrol
activities:-
 Uniformed or plainclothes deployment tactics;
 Crime prevention through environmental design;
 Saturation tactics;
 Horizontal residual effect;
 Vertical residual effect.

The deployment of plainclothes officers is primarily aimed at affecting more arrests i.e.
where the visibility of a uniformed officer merely deters an offender while the officer is
in close proximity.30 Persistent problems at specific locations may warrant the
deployment of plainclothes officers, but it should only be considered if all other methods
do not have the desired effect. Crime prevention through environmental design refers to
the minimisation of opportunities to commit crime by altering the physical environment
to make it difficult for would-be criminals to commit their crimes without a high risk of
detection and/or apprehension. Saturation on the other hand merely implies that a specific
area is saturated with a police presence to such an extent that it is almost impossible to
commit a crime without the risk of detection and/or apprehension.
___________________
30
The National Road Traffic Act, 1996, prescribes that an officer must be in uniform when exercising the
powers of a traffic officer in terms of this Act. Unmarked patrol vehicles may be utilised but should be
deployed with caution.

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11.4.1 Horizontal and vertical effect
Horizontal and vertical residual "effect" are two tactics that could be introduced to fool
the public insofar as the presence of a patrol officer is concerned. The first implies posting
a patrol officer at a specific locality during similar periods of time over a few consecutive
days. Road users soon realise that there is an officer at a locality. When the officer is
removed, the spill-over effect still lingers on for some time. The public expect to find the
officer at that locality even though he has been posted at another locality. This residual
value can be exploited to maximise the perception of police omnipresence. Vertical
residual effect refers to the posting of an officer on a specific locality at various times
during his shift. The public later realise that the officer may be there at any given time
even though he is posted to another locality. The spill over effect will remain for an
undetermined period, usually for a few days. Supervisors should experiment with these
two tactics to ensure that their officer availability is maximised.

11.5 Patrol Methods/Techniques

The patrol function can be executed by means of a number of methods (patrol techniques).
Originally patrols were on foot or horseback. This was followed by bicycle patrols and
then motor vehicles. Boats were later used for waterways and helicopters and fixed-wing
aircraft for aerial patrols. Despite advances in technology, foot and vehicular patrols
remain the most widely used methods of patrol. Other methods are largely used for
dedicated tasks in specialised units.

11.5.1 Foot patrol

The word patrol is derived from the French word patrouiller which means to travel on
foot. Foot patrols were initially the only form of patrol and are therefore the oldest method
of patrol. Foot patrols have the advantage that it allows for close contact with citizens and
is good for prevention rather than reactive policing. In a traffic law enforcement agency
foot patrols are mostly confined to business districts. Parking restrictions can effectively
be policed by means of foot patrols. The visibility of uniformed officers on foot creates a
feeling of assurance among pedestrians and to a lesser extent to motorists. The major
disadvantage with foot patrols is the fact that patrol officers cannot react to crashes and
crimes outside walking distance. It is therefore not geared towards reactive policing. Most
law enforcement agencies deploy patrol vehicles in a manner that they are able to respond
to calls for service. Patrol vehicles must also be available as a police back-up service to
foot patrollers. Should foot patrollers arrest a person they usually call for a back-up patrol
vehicle to assist with the transportation of the accused to a police station? When foot
patrols are combined with motorised patrols they are very effective. Foot patrols are also
highly effective at large shopping malls, at special events, spots events, etc. A question
that still requires some research is to determine whether solo foot patrols are more
effective that multi-person patrols. In other words, how many foot patrol officers should
ideally conduct foot patrols? Are groups of up to 6 foot patrol officers more effective than
a solitary foot patroller or say two foot patrollers? One other disadvantage of foot patrols
is that officers cannot carry any significant equipment with them. In the event of a crash,
they have to call back-up assistance from motorised patrol units. The biggest advantage
of foot patrols apart from parking enforcement is the potential to create positive
partnerships through effective communication. Parking control must be executed with
circumspection i.e. not punitively but proactively.

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Some law enforcement agencies do not deploy senior officers to foot patrol units and
retain this function exclusively for new recruits. Foot patrols must not be viewed as an
inferior method of patrol.

11.5.2 Motorised patrol

Motorised patrol is the most widely used method of patrol in law enforcement agencies
worldwide. This is due to the fact that a vehicle allows for a wide area to be covered by a
single patrol officer. It is therefore very cost-effective and ensures a quick response to
calls for service. This method of patrol gives a lot of flexibility to law enforcement
supervisors to increase the number of patrol vehicles in an area if circumstances dictate
that more resources are required at trouble spots. Radio communication allows for instant
interaction with a radio control centre as well as communication with supervisors and
peers. One of the major drawbacks of motorised patrols is that it limits effective
communication between law enforcement personnel and citizens. It is also relatively
difficult for an officer in a patrol vehicle to observe minor indicators of crimes in progress
and disorder. Patrol vehicles have the major advantage that onboard computers can be
installed as well as global positioning systems. This allows for fast enquiries pertaining
to a suspect's vehicle and the possible driver. Global positioning systems (GPS) coupled
to tracking systems allow supervisors to monitor the locations where officers patrol and
to redeploy officers based on operational requirements. Many law enforcement agencies
install electronic recording equipment in vehicles. This allows for safer and more
professional interaction between officers and citizens. Recording equipment also prevent
abusive conduct on the part of law enforcement personnel. Another advantage of patrol
vehicles is that it carries equipment that is required for at-scene safety at crash scenes.
The patrol vehicle can also be located in such a position that it offers safety to officers
that have to investigate crash scenes on freeways. The emergency blue lights are an added
advantage at crash scenes. Vehicles also allow officers to pursue fleeing suspects. A
disadvantage of patrol vehicles is the cost to procure and maintain them properly. Law
enforcement agencies must ensure that they have proper policies and fleet management
systems in place to maximise the use of the vehicle fleet. Another disadvantage of patrol
vehicles is that crashes may lead to serious injuries and the death of police personnel.
Law enforcement officers deployed to patrol vehicles have to be trained extensively in
advanced driving techniques.

11.5.3 Motorcycle patrol

Motorcycle patrols are highly effective for traffic enforcement purposes. They are
particularly useful in congested streets. Motorcycle patrols are also very effective for
parades and vehicle escorts. They carry only a limited amount of equipment. The biggest
advantage is the speed with which they can respond to calls for service. The disadvantage
is that it requires specially trained officers as a crash with a motorcycle usually produces
serious injuries or death. Motorcycles are generally expensive to maintain. Their
application in adverse weather conditions limits their use somewhat. The use of
motorcycles for patrol purposes have diminished over time due to the advantages that
motorcar patrols have. Motorcycles are very useful in specific circumstances and should
be retained as a method of patrol. Many police departments have motorcycles for parades
and the escorting of VIP's

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11.5.4 Bicycle patrols
The use of bicycle for police patrol purposes has regained some popularity over the last
couple of years. Bicycle patrols have limited applications but where appropriate it is
highly effective, such as beaches, parks, certain business districts, etc. The fact that they
are silent allows for a larger element of surprise. A bicycle patrol also allows for improved
communication with citizens compared to motorised and motorcycle patrols. There is still
some level of apprehension towards the use of bicycle for patrol purposes.

11.5.5 Mounted patrol

Mounted patrol (equestrian units) evolved from earlier military antecedents. Horses were
used for police patrols prior to the emergence of motor vehicles. Mounted patrols are
particularly effective in park areas and mountainous terrain where stock theft occur.
Mounted units have a high community relations value. Mounted patrols are highly
effective in the case of crowd control. It has been estimated that one mounted officer is
equal to 10 foot patrol officers. The advantage of being on horseback is that the officer
has an almost unrestricted view of the surrounding environment. The disadvantage of
mounted units is that horses require proper care. These units also have to transport the
horses to the areas where they have to patrol.

11.5.6 Air patrol

Aerial patrols have specific advantages e.g. where large areas have to be patrolled. These
patrols can be conducted with helicopters, fixed wing aircraft and gyrocopters. The cost
to operate an air wing is prohibitive for smaller law enforcement agencies. A helicopter
has the advantage that it can reach a locality very fast and is ideally suited for pursuing a
suspect in a fleeing vehicle. It is estimated that an officer in a helicopter 150 meters in the
air has a 30 times better visual range than a unit on the ground, providing a patrol capacity
equal to 15 squad cars. (Wrobleski, H. M. & Hess K, M. 2006) Air patrols are very
effective during peak holidays when traffic volumes skyrocket. Large distances can be
covered in a short period of time. Helicopters can also be used to evacuate persons trapped
in disaster areas and can transport injured persons from crash scenes, etc.

11.5.7 Water patrol

Water patrols have limited application, but where it is appropriate they render excellent
capabilities to law enforcement agencies. Water patrol units are found at the coast, inland
dams and rivers. They are effective at localities where people congregate such as holiday
resorts etc. They also assist with search and rescue operations during disasters, floods,
drowning, etc.

11.5.8 Special terrain patrol

Some law enforcement agencies have special purpose vehicles for patrol purposes. In
areas where snow is prevalent a law enforcement agency will invest in snowmobiles. In
rugged terrain a quad bike or other type all-terrain vehicles may be required.

11.6 Solo-officer patrols versus Two-officer squads

One of the more important issues that have to be considered is whether to have one or
two officers assigned to a patrol vehicle. There are no rules that are cast-in-stone that
regulate this contentious issue. Circumstances will dictate whether one, two or in rare
cases three officers should be assigned to a patrol vehicle.

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The single-officer unit is more widely found in the USA whereas in South Africa two-
officer units are more prevalent. Where single officer units are deployed, two or more
vehicles can be dispatched to a scene if required. Two officer units should be restricted
to those areas, shifts and types of activities most likely to pose a threat to the officer's
safety, for example during the evening or in high-crime areas. (Wrobleski, H. M. & Hess
K, M. 2006) Single officer units are more cost-effective as the same number of officers
can cover twice the area, twice the power of observation and twice the level of mobility.
In addition, officers working alone are generally more cautious in dangerous situations,
recognising that back-up is not readily available. Officers working alone are less likely to
get involved in physical encounters with suspects due to the fact that they act with due
care.

It is a known fact that when officers work in pairs, they are easily distracted by
conversation and they are not quite as observant as they might have been on their own.
Officers working in pairs or groups may develop a sense of confidence about their
abilities, often with disastrous consequences.31 Pairing officers for patrol purposes must
therefore be considered by weighing all the advantages and disadvantages of this method
of patrol.

The issue of one-officer versus two-officer patrol cars is basically a choice between safety
issues on the one hand and budget or staffing issues on the other. If the law enforcement
agency is of the opinion that the safety of officers will be compromised by one-officer
patrol car deployment, then two-officer patrol deployment must get preference. If
however, officer safety is not considered as a major concern, one- officer patrol should
be introduced. Both methods can be applied in a law enforcement agency, based on the
area to be patrolled, the potential risks and other issues such as budgetary constraints.
Both methods have specific advantages and constraints. What is unacceptable is when
more than two officers patrol in one vehicle due to the unavailability of patrol vehicles.
In such cases, the excess number of officers must be deployed to other functions such as
foot patrol. In South Africa two- officer patrol cars get precedence over one-officer
patrols. This is due to the prevalence of fatal attacks against law enforcement officers.
The choice between one- officer and two-officer patrols will remain a sensitive issue.
There is no clear-cut response to this question.

11.7 Ad-hoc patrol strategies

Law enforcement agencies are often confronted by new challenges such as an increase in
certain categories of crime; crashes etc. Two methods of addressing these challenges are
to use tactical officers to patrol more aggressively or to target specific areas with saturated
patrol operations.

11.7.1 Aggressive patrol

Aggressive patrol refers to the situation where officers stop as many people as possible
in an attempt to find evidence that they have committed a crime or may be committing a
crime. Using field interrogation can be effective to create a sense that the police are
dedicated to apprehend perpetrators of crime. This type of patrol has an inherent potential
of police misconduct.
______________________
31 Some law enforcement officers may tend to display their "power" when a group is confronted by an
individual that resists arrest or who challenges the authority of the group. This often results in the excessive
use of force.

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Officers can get carried away by an instruction to patrol and interrogate citizens more
aggressively. "Aggressively" must not be construed as physical or verbal aggression but
patrol aggression. Studies in San Diego indicated that areas that are patrolled aggressively
have lower crime rates those areas that are not subjected to this type of patrol. (Dempsey,
J.S. & Forst L.S. 2010) Researchers James Q Wilson and Barbara Boland found that
proactive, aggressive law enforcement styles may help reduce crime rates. They found
that jurisdictions that encourage law enforcement officers to stop as many vehicles as
possible and to issue citations or to arrest and detain suspicious persons experience lower
crime rates than do jurisdictions that do not do follow such proactive policies. Sampson
and Cohen found that departments that more actively enforced disorderly conduct and
traffic laws also experienced lower robbery rates. (Dempsey, J.S. & Forst L.S. 2010) This
is very important for traffic law enforcement agencies in South Africa as it accentuates
the role of these agencies in crime prevention through traffic enforcement practices.

Stuster's 1995 study of municipal speed enforcement examined the effects of municipal
traffic enforcement methods on a variety of dependent measures. In addition to measures
of traffic safety reported previously, the incidence of crimes in the special zones was
analysed as a control measure in two experimental communities. Overall, serious crimes
(e.g., murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, larceny, arson, and motor vehicle theft)
declined by eight percent in the special enforcement zones of one of the experimental
communities, and by one percent in the other experimental community. Less serious
crimes (e.g. drug violations, vandalism, disorderly conduct, and prostitution) increased
by four percent in the comparison community's control zones. None of the changes in
serious crimes as a whole was statistically significant, but both experimental communities
experienced significant declines in the incidence of the larceny and theft. This is the one
type of crime equally likely to occur during nighttime as well as daylight hours (i.e. when
the special enforcement was conducted). Analyses found the 11 and 12 percent declines
in larceny and theft to be statistically significant and attributable to the deterrence effect
of the special enforcement programs; larceny/theft declined less than 2 percent statewide
and increased by 4 percent in the control zones of the comparison community.

11.8 Case study 1

As supervisor you get the following complaint:- A number of youths regularly play soccer
in an open section of land adjacent to a housing complex. The complainant alleges that
this occurs over weekends when they want to rest. According to the complainant, the
youths are disorderly, make a lot of noise and verbally abuse them whenever they go out
to complain. How will you respond to this matter?

Case study 2
You are informed that illegal drugs are being sold to schoolchildren at a venue close to
the school. What will your course of action be?

Practical exercise
You have 7 law enforcement officers under your command. You have to cover a precinct
area. You have 5 patrol vehicles. There are 4 traffic point duties to cover during the shift.
Part of your responsibility is to ensure that all road crashes are attended to.

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You also have an outstanding complaint regarding an unruly motorist in a residential area.
The biggest crime problem in your area is housebreaking - residential. Twenty four
reports of this crime were registered with the SAPS the previous month. How will you
deploy your officers? Motivate your strategy! Compile your duty list and explain your
reasoning!

11.9 Conclusion
In an environment where law enforcement officers are deployed, first line supervisors
must perform this function with due regard to crash and crime data, complaints, special
projects, crime prevention, visibility etc. The practice of many supervisors to deploy
patrol officers based on their personal knowledge of an area alone cannot suffice in the
world of professional law enforcement. Supervisors have a responsibility to plan their
deployment strategies based on a proper analysis of data available in the agency. If such
a practice is followed it will allow the supervisor to argue for more resources in a
responsible manner. It is also important to appreciate that there is not a cure-all for all
patrol strategies and problems.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 12

SHIFTS AND SCHEDULING REQUIREMENTS

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 Explain the physiology of shift work.

 Identify factors that affect circadian rhythms.
 Determine the best shift system for a law enforcement agency.
 List the issues that will improve a persons' supervisory skills.

12.1 Introduction
Most law enforcement agencies are faced with the dilemma that more is expected from
fewer resources. Officers are often exposed to long working hours with disruptive
sleeping patterns. This affects the performance of subordinates and may even precipitate
an increase in workplace accidents, including the risk of motor vehicle crashes. Long
working hours have a myriad of effects on the patrol officer that may manifest itself in
increased absence, fatigue and accidents. This chapter is based on research conducted by
Carl Mason of the Merseyside Police Department, UK. (Heimdal et al. 2006)

Supervisors must always keep in mind the fact that there is no such thing as a good shift
system. Due to a variety of factors, shifts have to be developed with due regard to
organisational requirements, legislation, customer demand, employee welfare, crime and
crash patterns, etc. Fatigue in the workplace, where cumulative sleep loss causes an
incremental decrease in performance over the short term, and more serious health risks
over the long term. These can include chronic fatigue syndrome, gastro- intestinal
problems, mental disorders, heart disease, and even reproductive problems. If we consider
the other stressors in the police work environment, it further exacerbates the problem
facing police administrators. The two interventions that supervisors can implement, is a
proactive approach and reactive measures. The first relates to the development of rosters
(work schedules) that will minimise sleep disruptions. The latter relates to issues such as
coffee breaks, rest periods, etc. to increase alertness.32

12.2 The physiology of shift work

The human body operates with certain dynamic rhythms; cyclical patterns that effect our
physiological and physical state. Shift work disrupts these patterns, particularly at night.
Disruptions not only have effects upon the individual but also on the organisation.
Chronic absenteeism is one of these effects. Research has indicated that short-term
absenteeism can be directly linked to shift patterns.

__________________
32
Shifts must also take into account when most crashes occur.

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We must keep in mind that patrol officers are subjected to shift work for many years, up
to thirty, so one can imagine the long-term consequences if shift schedules do not take
into account the wellbeing of the officer.

12.2.1 The circadian rhythm

Humanity has evolved over its existence into a rhythmic world of peaks and troughs, of
light and darkness, of ebb and flow. We are connected in many ways to the cycle of day
and night as inextricably as the majority of species on the planet. For humans to stay
awake at night is an unnatural activity. Our biochemistry has certain attributes that tend
to be relatively ordered (fixed) and working irregular hours disrupt these patterns,
particularly hormonal cycles and body temperature. Alertness closely follows the body
temperature rhythm, rising gradually during the day to peak in the evening. The first
alertness peak, in the morning, is not normally as high as that of the evening, but the
evening peak is preceded by a "post-lunch" slump, or siesta time. Attending training
and/or a conference allows you to feel the effect of this slump after lunch. During the
night, various systems within the body effectively "close down" the stomach for example,
radically reduces the production of gastric juices used in the digestion of food. Body
temperature drops measurably.

12.3 The effect of night work in the disruption of circadian rhythms

The negative effects that are suffered by officers who regularly have to work night shifts
will not affect officers who only work day shifts. This is due to the fact that they sleep at
night and are active during the day. The adverse affect of shift work usually manifests
itself in the subjective feelings of malaise. Such malaise involves lethargy, poor appetite
and a generally negative mood. Increased absenteeism and a lowered morale naturally
impacts on the performance of those officers and the agency as a whole. It normally takes
approximately 5 night shifts for the body to adapt to the night shift. The biochemistry,
which governs mood, hunger, alertness and sleeping habits, subtly, changes through the
production of different levels of certain hormones. The end result is the move of the
circadian phase towards a more nocturnal cycle. This process has taken between five to
seven days to progress to levels where improvements in adaptation can be recognised
during the night. It may take at least the same number of days to change back to a day
time cycle.

12.4 Advice for supervisors

Based on extensive research into the effects of night work, it was concluded that older
officers are more prone to the effects of shift work compared to younger officers. It is
also advisable to implement shorter runs of night shifts with longer breaks (off-days)
before returning to day shifts. Scheduling may be arduous but supervisors have a "duty-
to-care" to employees. This will not only benefit the productivity of the agency, but will
also minimise the prevalence of accidents involving patrol officers. If you do not have
the influence to change the shift system, you can at least advise your subordinates to take
a "nap" before they report for night shift. It is also advisable to make contact with them
during the period 02h00 and 04h00 and arrange for an informal coffee break. Ensure that
you are fully observant in respect of officers that display signs of malaise due to shift
work and devise strategies to deal with these problems.

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Examine and discuss the following proposals in a law enforcement agency in respect of
its shift system:-
 Minimise permanent night shifts;
 Minimise the sequence of night shifts: only 2- 4 night shifts in succession should
be worked;
 Consider shorter night shifts;
 Avoid quick change-over;
 Plan rosters with some free weekends;
 Rotate shifts forward (i.e. clockwise rotation morning/evenings/nights);
 Avoid early starts.

12.5 Shift systems

There are a number of different strategies and different types of shift systems that can be
considered by the law enforcement agency. The following types are relevant:-

12.5.1 Fixed systems

Fixed shifts cause the least disruption to circadian rhythms, provided that office maintain
the same sleep/awake cycle on their rest days as on their workdays. Most officers on night
shift revert to a normal day/night cycle on their off-days to participate in their
social/family life, thus negating any adjustment in circadian rhythms.

12.5.2 Slow rotating shifts

Slow rotating shifts allow for greater time for circadian rhythms to adjust to each new
shift. However this shift system can result in sleep debt and fatigue due to more
consecutive periods of day sleep.

12.5.3 Weekly rotating shifts

These shifts have shown to provide insufficient time for the circadian rhythms to adjust
completely and enough time for a sizable sleep debt to build. Working 4 to 7 night shifts
in a row is now widely condemned by experts.

12.5.4 Rapid rotating shifts

These have the advantage that (a) the circadian rhythms remain day oriented since not
enough time elapses for them to adjust to the new routine, (b) there is not enough time
for sleep debt to accumulate; and (c) there are free evenings every week for social/family
contact. Supervisors can where possible and operational requirements do not dictate it,
allow some of the subordinates to work an evening shift instead of a night shift.

12.5.5 Direction of rotation

Forward rotation (early - evening - nights) is the recommended pattern from a circadian
perspective. It is easier to delay sleep than to advance it.

12.5.6 Early starts

Early starts should be avoided as most people go to bed in line with family requirements,
whether by choice or by necessity. Reduced sleep leads to fatigue that in turn increases
the risk of errors and accidents on the morning shift.

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12.5.7 Shorter night shift
As mental alertness and physical performance deteriorates during the night it is argued
that shifts should be restricted to 7 - 8 hours to minimise the risk of accidents and errors.

12.5.8. Rest days

Sleep debt does not have to be paid back in full on rest days, as recovery sleep is deeper
than normal sleep. However two nights of unrestricted sleep after a sequence of night
shifts is recommended to recover from sleep loss.

12.6 General issues

There are also a few other issues that supervisors must monitor to minimise fatigue in
patrol officers. One is to control the number of hours overtime worked by subordinates.
There are many instances where officers work astonishing amounts of overtime mixed
with normal hours and extra duties. Even if supervisors are under pressure to provide
officers for overtime, they must ensure that they do get enough time to rest. Police work
is the one occupation in which it is extremely important that practitioners must get
adequate and healthful sleep in order for them to perform their duties at peak alertness
levels. Not only is fatigue associated with individual misery, but it can also lead to
counterproductive behaviour. It is well known that impulsiveness; aggression, irritability,
and angry outbursts are associated with sleep deprivation. It is totally reprehensible that
the cops we expect to protect us, come to our aid, and respond to our needs when
victimised should be allowed to have the worst fatigue and sleep conditions of any other
job in society. (Dement W.C. in Vila B. 2002)

12.7 Good practice in respect to scheduling activities

Law enforcement supervisors are confronted on a daily basis with a multitude of tasks
and responsibilities that require police attention. It is important to give attention - first to
issues with a higher priority than those that can wait. Here are a number of issues that
may be part of the daily and weekly schedules.

12.7.1 Long term projects/programmes

If the law enforcement agency has determined long-term projects and programmes it is
useful to remind officers at regular intervals to attend to these issues. This can be achieved
by deploying officers that have spare capacity on their shifts to concentrate on the goals
and objectives of the project. At times it may be necessary to concentrate all efforts
towards these projects.

12.7.2 Medium term projects

Apart from the long-term issues, the law enforcement agency may determine medium
term projects. This normally comes about as a result of crime trends, political requests,
media attention, and requests from other agencies for cooperation, major events, etc. Due
to the shorter time span, it is usually necessary to give higher priority to these issues than
long-term issues.

12.7.3 Short-term projects

These projects normally run over a period of a week or two. Due to the urgency of these
projects, they will receive even higher priority than the above-mentioned two

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categories. Many supervisors see these requests from police management as an
unnecessary interference with their normal duties and often fail to respond adequately to
them. Police administrators have a responsibility to support their superiors, be it the chief,
or politicians etc. and it is expected that supervisors comply with vigour.

12.7.4 Community based requests

These requests generally consist of complaints from the community i.e. to give attention
to the one or other problem. The urgency of the matter will determine when to deploy
officers to attend to the problem. If immediate attention cannot be given to the problem -
this has to be communicated to the complainant(s) and commitments thus made must be
honoured!

12.7.5 Calls for assistance

These calls normally come via a radio-dispatching centre. Operators have a tendency to
direct calls to officers under the command of a supervisor without their approval. The law
enforcement agency must develop a policy and standard operating procedures that
governs the conduct and instructions of radio dispatchers.

12.7.6 Life threatening calls

Calls of this nature will receive priority over any other issue. If there is a shortage of
officers, the supervisor will have to give priority to the issues that are of immediate
importance. First-line supervisors often run into trouble due to their inability to recognise
which issues are more important than others. If in doubt, the supervisor should clear it
with a more senior ranking officer. If there is a critical shortage of officers, then the
immediate priority would be to ensure that patrol officers are readily available to respond
to calls for assistance and any life-threatening calls.

12.7.7 Control over officers

It is important that the supervisor is available for the duration of the shift in order to
reschedule officers as and when priorities change. Supervisors should not allow patrol
officers to decide what to do without their consent. In the event that the supervisor is not
available due to other reasons, they must ensure that another officer takes control of the
shift until they are available again. When returning to the supervisory role, they must get
an update of any issues that may have affected the deployment schedules.

12.7.8 Monitoring radio transmission

It is imperative that supervisors listen very attentively to radio messages, as these will
provide clues as to what law enforcement officers are up to. The effective law
enforcement supervisor will over time develop a keen sense in order to identify
subordinate officers who are not doing what they are supposed to do, or who are absent
from their patrol areas. Their movements can be monitored relatively easy by listening to
their conversations and responses with radio-dispatchers.

12.7.9 Effective monitoring and deployment

It makes little sense to deploy officers that cannot adequately cope with certain
responsibilities or activities. Effective law enforcement supervisors will develop the
required skills that will allow them to distinguish which officer can do what best and then
to utilise them accordingly. It is also important to implement a system that would
capacitate underperforming officers to render more equitable services.

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Certain functions however are of such a specialised nature that it will remain within the
exclusive domain of specially trained officers. Functions that fall within their expert
domain should preferably be left for them to attend to. As soon as law enforcement
supervisors have identified the preferences, strengths and weaknesses of their
subordinates they can schedule them more effectively. One other aspect that needs
constant attention is the alignment of shift requirements with departmental goals and
objectives. Shifts also have to be developed and implemented in such a manner that the
law enforcement officers will be deployed in accordance with crime and crash patterns.
It makes little sense to deploy law enforcement officers on patrol during times and days
that there are fewer crashes and to allow them rest days when most crimes and crashes
occur. Unfortunately most crashes occur over weekends commencing on Friday evenings
until Saturday nights around midnight.

12.8 Conclusion
First-line supervisors play an important role in the success or failure of a law enforcement
agency. Policing by its very nature is a labour intensive activity where effective
supervision is a prerequisite to ensure that the services that are rendered are in line with
agency goals and objectives. Apart from this, law enforcement officers deal with a critical
clientele where more often than not the relationship is adversarial and not conducive to
good community interaction. This must not be viewed as a negative factor, but as a
challenge. How patrol officers react to these challenges is often directly linked to the law
enforcement supervisor's leadership style. The patrol function is the most important
function in policing. The supervisor therefore is duty- bound to ensure that it is executed
effectively and efficiently. Effective and efficient law enforcement activities require
professional law enforcement practitioners at all levels of the agency.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 13

PROBLEM INVESTIGATION

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 To identify the issues that is important to investigations.

 Explain the concept - Root Cause Analysis.
 Identify and describe the processes of Root Cause Analysis.
 Develop a Pareto Chart.
 Describe quality control in a law enforcement agency.
 Explain how to use quality control in crash prevention programs.
 Integrate quality control into law enforcement activities.

13.1 Introduction
A law enforcement supervisor operates in the midst of a magnitude of problems, issues
and major challenges. Law enforcement supervisors have to become skilled in dealing
with these issues if they want to survive and thrive in this quasi-profession. If not, they
will become despondent and this will eventually result in an unsuccessful career. The
causes of crime and traffic crashes are not always clear and tackling them requires a
dedicated commitment and an array of skills. A haphazard approach to crime and crashes
will not address all societal ills. What is necessary is a professional approach to policing.
The law enforcement officer must possess certain personal traits, one of which must be
an inquisitive mind. Law enforcement officers by their very nature are intrinsically
involved with solving crimes, preventing crashes and to educate the public.

In Chapter 1 reference was made to the inter-relationship between Education, Engineering

and Enforcement. Every one of these disciplines requires focussed attention. This can
only be accomplished effectively if the law enforcement practitioner has access to
information. In the case of road crashes, preventative measures can only be introduced
after a thorough analysis of crash data and at-scene investigations. An at-scene crash
investigation can be site specific or it can form part of a wider road safety audit. The latter
is preferred as it provides a more holistic view of all the risks that may precipitate road
crashes. In the event of an at-scene crash investigation the law enforcement practitioner
will focus his attention to the specific incident and the associated factors that played a
role in the crash itself. Law enforcement officers that are involved with the investigation
of crimes and road crashes employ different problem solving methodologies. This chapter
will highlight some of the methods that can be used to solve problems. These
interventions also form part of the principles of quality management.

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13.2 Root Cause Analysis
Root cause analysis is an effective method to use in the search for the root causes of
crimes and crashes. The value of this method is that it does not merely attempt to deal
with the immediate symptoms of a problem, but that it forces the law enforcement
practitioner to search for the "root causes" of a problem. This should assist the law
enforcement practitioner to propose and supervise the implementation of remedial
measures to minimise crime and crash risks. This may sound ideal in theory, but in real
life it is not that easy as there are many causes that contribute to societal ills. If it was so
easy to identify root causes and to introduce remedies, crimes and crashes would have
been minimised to negligible levels. Solving crime and crashes is a continuous process.
It is an interactive process. It is also a re-active process directed towards the prevention
of further crime - and crash risks. This means that "root cause analysis" is conducted after
the fact, but the purpose is to identify and reduce those factors that precipitate crimes and
crashes. This means that "root cause analysis" enables the law enforcement practitioner
to forecast the possibility of an event even before it could occur. (www.wikipedia.org)

The following example illustrates how root cause analysis operates in practice.

The law enforcement agency receives a letter from an irate resident alleging that motorists
travel at excessive speeds in a residential area and that this creates a danger to road users. The
complaint is delegated to a law enforcement supervisor. The supervisor instructs an officer to
patrol the area. The officer frequents the area for a day or two and reports back to the
supervisor that he observed no problems. The supervisor informs his superior that there is
nothing of particular concern and that the case should be closed as unsubstantiated.

Do you agree with this procedure?

The following gives a more acceptable approach to the problem.

The supervisor receives the letter of complaint. A suitably experienced officer is instructed
to investigate the problem. The officer contacts the complainant telephonically and arranges
to meet with him/her. After this meeting the officer requests the agency's accident bureau for
a report of crashes that were recorded for the past 3 years. The officer patrols the area and
look at the position and condition of road marks and signs. The officer frequents the area
regularly at different times in an effort to ascertain whether the problem is restricted to certain
times or days or whether it is more widespread. The officer consults with other residents in
the area. With all the information the officer arranges to meet with the supervisor to discuss
his observations and data obtained from the accident bureau. During this discussion the
problem is interrogated thoroughly and the supervisor and the officer(s) look at every possible
cause of the complaint. If a specific root cause is identified, recommendations will be made
to solve it. The supervisor will submit a well documented report to the head of the agency
with recommendations. If another department has to be engaged, such as the engineers, a
letter will be directed to them with a request to remedy the problem. The law enforcement
agency must report back to the complainant. After the implementation of remedial action, a
follow-up investigation is conducted to determine its effectiveness.

Law enforcement practitioners must assess the gravity of each problem. It is not necessary
to conduct extensive research for every problem reported to a law enforcement agency.
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Crash incidence and congestion on a major route will require a much more comprehensive
root cause analysis than a single complaint from an irate resident in a quiet residential
suburb. Root cause analysis is not a single, once-off sharply defined methodology. There
are many different tools, processes, and philosophies of "root cause analysis" in existence.
Some are self-made methods and others follow processes developed by experts in this
field. Despite the many forms that an analysis can take, most can be categorised into one
of the following: -(www.wikipedia.org)

 Safety-based "root cause analysis" which has its foundation in accident analysis
and occupational health and safety.
 Production-based "root cause analysis" with its origins in the field of quality
control for industrial manufacturing.
 Process-based "root cause analysis" with the previous model as its foundation but
where it has a widened scope i.e. to include business processes. (This can also
refer to law enforcement practices, procedures and policies)
 Failure-based "root cause analysis" which is rooted in the practice of failure
analysis as employed in the field of engineering and maintenance.
 Systems-based "root cause analysis" which has emerged as a hybrid model that
includes the previous models, but also include ideas taken from fields such as
change management, risk management, and system analysis.

All of the above-mentioned models of "root cause analysis" have application in the field
of law enforcement.

13.3 General Principles of Root Cause Analysis

Law enforcement practitioners must interrogate the causes of crime and crashes. The
principles of this activity are as follows:-

 It is preferred that any intervention to prevent crime and crashes be targeted at the
root causes and not merely the symptoms. Too many law enforcement
practitioners attempt to deal with the symptoms when they receive a complaint
instead of delving deeper into the root causes. Treating the symptoms will only
lead to a recurrence of the problem and this will continuously consume law
enforcement resources. It will also erode the image of the law enforcement agency
if the same problem re-occurs. The public expects that problems brought to the
attention of the law enforcement agency be resolved permanently.

 The process must be conducted in a systematic manner with documented proof of

causes and conclusions. Crime and crash data is the main source of information
to law enforcement practitioners.

 Generally there is more than one root cause for any given problem. Law
enforcement practitioners must not focus too narrowly on a specific root cause as
a wider search will reveal more root causes. (Consider the 4 E's)

 To be effective the analysis must establish all known casual relationships between
the root causes and the defined problem.

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13.4 Root Cause Analysis – Process
Root cause analysis can be categorised into the following steps:-

 Definition of the problem;

 Collection of data;
 Determine casual relationships associated with the problem;
 Identify which root causes, if removed will reduce the risk of a recurrence of the
problem;
 Identify effective solutions, if implemented will prevent a recurrence of the
problem;
 Implementation of recommendations;
 Monitoring of solutions implemented.

13.5 Root Cause Analysis – Techniques

There are a number of root cause analysis techniques that have been developed over time.
(www.wikipedia.org) The following are some of the techniques used to determine the
root causes of a problem:-
 Cause and effect analysis;
 The 5 Why's;
 Pareto Analysis.

This text book does not discuss the different methods in detail. Some of the techniques
are more appropriate in a law enforcement environment than others. The Pareto Principle
will be discussed more comprehensively.

13.5.1 Cause and effect analysis

This is a group exercise in which participants try to list all possible causes and their effects
(and identify how they are linked) associated with a particular problem or situation. It
aims at discovering possible or probable causal factors and their outcomes (not
necessarily the root cause, the removal of which will stop the recurrence of the problem)
and may lead to the creation of a cause and effect diagram.

A Cause and Effect Analysis

This is a method of analyzing an event or a problem which was devised by Kaoru
Ishikawa in the 1960s. The chart used to represent the information gathered in such an
analysis is also known as an Ishikawa diagram. It represents the various causes related to
an event in the form of arms leading towards an event and the entire structure is in the
shape of a "fishbone" and hence a cause and effect diagram is also sometimes known as
a 'Fishbone Diagram'

Figure 13.1 indicates what a fishbone diagram normally looks like. It indicates the event
which is the "effect" and the various categories which are the "causes." The smaller
arrows indicate sub-causes under each category.

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These sub categories can branch out as far as necessary in an effort to try to determine
the original cause for the eventual effect. It may result in a relatively long exercise to
complete. (www.brighthub.com)

Figure 13.1
Ishikawa Diagram Problem

13.5.2 The 5 Why's

Invented in the 1930's by Toyota Founder Kiichiro Toyoda's father; Sakichi and made
popular in the 1970s by the Toyota Production System, the 5 Whys strategy involves
looking at any problem and asking: "Why?" and "What caused this problem?

The idea is simple. By asking the question "Why" you can separate the symptoms from
the causes of a problem. This is critical as symptoms often mask the causes of problems.
As with effective Incident Classification, basing actions on symptoms is the worst
possible practice. The system is applied as follows:- (www.itsmsolutions.com)

1. Assemble a team of people knowledgeable about the failing Configuration Item

(CI). Include IT and non-IT personnel where appropriate. For example, trying to
diagnose the root cause of a failed Change management process should probably
involve customers as well as IT;
2. On a flip chart, presentation board, or even paper write out a description of what
you know about the problem. Try to document the problem and describe

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 it as completely as possible. Refine the definition with the team. Come to an
agreement on the definition of the problem at hand;
3. Have the team members ask "Why" the problem as described could occur, and
write the answer down underneath the problem description;
4. If the answer provided from 3 (above) does not solve the problem, you must repeat
steps 3 and 4 until you do;
5. If the answer provided from 3 (above) seems likely to solve the problem, make
sure the team agrees and attempt a resolution using the answer.

To validate those potential root causes that are under your control, you can apply the
following validations to your answers or root causes. Ask the following questions for
every possible root-cause you identify at all levels of the 5 Whys:

 Is there any proof (something you can measure or observe) to support this root-
cause determination?
 Is there any history or knowledge to indicate that the possible root-case could
actually produce such a problem?
 Is there anything "underneath" the possible root-cause that could be a more
probable root cause?
 Is there anything that this possible root-cause requires in order to produce the
problem?
 Are there any other causes that could possibly produce the same problem?

13.6 Pareto Principle

The Pareto Principle is based on a statistical analysis of data which pre-supposes that the
selection of a limited number of critical issues (tasks) will produce a significant overall
effect. It is also referred to as the 80 - 20 Principle. By concentrating on 20 percent of the
identified issues - 80 percent of the problem(s) will be solved. This is a very useful
technique where a large number of possible courses of action are competing for attention.
In essence, the law enforcement practitioner estimates the benefit delivered by each
action, then selects a number of the most effective actions that deliver a total benefit
reasonably close to the maximal possible one. The Pareto Analysis is a very useful
technique to analyse crime patterns and road crashes. This enables law enforcement
practitioners to concentrate on the most pressing offences at the most dangerous localities.

13.6.1 The Pareto Chart

The Pareto Chart is named after Vilfredo Pareto, a 19th century economist who postulated
that a large share of the wealth is owned by a small percentage of the population. A chart
is drawn with a series of bars reflecting the frequency or impact of problems. The bars
are arranged from the biggest problem in a descending order of height to the smallest
problem on the left. This implies that the categories of problems on the right hand side of
the chart are more significant than those on the left. The chart is used to separate the "vital
few" from the "trivial many." The chart indicates the factors that have the greatest
cumulative effect on the system. (www.personnel.ky.gov) This data permits the law
enforcement practitioner to focus on a selected few issues that will produce the greatest
impact on crime prevention and crash reduction.

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The chart breaks a big problem up into smaller pieces, identifies the most pertinent
factors, shows where to focus attention and allows limited resources to be utilised better.
The chart allows the law enforcement practitioners to separate the few major problems
from the many possible problems so that they can focus their attention on priority issues
based on data and not perceptions. The charts therefore answer the following questions:

 What are the largest issues facing the law enforcement agency?

 What 20 percent of root causes are responsible for 80 percent of the problems?

 Where must the agency focus its attention to achieve the greatest improvements?

Law enforcement agencies have a responsibility to deploy their patrol resources in a

responsible and cost effective manner. This can only be achieved if data is used in the
search for answers. Although it is possible to identify the top few most cited crash
causative offences, it does not mean that smaller contributory offences must be ignored.
It gives the professional law enforcement supervisors the "tools" to use and deploy their
resources in a manner that can be substantiated and defended.

13.6.2 Construction of a Pareto Chart

In order to construct a Pareto Chart, the law enforcement practitioner must have access to
meaningful data that have been collated and categorised. In the case of road crashes and
concomitant causative factors, the following is an example:-

Step 1
Record the raw data. List each category (i.e. following too close, excessive speed, driving
whilst intoxicated, fail to stop, and unsafe lane changing, other.)

Analysis Sheet

Category Frequency
Following too close 230
Excessive speed for road conditions 460
Driving whilst intoxicated 102
Fail to stop at stop sign 97
Unsafe lane changing 235
Other 45

Step 2
The next step is to re-arrange the categories with the higher incidence first.

Category Frequency
Excessive speed for conditions 460
Unsafe lane changing 235
Following too close 230

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 Driving whilst intoxicated 102
Fail to stop at stop sign 97
Other 45

Step 3
The third step is to label the left-hand vertical axis. This is where the "count" of each
category will appear. Make sure the labels are spaced in equal to or just larger than the
total of all counts. Provide a caption to describe the unit of measurement being used; in
this the left-hand vertical axis will be the - Crash Frequency.

Step 4
Label the horizontal axis. This is where the different "categories" will appear - from the
largest to the smallest. An "Other" category can be used to last capture several smaller
sets of data. Provide a caption to describe them. If the category names are too long – mark
them as A, B, C etc. and provide a key to them underneath the analysis sheet. In this case
"A" will denotes - Excessive speed for conditions, B will denotes - Unsafe lane changing,
etc.

Step 5
Plot a bar for each category. The height of each bar should equal the count for that
category. The widths of the different bars should be identical.

Step 6
Determine the percentage that each category represents. To do this, total the counts. Then
- determine the percentage for each category. The total of all percentages when added
should be equal to 100 percent.
Analysis Sheet

Category Frequency Percentage Cumulative

Percentage
Excessive speed for road conditions 460 39.4% 39.4%
Unsafe lane changing 235 20.1% 59.5%
Following too close 230 19.7% 79.2%
Driving whilst intoxicated 102 8.7% 87.9%
Fail to stop at stop sign 97 8.3% 96.2%
Other 45 3.9% 100%

Step 7
Find the cumulative percentage. Each category's cumulative percentage is the percentage
for that category added to the percentage of the category of the larger category before it.
(For example: the cumulative percentage for "Unsafe lane changing" is 39.4% plus 20.1%
= 59.5%)

Step 8
100% and line Add a cumulative line. This is optional. Label the right axis from 0 up the
100% with the grand total on the left axis. For each category, put a dot as high as the
cumulative total and in line with the right edge of the category's bar. Connect all the dots
with a straight line.

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Step 9
Add a title, legend (Optional) and date (Optional)

Step 10
Analyse the diagram. Look for a break point on the cumulative percent graph. It can be
identified by a marked change in the slope of the graph. This separates the significant few
from the trivial many. The example merely indicates how to apply the technique. In real
life the results will be more appropriate for law enforcement purposes.

13.7 Investigation of ad-hoc problems

Not all problems that are reported to a law enforcement agency can be classified as crash
related. Law enforcement agencies often receive requests to investigate issues such as
contraventions of a municipality's by-laws, etc. some issues are classified as quality of
life problems such as noise, illegal dumping of refuse, etc. It is advisable that the law
enforcement agency gives proper attention to each of these complaints and to give
feedback to complainants after the complaint has been investigated. It is recommended
that a list of these problems be created and that isolated problems be categorised and
followed up at regular intervals. It often happens that a complaint is fully investigated and
resolved only to re-emerge later. In order to be regarded as a professional institution it is
proper to regularly review complaints and also to contact the complainants periodically
to enquire whether they feel that the issue has been resolved to their satisfaction. It must
be borne in mind that although these complaints may seem trivial to an experienced patrol
officer, they are real and large in the mind of a complainant. In larger departments
specialised units are established to deal with by-law enforcement.

13.8 Conclusion
There are many systems available to assist a law enforcement supervisor to investigate
problems. The major issue is that every complaint must be given the requisite attention.
After an investigation has been concluded, feedback must be given to the complainant.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 14

CONGESTED AND UNSAFE ROADS

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 Identify what constitutes congested and unsafe roads.

 Define congestion and describe level of service.
 Recognise the role of traffic law enforcement officers in minimising congestion
on public roads.
 Identify factors that may mitigate congestion and crash risks.
 Discover a range of possible interventions that may minimise congestion and
crash risks.
 Identify possible benefits that emanate from attempts to control congestion.
 Integrate findings in a holistic manner and consult with relevant stakeholders.
 Develop and implement counter strategies.

14.1 Introduction
Traffic law enforcement officers have a crucially important role to minimise congestion
on public roads and to identify crash risks that may further exacerbate the negative impact
that this may have on congestion. Congested roads constitute a specific field of study for
civil engineers. However, it is the traffic law enforcement officer that has a major role to
play in the minimisation of factors that contribute to congested streets. Even minor
interventions may have a positive impact on road congestion and any concomitant crash
risks. Unfortunately it seems as if the new generation of metropolitan police officers do
not value their role in this regard. Metropolitan police officers have acquired a de-facto
role of "police officers" that seem to have more important crime fighting responsibilities
than to sort out traffic problems. This is a pity as they will not be successful in the latter
if they do not also attend to the other part of their legislative responsibility i.e. traffic
control. Congested roads affect millions of road users daily and the neglect by law
enforcement personnel to react to this challenge is a pity. A more dedicated approach
would undoubtedly enhance the perception that communities have of local policing
practice.

The indicators of congestion listed hereunder clearly identify possible interventions by

law enforcement officers as they are confronted with these issues on a daily basis. Law
enforcement officers have a direct influence on the clearing of crash scenes. They also
have the responsibility to respond to incidents that have a negative impact on the flow of
traffic. They have an enforcement responsibility e.g. to ensure that parking and no-
stopping restrictions are enforced on roads that are sensitive to these obstructions and
more so during peak hour traffic. They act as the eyes of the administrators responsible
for the construction and maintenance of roads. They see when traffic signals are out or
order and must report them to the department responsible for its maintenance.

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They ensure that road works are responsibly executed and that roads are cleared as soon
as possible. This; if done correctly can improve the perception of the public towards the
police. The failure to act in a manner consistent of what is expected; precipitate feelings
of hostility towards the law enforcement agencies. This is often accentuated when officers
neglect their duties with respect to congestion and focus instead only on the prosecution
of offenders. Many officers with a primary responsibility to perform road policing
functions fail to do so as they argue that their role is confined to law enforcement and
crime prevention responsibilities. This is often the case with metropolitan police officers.
They ignore their role in this respect despite the fact that Section 64 of the South African
Police Service Act that governs the establishment of these police services, categorically
prescribes that traffic policing is the first responsibility of these agencies. Failure to do so
constitutes a breach of their conditions of establishment and they could be reported to the
responsible MEC of the province within which the service operates. One of the reasons
perhaps may be that many senior positions in these agencies are filled from external
sources i.e. not members that have been trained and groomed as traffic law enforcement
officers. The reason for the failure to take an active role in traffic science may be as a
result of a lack of knowledge regarding traffic flow, road conditions and traffic
engineering issues generally.

This text book is intended to give law enforcement officers some insight into the many
fantastic opportunities that exist in this field i.e. to leave a legacy insofar as their active
contribution to ease traffic flow, etc. is concerned It is important to understand that
congestion and deficiencies in the traffic flow have a cost implication for every citizen of
this country. Apart from the direct costs in terms of fuel wastage, crashes, etc., the time
lost impacts heavily on productivity. Roads that are well maintained and effectively
managed have the potential to make living in a city much easier and in addition hereto,
save money and time. It is not as if the law enforcement officers have a choice - they have
a mandate and a moral responsibility to become actively involved in traffic science and
traffic engineering.

14.2 Congestion defined

Traffic congestion is a condition on road networks that occurs as use increases, and is
characterised by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased queuing. The most
common example is the physical use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demand is great
enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the traffic stream,
congestion is incurred. As demand approaches the capacity of a road (or of the
intersections along the road), extreme traffic congestion sets in. When vehicles are fully
stopped for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a traffic jam.
(www.wikipedia.com)

Traffic congestion is the excessive accumulation of cars on a stretch of road, and it is the
leading cause of aggressive driving and road rage. (www.nhtsa.dot.gov) Traffic
congestion consists of the incremental delay resulting from interference between vehicles
in the traffic stream. Traffic congestion can be:-

 Recurrent (recurring regularly on a daily or weekly or annual basis) or;

 Non-recurrent (due to crashes, incidents, special events or road closures).

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Capacity refers to the number of people or vehicles that could be accommodated on any
road or stretch of road. (A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets)
(www.aashto.org)

Other definitions dictate as follows:- "Congestion is a situation in which demand for road
space exceeds supply" and also "Congestion is the impedance vehicles impose on each
other, due to the speed-flow relationship, in conditions where the use of a transport system
approaches capacity. (OECD. 2007)

Congestion is excessive when people say it is; but this does not account for what it would
mean to bring the level of congestion down to levels that are considered tolerable. To do
this may cost more than the cost of the congestion itself. A better way to define excessive
congestion is when the marginal costs of congestion to society exceed the marginal costs
of efforts to reduce the congestion. (OECD. 2007)

14.2.1 Recurrent congestion

Recurrent congestion is basically the consequence of factors that act regularly or
periodically on the transportation system, such as daily commuting in urban areas. When
roads are operated at or near their maximum capacity, even small incidents, lane changes,
etc. can trigger a sudden deterioration in the traffic flow. At this point flowing conditions
change to stop-and-go traffic. Saturated intersections can quickly precipitate queues that
may impact negatively on other intersections further upstream. The major responsibility
of patrol officers in this type of congestion is to effectively patrol suspect localities during
peak hour traffic and to respond rapidly to any incident that may possibly impact
negatively on traffic flow patterns.

14.2.2 Non-recurrent congestion

Non-recurrent congestion is the effect of unexpected, unplanned or large events, e.g. road
works, crashes, special events and so on, that affects parts of the transportation system
more or less randomly and as such, cannot be easily predicted. (OECD. 2007) It is
possible for law enforcement practitioners to predict roads with a higher probability of
crashes and to deploy resources to patrol on these routes. This can be done by means of
data analysis from the agency's Accident Bureau. Road works must be marked properly
and when appropriate, to execute work at night.

14.3 Levels of service

Congestion has an impact on both the speed of travel and on the reliability of travel
conditions. Engineers developed a classification to describe the level of service (or level
of congestion) on a road. This classification is referred to as - level of service. Table 14.1
provides the classification of level of service on a road.

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 Level of Description Speed Flow Density
service (LOS) Km/h Veh/hour/lane Veh/km
A Traffic flows at or above the Over 100 Under 700 Under 12
posted speed limit. Complete km/h
mobility between lanes.
B Slightly congested with 91 – 100 700 – 1100 20 – 30
some manoeuvrability
limitations.
Some limitation on lane
changes.
C Ability to overtake or to 86 – 91 1100 – 1550 20 - 30
change lanes is not assured.
Most experienced drivers are
comfortable and can drive at
the legal speed limit.
Road is close to capacity.
D Speeds are somewhat 73 – 86 1550 – 1850 30 – 42
reduced, motorists hemmed
in by other vehicles. This is
the typical peak period
conditions.
E The flow becomes irregular, 48 – 73 1850 – 2000 42 – 46
speed vary and rarely reach
the posted (legal) limit. The
system is considered as a
failure
F The traffic flow is forced Under 48 Unstable 67 +
with frequent stops and km/h
speeds close to zero km/h.
Travel becomes time
unpredictable.

Table 14.1
Classification of Level of Service

14.4 The causes of delay

There are basically two broad categories of casual factors; micro-level factors (e.g. those
that relate to traffic on the roadway and macro-level factors; i.e. the overall demand for
road use. A study conducted by the American Federal Highway Administration indicated
that the following factors are the major cause of congestion:- (www.itsdocs.fhwa.dot.gov)

 Heavy traffic - 50 percent;

 Road works - 37 percent;
 Crashes - 27 percent;
 Traffic signals - 19 percent.

Traffic incidents (disabled vehicles and crashes) account for an estimated 60 percent of
delay. (Transportation Cost and Benefit Analysis - www.vtpi.org) Although this relates
to Australia; similar problems are found on South African roads. In uncongested
conditions an incident causes little or no traffic delay, but a stalled vehicle on the shoulder
of the road during peak hour traffic can cause 100 - 200 vehicle hours of delay on adjacent
lanes.

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This also explains why it is imperative that law enforcement agencies enforce stopping
and parking restrictions posted on streets with a high level of congestion during peak
hours. One illegally parked vehicle in a lane reserved for the free flow of traffic during
peak hour minimises the capacity of that road spectacularly. It can reduce capacity as
much as 50 percent on a three lane road.

Traffic congestion occurs when the volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for
space greater than the available road capacity. There are a number of specific
circumstances which cause or aggravate congestion; most of them reduce the capacity of
a road at a given point or over a certain length, or increase the number of vehicles required
for a given throughput of people or goods. (www.wikipedia.com)

14.4.1 Heavy traffic

The single most important factor that contributes to congestion is the number of vehicles
travelling on a road. Intersections also exacerbate the impact of congestion as they create
impediments to the normal flow of traffic. The likelihood of incidents and crashes also
increases exponentially with an increase in traffic volumes. The severity of crashes in
congested conditions is not necessarily as serious as single vehicle crashes and crashes in
rural areas or crashes in non-congested conditions. The reason for this phenomenon can
be attributed to the fact that mean speeds are generally lower in congested conditions than
otherwise. Traffic law enforcement officers do not have any direct control over the
number of vehicles that travel on a specific road. What they can do is to effectively patrol
these roads and to react immediately to anything that may impact negatively on the traffic
flow. Even a stationary vehicle in the emergency lane of a busy freeway during peak hour
traffic may cause long delays. Only one driver that slows down to look at such a stationary
vehicle may cause a chain reaction during the whole of the peak hour traffic. Secondary
crashes often result due to this rubber-necking effect; especially rear-end crashes. Any
vehicle found on a public road that stands in a position where it causes a danger or creates
an obstruction may be removed forthwith by a traffic law enforcement officer. The cost
of such a removal is for the account of the driver, owner or person in charge of such a
vehicle. Although this power to remove vehicles from public roads has to be exercised, it
must be done with circumspection. Traffic law enforcement officers are also duty bound
to perform point duties at localities where an incident or crash creates undue delay and
frustration. If it is a recurring situation it must be investigated by senior practitioners in
an effort to solve the matter in a more proactive manner. Doing nothing or attempting to
avoid areas that produce a lot of congestion with the concomitant problems, only
strengthens the perception of the public that many traffic law enforcement agencies are
more focussed on income generating law enforcement practices than assisting the public.
It is well known that many officers fail to intervene when they observe an incident or a
crash because they are either to lazy to do their work, or they do not know how to respond
due to a lack of training.33

14.4.2 Road works Road works account for the second largest percentage of incidents
that create congestion. Traffic law enforcement officers have a major responsibility to
ensure that the impact and the duration thereof is minimised.

__________________
33
The vast majority of traffic law enforcement officers, including members of the South African Police
Service have only basic knowledge of crash investigation. Drawing sketches and taking measurements
require dedicated training.

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Road users are particularly stressed and frustrated if road works are demarcated poorly
and where they are not "supervised" properly. Road users often complain that they travel
pass road works where serious congestion is created just to find law enforcement officers
further down the street engaged in what is perceived to be insignificant enforcement
activities.

There are no easy solutions to the issue of congestion at road works but it should start
with a holistic view. The planning and construction phases should include personnel from
the law enforcement agencies. The various stakeholders i.e. the engineers, civil
contractors and law enforcement officers should regularly meet to review the road work
progress and any specific issues that may be introduced to mitigate the impact of the
congestion. The law enforcement agency should plan to provide additional officers to
monitor the road works and to arrange that point duty is conducted should this be
necessary to alleviate congestion, particularly during peak traffic periods. If it is
recommended that traffic be re-routed to other roads, then the signs indicating this must
be erected in line with the prescriptions of the South African Road Signs Manual. Another
aspect that creates disrespect for work zones is where the posted speed strictions do not
match the perceived danger and congestion bected at these zones. There must be a
"legitimate" link between road works, potential crash risks and the speed restrictions.
Another major issue that creates disrespect for speed restrictions at work zones is when
the work is almost completed but the speed restriction signs have not been removed. Law
enforcement officers have to monitor these issues and periodically liaise with the
contractors. When roads lanes are closed to traffic due to road works it is important that
incident management systems are implemented, especially with regards to bogged down
vehicles. Heavy vehicles may block additional lanes and this creates catastrophic levels
of congestion. Traffic law enforcement officers must patrol work zones daily to monitor
the impact of the road works on congestion and to offer assistance as soon as possible.34

14.4.2 Crashes
Crashes are a major source of delay on public roads, especially in urban areas and on busy
arterial roads in urban areas. A serious crash that results in the full or partial closure of a
road may create traffic congestion not only on that road but also on other secondary roads
that serve as alternative routes. Law enforcement officers who have the responsibility to
investigate crashes must be aware of the impact that the investigation may have on
congestion and the possibility of more secondary crashes. It is important that crash
investigations be conducted at the scene and nothing should be left out in terms of
gathering evidence. Roads however should be opened as soon as possible. It is important
that supervisors ensure that additional resources are dispatched to the immediate vicinity
to alleviate the incidence of congestion. Crash scene control and mitigation requires the
attention of first line supervisors. One of the major issues with crash scene investigation
is the slow response times of law enforcement officers. On major freeways this may
significantly increase the impact of congestion especially if there are injuries and fatalities
involved. It is important that additional officers be dispatched to crash scenes to assist
with traffic flow and congestion. The development and implementation of incident
management systems may assist to mitigate the impact of congestion due to crashes and
other incidents.

____________________
34
Many traffic law enforcement officers do not understand their powers to remove vehicles from public
roads in the event of them causing obstruction.

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Incident management programs can reduce delays associated with congestion caused by
incidents by 10 to percent 45 percent. (www.itsdocs.fhwa.dot.gov) It has been estimated
as a rule of thumb that for every one minute it takes to clear an accident scene, it will take
4 minutes to clear the resulting traffic congestion. This turns a simple 30 minute
incident/crash investigation into a two-hour backup. (www.itsdocs.fhwa.dot.gov)

14.4.3 Traffic signals

Traffic signals also have a major impact on traffic flow patterns and thus the possibility
of congestion. Traffic signal setting is an advanced branch of traffic science and the
programming of cycle times should be conducted by specially trained personnel and/or
civil engineers. Ineffective traffic signal settings however are easy to identify. It is often
found that a traffic signal allows too much time to a specific street or an approach to the
intersection compared to the demand in terms of vehicle volumes.35 Traffic law
enforcement officers that are familiar with their patrol precincts will be able to identify
these defective signal timings relatively easy. The correct response is to monitor the
situation periodically over a period of a few weeks and then to request the civil or
electrical engineers to investigate the signal settings. Amber settings are often also not in
line with prescriptions. They may either be too long or too short and may increase the risk
of crashes. The higher the speed limit on a road the longer the amber light sequence has
to be set in order to allow road users to reduce speed and to stop safely. Many local
authorities set their traffic signals in such a manner that it allows a continuous flow of
traffic. This is referred to as a synchronised traffic signal setting. It is usually set to allow
traffic to travel at a pre- selected speed - normally at approximately 50 km/h - without
having to stop due to red traffic signals. This may assist to mitigate traffic congestion to
some extent but if a whole grid becomes congested it may lose its effectiveness. Traffic
law enforcement officers that specialise in traffic science will be in an ideal position to
monitor the effectiveness of traffic signal settings and to recommend changes to settings
in order to alleviate congestion and crash risks.

14.4.4 Parking management and stopping of vehicles

Many arterial and feeder roads within a central business district have parking and stopping
restrictions during peak hour traffic. This is aimed at allocating all the available traffic
lanes to traffic flow. No-stopping restrictions are more severe than no- parking
restrictions. If only one vehicle is illegally parked in a lane where such a restriction has
been posted, it negates the use of that lane for traffic flow purposes. It is therefore
important that traffic law enforcement officers patrol these roads with regular intervals -
preferably daily to ensure strict compliance. Vehicles that are illegally parked should be
removed by the law enforcement agency itself or by any private contractor appointed by
such an authority. The mere issuance of a traffic fine does not solve the problem for the
other motorists driving on that road. A traffic fine punishes the offending driver or owner
but by not removing it immediately also punishes other road users as congestion is likely
to be the outcome thereof. Many law enforcement officers perceive parking control as
something with nuisance value only.

________________________
35
Traffic law enforcement officers should request civil engineers to inspect signalised intersections in those
instances where they are of the opinion that the signal settings precipitate unnecessary delays in the main
street. It is not a difficult neither an expensive exercise to remedy wrong signal settings.

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They often travel pass illegally parked vehicles without the slightest interest in
prosecuting offending motorists. Vehicles are often parked on sidewalks thus restricting
the available walking area available to pedestrians. This is serious as it may contribute to
pedestrian risks. It is also important to prosecute offenders by means of a Section 56
Notice if the driver or owner can be located instead of a Section 341 (Notice of Intended
Prosecution). This increases the likelihood that the offender will pay the fine or appear in
court. Parking control in a central business district is therefore important and must not be
relegated to an inferior part of law enforcement activities. Law enforcement officers often
perceive parking control activities as "punishment." This notion must be discarded. Some
officers may argue that parking control does not contribute to traffic safety. This
perception is fundamentally flawed. It is true however that the main purpose of parking
control is to ensure a free flow of traffic and to ensure that the available parking facilities
are shared equitably amongst road users. One vehicle parked illegally for a period of 8
hours may "rob" up to 16 other road users from a parking space during an 8-hour period.
When too much illegal parking occurs, it precipitates many other problems such as
double-parking and drivers that have to drive around a block looking for parking. This
may aggravate traffic flow problems and the concomitant increase in traffic crash risk.

Traffic law enforcement officers also have to monitor the use and abuse of loading zones.
Vehicles illegally parked in loading zones precipitate serious problems for the loading
and off-loading of goods by commercial vehicles. These vehicles have to park double if
loading zones are illegally occupied. This creates serious impediments to the free flow of
traffic with a concomitant increase in lane changing and swerving manoeuvres.

14.5 Negative effects of congestion:-

There are a number of issues that have a negative impact on traffic flow such as:-

 Wasting time of motorists and passengers ("opportunity cost"). As a non-

productive activity for most people, congestion reduces regional economic health;

 Delays which may result in late arrival for employment, meetings etc. are likely
to result in lost business, disciplinary action or other personal losses;

 Inability to forecast travel time accurately, leading to drivers allocating more time
to travel "just in case", and less time on productive activities;

 Wasted fuel increases air pollution and carbon dioxide emissions (which may
contribute to global warming) owing to increased idling, acceleration and braking.
Increased fuel consumption may also in theory cause a rise in fuel costs;

 Wear and tear on vehicles as a result of idling in traffic and frequent acceleration
and deceleration that leads to more frequent repairs and replacements;

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  Stressed and frustrated motorists, encouraging road rage and reduced health of
motorists. Road rage has claimed the lives of many road users, here and abroad.
The psychological impact and physiological effects on the quality of life of
citizens cannot be over-estimated.

 Emergencies: blocked traffic may interfere with the passage of emergency

vehicles travelling to destinations where they are urgently needed. This also
endangers the lives of people as emergency response is dependent on the so- called
'golden hour'

 Spill over effect from congested main arterials to secondary roads and side streets
as alternative routes are attempted ('rat running'), which may affect
neighbourhood amenity and real estate prices.

Congested conditions often occur at schools at the times when schools open or close. Due
to the presence of a large concentration of young inexperienced pedestrians it is necessary
that these localities be monitored frequently. Strict enforcement action is required to
ensure a high level of compliance to road rules. It may be necessary to conduct road safety
audits at schools annually to ensure that the safety of vulnerable road user groups is not
in any way compromised.

14.5.1 Benefits of reducing congestion

Congestion creates many negative aspects as reflected in Section 14.5 above. Time has
attached to it a monetary value. Many hours of productive work are lost as a result of
congestion. Vehicles suffer stress and breakdowns due to overheating, etc. Emergency
vehicles cannot reach their destinations in time and this may result in deaths and damage
to property. Crimes have been committed due to the fact that drivers are caught up in
congested streets.

It is therefore safe to postulate that a decrease in congestion improves our quality of life.
Air quality improves when congestion is reduced. Stop-and-go driving conditions at an
average speed of 50 km/h is more expensive that an uninterrupted average speed of 80
km/h. Millions of litres of fuel are wasted in congested conditions and at poorly set traffic
signals! This is a direct loss for the country as South Africa imports the vast majority of
its fuel requirements.

The country's economy also suffers as a result of congestion. Goods and services become
more expensive due to the longer periods that are wasted on public roads. Direct costs
increase due to increased vehicle travel times, fuel consumption, and other operating
costs. Drivers can make fewer deliveries during working hours and this increases the unit
price of goods and services. Minor interventions can decrease these costs and will make
the country more competitive internationally. Urbanisation is a fact of life and it is
expected that the percentage of citizens living in cities will increase drastically during the
foreseeable future. This will place a larger burden on the authorities i.e. to minimise the
impact of congestion. Mass urban transport systems will play an increasingly important
role in the transportation of commuters to and from work. The taxi industry can benefit
from this only if they improve their service levels, improve safety standards and stop in-
fighting amongst industry stakeholders.

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Strategies to improve traffic flow, such as traffic signal timing and incident management
have proved effective at reducing congestion in many cities The role of traffic law
enforcement practitioners in congestion management can therefore not be under-
estimated.

Incidents and crashes must be cleared as soon as practically possible without

compromising investigative procedures. This will reduce congestion substantially.
Congestion as a direct result of road works can be minimised if traffic law enforcement
practitioners work closely with contractors.

14.6 Traffic congestion at schools

Traffic congestion at schools can be described as the overcrowding and the blocking of
streets on or near school properties and is typically associated with the transportation and
loading/off-loading of children. Congestion at schools form part of a wider set of
problems related to school safety such as speeding in the vicinity of a hool, reckless
driving, noise pollution due pollution due to loud car stereos, etc. (www.popcenter.org).
The best option available to traffic law enforcement agencies is to implement measures
to "design" these problems out! The principle of crime and crash prevention by
environmental design applies. Parents however constitute the single biggest danger to
children due to their lack of compliance to road regulations and safety measures
implemented specifically to safeguard children. Schools situated adjacent to major
arterial roads pose additional risks as a result of other road users that may not be familiar
with the conditions and the conduct of children near school gates. Disorderly conduct
close to schools may also attract criminal activity. It therefore remains important that the
school authorities work closely with law enforcement agencies to instil order at school
properties. Criminal intent flourishes in a disorderly environment as it creates an ideal
opportunity for criminals to commit crime and to develop easy escape routes.

Issues that require specific attention is the provision of parking, including drop-off and
pick-up zones. Illegal parking must not be tolerated by the school governing bodies and
law enforcement officers. If parking is permitted on both sides of a road, then special
attention should be given to pedestrian crossings and sight distances. Traffic signals must
be policed as strictly as possible. Signals must be highly visible and special attention must
be given to signal timing including the duration of amber signals. If possible, on-site
parking must be provided within the school premises as this will mitigate congestion on
public roads adjacent to the school. One-way systems around the school could also be
considered. At primary schools it is recommended that consideration be given to
introduce scholar patrols. The conduct of small children is unpredictable and their span
of attention is restricted. Provision must be made to counter their unpredictability to
ensure that they are able to cross public roads safely.

Traffic law enforcement agencies should proactively initiate road safety audits at schools
without having to be summoned to a school. Issues that must be included in a road safety
audit include the following:-

 the general conduct of drivers at the main access points to the school;
 the position of drop-off and pick-up points and the conduct of drivers and
pedestrians at these points;

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  the position of pedestrian crossings and signs;
 the presence of speed zones and compliance rates;
 traffic signals, the visibility of signal heads, signal settings as well as the position
of signs;
 the provision of parking facilities for cars and buses;
 the relative speed of road users;
 lighting facilities during night time;
 data reflecting crashes at the school and on other roads in close proximity to the
school;
 shelters (and their position) for adverse weather conditions;
 the position of crossing lines;
 the general conduct of pedestrians;
 the involvement of the school governing body in road safety management;
 other pedestrian safety measures or the lack thereof;
 offence rates and crash data.

Fairly simple measures often have a dramatic effect on perceived crash risks. If however
it seems that problems are as a result of complicated road infrastructure deficiencies, it
will be necessary to arrange a full road safety audit with a range of stakeholders.
Infrastructural changes are the responsibility of civil engineers. The audit team should
include civil engineers, electrical engineers, school officials, representatives from the
school governing body, traffic law enforcement officers, etc.

14.7 Countermeasures
The level of congestion that society tolerates is a rational (though not necessarily
conscious) choice between the costs of improving the transportation system (in
infrastructure or management) and the benefits of quicker travel. Others may link it
largely to subjective lifestyle choice, differentiating between car-owning and car-free
households. Congestion also precipitates a move towards the use of public transport.
South Africa has a somewhat dysfunctional public transport system. It caters primarily
for the economically deprived communities. On a macro level central government is
responsible for the infrastructure to enhance the implementation of mass transport
systems.36 This includes a variety of modes of transport including rail, road and air. On a
meso level local authorities must provide the road infrastructure and facilities for public
transport such as busses and taxis. There are specific counter- measures that may include
anyone of the following or a combination thereof:-
 improved signalisation;
 more effective signal settings at isolated intersections;
 synchronisation of signals at interconnected intersections;
 improved conditions at road works;
 restriction on parking and stopping on major arterials;
 traffic point duty at intersections;
 introduction of one-way roads;
 canalisation of traffic;
 exclusive turning lanes at intersections;
__________________
36
The private taxi industry in South Africa plays an important role in mass transport. It is however important
that they improve the level of their service, particularly safety and compliance with road rules.

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  intersection re-design;
 grade separation - (this includes bridges etc);
 restricted use of lanes - bus-lanes;
 reversible lanes - contra traffic flow lanes during peak hours;
 High Occupancy Vehicles (HOV) lanes, for vehicles with at least three
(sometimes at least two) occupants, intended to encourage carpooling;
 adding more capacity at bottlenecks (such as by adding more lanes at the expense
of hard shoulders or safety zones, or by removing local obstacles like bridge
supports and widening tunnels). Adding more capacity over the whole of a route
(generally by adding more lanes);
 creating more routes;
 park and ride facilities allowing parking at a distance and allowing continuation
by public transport or ride sharing;
 traveller information;
 enforcement activities.

14.8 Law enforcement responses to congestion

It was already highlighted in the introduction to this Chapter that law enforcement
agencies have a very important role to play in minimising congestion and to mitigate the
impact thereof. Those administrators and officers that fail to respond to the challenges
posed by congestion are neglecting a very significant part of their responsibility i.e. to
perform traffic policing functions. Officers are often criticised for driving through an
intersection where the traffic signals are dysfunctional merely to stop further down the
road to buy something at a shop. Law enforcement officers cannot stop at every crash
problem that impacts negatively on the traffic flow, but should do everything within their
means to arrange that other services are contacted to resolve unnecessary delays. The
officers should report anything that could possibly impact on the traffic flow. Many public
utility providers dig trenches over the road to provide or maintain services. When
completed they just fill up the trench without arranging for it to be resealed. In wet
conditions the filling in these trenches are 'driven' out and then vehicles slow down to
negotiate the trench safely. This can cause traffic delays and unnecessary congestion for
weeks if not attended to. Apart from the cost implications to the motorists, the possibility
of crashes increases including the concomitant risk of civil claims against the authorities.
The first responsibility for law enforcement officers is to report problems that impact
negatively on road conditions and traffic flow. Once it is reported the law enforcement
officer should follow up the issue if it has not been attended to within an acceptable time
- usually 2 to 3 working days.

14.8.1 Reporting function

Traffic law enforcement officers should ensure that all possible crash risks and traffic
flow problems that are of a recurring or a non-recurring nature be reported as
expeditiously as possible. The officer should also where appropriate follow up the issue
and if it has not been resolved amicably, report the matter to the shift supervisor. This
may also require a written report to highlight the specific problem, its locality and if
appropriate, recommendations on how to remedy the problem. Most radio dispatch
centres of law enforcement agencies have reporting channels and should have the capacity
to report and follow up a complaint with the relevant public service provider. Issues that
should be reported daily include the following:-

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  potholes on the road surface;
 traffic signals out of order;
 traffic signs that are in need of replacement - (See Figure 14.1);
 traffic markings that require repainting;
 any other issue that may impact negatively on traffic flow and;
 roadwork signs that do not comply with good practice or legal prescriptions.

Many traffic law enforcement officers neglect to report adverse road conditions to the
responsible departments. This is considered a serious neglect of duty and increases the
risk of civil claims being instituted against the authorities. Apart from the liability issues
it may endanger the lives of innocent citizens i.e. if serious road risks are not identified,
reported and followed up. In Cape Town Municipality v Bakkerud 1997(4) SA 356 (C)
the court re-affirmed the principle that a public entity such as a municipality can be held
responsible for a neglect e.g. to maintain its roads and sidewalks. The court accepted that
it is not possible for a municipality to maintain every man-made street and pavement in a
pristine condition. The public also has a responsibility to care for their own safety. In the
event of a civil claim it will be for a plaintiff to place before the court in any given case,
sufficient evidence to enable it to conclude that a legal duty to repair or to warn road users
existed. The size of a pothole, the road in which it is located, and the period since its
existence, all contribute to prove that the municipality could have repaired the defect. It
is for this reason important that law enforcement officers report any serious potholes to
the roads authorities. If a pothole is not repaired within a specific and acceptable period
of time, the issue must be escalated to a higher level of authority.

Figure 14.1
Neglected road sign maintenance

14.8.2 Crash and incident response

Traffic law enforcement agencies must ensure that officers are deployed in such a manner
that they are able to respond within a reasonable time to any call for assistance. Most law
enforcement agencies have specialised units that have the responsibility to concentrate on
specific issues such as a Freeway Response Unit, Accident Response Units, Tactical
Units, etc. Although it is useful to establish and operate these units it also poses other
problems such as the reluctance of officers

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attached to these units to attend to any issue that they may perceive to be beyond the scope
of their tasks. An officer deployed to a Freeway Unit may neglect to offer assistance if it
is not confined to a freeway. This is one of the major disadvantages of specialisation.
Supervisors have a responsibility to educate the officers under their command to
understand the broader goals of policing and the importance of rendering a
comprehensive service to the communities that employ them. The principle that the police
are the public and the public the police is true and must be inculcated into the minds of
patrol officers.

There is also a difference in the concepts; response time and reaction time. A slow
response and reaction to crashes and incidents may have serious implications for the
traffic flow. Private tow truck operators often exploit the slow response times of law
enforcement officers and race to crash scenes to solicit (illegal) business from the parties
involved. It is also important that law enforcement officers assume the responsibility to
control traffic at crash and incident scenes. Some law enforcement officers leave the point
duty functions to emergency responders and then walk around as spectators.

14.9 Conclusion
Based on the information in this module it is evident that traffic law enforcement officers
have a major responsibility to intervene when traffic congestion is observed. There is a
large range of interventions available to them to mitigate the impact of congestion. The
introduction of road safety audits is a recommended strategy to investigate congested road
conditions. Vehicle ownership is rising rapidly and it can be expected that congestion will
become worse and that will aggravate road driving conditions and crash risks. Traffic law
enforcement officers have a major responsibility to monitor congested road conditions. It
cannot be left to the engineering profession to remedy all the ills of congested road
conditions.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 15

SETTING AND MANAGEMENT OF SPEED LIMITS

After completion of this section you should be able to:-

 Identify the issues that impact on the setting of speed limits.

 Integrate the concepts design speed, operating speed and safe speed.
 Explain the legislation governing the setting of speed limits.
 Describe the relationship between speed and crashes.
 Discuss the role of speed variation in crash causation.
 Explain speed adaptation and the role of speed enforcement.
 List and explain the different methods to set speed limits.
 Integrate speed management systems into law enforcement activities.

15.1 Introduction
The management of speed limits has always been a contentious issue and will remain so
for as long as people drive motor vehicles. The enforcement of speed limits is a sensitive
issue due to the fact that motorists and law enforcement officers do not have the same
perception about the need for enforcement and the manner of enforcement. The need for
effective speed limits has been proved in research worldwide and yet the issue remains
shrouded in controversy. There should be a symbiotic relationship between all
stakeholders involved in speed management. The outcome of a dysfunctional system of
speed management is tragedy, the loss of human life and damage to property. Young
drivers in particular do not respect the intrinsic values of speed management and this may
precipitate dangerous driving. These young drivers do not understand the impact of speed
on crash risks. They do not understand that there is an exponential relationship between
speed and the risk of dying in an accident. Very few motorists believe, and this is
accentuated by the media, that speed enforcement is exclusively directed towards crash
prevention. As long as these perceptions exist we will see a ‘cat-and-mouse' game
between motorists on the on hand and the enforcement officers on the other. Traffic law
enforcement agencies have a major role to play in the management of speed and this is
not restricted to the enforcement of speed limits. They have to be actively involved from
the setting of the correct limits, research to identify where speed limits contribute to crash
causation and remedial action (including sound enforcement strategies). This Chapter will
focus on the holistic role of law enforcement agencies in the development of a speed
management strategy.

15.2 Speed limits – legislation

The National Road Traffic Act prescribes the general speed limits. Section 12 of the Act
states as follows:-

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Speed limit
1) the general speed limit in respect of-
a) Every public road or section thereof, other than a freeway, situated within an
urban area;

b) Every public road or section thereof, other than a freeway, situated outside an
urban area; and

c) Every freeway, shall be as prescribed,

2) An appropriate road traffic sign may be displayed on any public road in

accordance with section 57, indicating a speed limit other than the general speed
limit which applies in respect of that road in terms of subsection (1) : Provided
that such other speed limit shall not be higher than the speed limit prescribed in
terms of subsection (1)(c).

3) The Minister may, after consultation with the MECs, in respect of any particular
class of vehicle prescribe a speed limit which is lower or higher than the general
speed limit prescribed in terms of subsection (1)(b) or (c): Provided that the speed
limit so prescribed shall not replace a lower speed limit indicated in terms of
subsection (2) by an appropriate road traffic sign.

4) No person shall drive a vehicle on a public road at a speed in excess of-

a) the general speed limit which in terms of subsection (1) applies in respect of
that road;

b) the speed limit indicated in terms of subsection (2) by an appropriate road

traffic sign in respect of that road; or

c) the speed limit prescribed by the Minister under subsection (3) in respect of
the class of vehicle concerned.

Certain drivers may exceed general speed limit

Notwithstanding the provisions of section 59, the driver of a fire-fighting vehicle, a rescue
vehicle or an ambulance that drives such vehicle in the carrying out of his or her duties,
a traffic officer who drives a vehicle in the carrying out of his or her duties or any person
driving a vehicle while engaged in civil protection as contemplated in an ordinance made
in terms of section 3 of the Civil Protection Act, 1977 (Act No. 67 of 1977), may exceed
the applicable general speed limit: Provided that-

a) he or she shall drive the vehicle concerned with due regard to the safety of other
traffic; and

b) in the case of any such fire-fighting vehicle, rescue vehicle, ambulance of vehicle
driven by a person while he or she is so engaged in civil

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 protection, such vehicle shall be fitted with a device capable of emitting a
prescribed sound and with an identification lamp, as prescribed, and such device
shall be so sounded and such lamp shall be in operation while the vehicle is driven
in excess of the applicable general speed limit. Many law enforcement agencies
use the prescribed general speed limits and post them on the roads within their
jurisdiction without due consideration to other issues that affect the setting of
speed limits.

15.3 Design speed

In the United States the design speed is officially defined as "a selected speed used to
determine the various geometric design features of the roadway", according to the 2001
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials - highway design
manual, commonly referred to as the "Green Book." (AASHTO) Previous versions of the
Green Book referred to design speed as the "maximum safe speed that can be maintained
over a specific section of highway when conditions are so favourable that the design
features of the highway govern"; however the 2001 edition removed the term "safe" in
order to avoid the implication that speeds greater than the design speed were necessarily
"unsafe."

Safe operating speeds can exceed the design speed. Example reasons include:-

 A design speed is not a representative speed of an entire roadway. Rather, the

road's design speed is limited by its most restrictive feature, such as a curve,
bottleneck, or hill;

 Actual roadway design may exceed the design specifications;

 Current parameters for determining the design speed assumes the capacity.of
outdated automotive technology;

 The stated design speed for a given road is usually not changed. Therefore, the
design speed on older roads, which were calculated with older methodologies,
may not factor in improved automotive technology which can maintain designed
safety at higher travel speeds.

In commonly accepted engineering practice, design speed is considered a "first guess" at

an appropriate speed limit. However there can be a huge difference between design speed
and safe speed. Congested freeways with a high level of speed variance can be very
dangerous even at average speeds far below the design speed. It may also be very safe to
travel on an urban freeway in excess of 120 km/h when there is almost no other vehicles
on the road compared to an unsafe speed of say 70 km/h on the same road during peak
hour traffic. The posted limit indicates the legal limit at which a driver may operate
without being liable to prosecution. This indicates that there is a huge difference between
the design speed, the operating speed, safe speed and the posted speed.

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15.3 The relationship between speed and crashes
The report of the RTMC - Speed as a Contributory Factor to Road Traffic Crashes
February 2005; provides a comprehensive overview of speed management. The following
are extracts from their findings:-

"Ever since the invention of the motor vehicle, speed as a factor in road crashes was a
bone of contention. There are generally two schools of thought about the relationship
between road traffic crashes and speed the first group saying that there is a relationship
(“speed kills") and those that say there is no such relationship. The second group also
states that all drivers should be assumed to be responsible and therefore be allowed to
select and drive at any speed that they are comfortable with. The second group also almost
always refers to some Western European countries as "typical" examples of countries
with high speeds and low accident rates. What this group tend (or prefer) to forget is the
fact that these countries most probably also have an excellent maintained road network;
vehicles that are continuously maintained to a high standard; drivers that are generally
well trained and skilled, with much better attitudes and more courteous driver behaviour;
and where drunk drivers and pedestrians pose no problem due to a high level of self-
discipline.

The fact is that in Europe, according to the Commission of the European Communities
Road Safety Action Programme, published in June 2003, excessive and improper speed
is the cause of about a third (33 percent) of fatal and serious accidents and a major factor
in determining the severity of injuries. The European Union report further elaborates on
the role of alcohol, drugs and fatigue in the road traffic environment and states that
drinking and driving was found to be responsible for no less than 10,000 deaths per year
in Europe.

In a study undertaken in the United States of America (USA) during the late 1990's, it
was found that speed contributes to 18,7 percent of road crashes. The contribution of
alcohol was in the order of 18.2 percent. In Australian research in the 1990's it was found
that the risk of involvement in a crash in a 60 km/h zone doubles for every km/h in excess
of the speed limit.

During intensive research undertaken by the CSIR in South Africa from the mid 1970's
to the mid 1980's, it was found that the lowering of speed limits (resulting in lower
operating speeds on the rural road network) had an overwhelming effect on the occurrence
of road crashes. A reduction in the speed limit from 120 km/h to 80 km/h resulted in a
decrease in the casualty crash rate (number of casualty crashes per million vehicle
kilometres travel) from about 0.59 to about 0.44. It was found that the relationship
between the crash rate and the speed limit was almost linear.” (RTMC 2005)According
to a similar study by the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in the United Kingdom in
the late 1990's, a reduction in average speed of 3 km/h would save 5,000 to 6,000 lives
each year in Europe, and would avoid 120,000 to 140,000 crashes.

In a study undertaken by the Department of Transport in the late 1990's to review the
speed limits and develop standards for the setting of speed limits, it was found that the
speed limits in South Africa rated amongst the highest in the world. The Speed as a
Contributory Factor to Road Traffic Crashes Road Traffic Management Corporation
study concluded that, although it may be relatively high, the current limits should be

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retained. It is, however, not the purpose of this report to review the relevancy of the
current applicable speed limits, but to indicate to which extent the set limits are ignored.
It is generally accepted in basically all countries, including South Africa, that not more
than about 15% of the traffic should exceed the limit and that this 15% should be
subjected to effective enforcement and prosecution. The current local situation is actually
much worse. It was found in an extensive speed analysis of about 25,000,000 vehicles of
all types in 2004 that the average speed increased by about 9% from 2003 to 2004. The
information analysed further showed that, particularly over weekends, in the order of
30,4% of drivers exceed the 120 km/h limit; about 14,1% exceed 130 km/h and 5,9%
drive faster than 140 km/h. (RTMC - 2005)

An interesting question is to what extent has the commercialisation of speed enforcement

contributed to the general lawlessness on our roads? Speed enforcement by cameras has
become a financial transaction and the effectiveness of officers stopping and prosecuting
offenders has been lost. Motorists have little respect for the administrative processes to
secure the income for transgressions committed. The current process of adjudication will
be replaced by the Administrative Adjudication of Road Traffic Offences (AARTO)
process. This to a large extent also implies an administrative approach to law
enforcement. In view of the research that indicates that a reduction in the average speed
of vehicles has a significant reduction in crash risks, it is important that law enforcement
achieves its objectives i.e. to minimise the incidence of speeding offences.

DEVIATION FROM AVERAGE SPEED vs. THE COLLISION RATE

Figure 15.1

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15.3.1 Speed variation
In 1964, Solomon researched the relationship between average speed and collision rates
of motor vehicles and plotted the results. While others have attempted to quantify the
relationship between average speed and collision rates, Solomon's work was both the
earliest and best known. Solomon conducted a comprehensive study of more than 10 000
accident-involved drivers and their vehicles and how other roadway, driver, and vehicle
characteristics affect the probability of being involved in a crash. Solomon found that the
probability of being involved in a crash per vehicle- mile as a function of on-road vehicle
speeds follows a U-shaped curve (See figure 15.1) with speed values around the median
speed having the lowest probability of being in a crash Although typically called the
Solomon curve, the U-shaped curve has also been referred to as the Crash Risk Curve.
(www.wikipedia.com)

The variation in vehicle speeds is an important aspect that law enforcement officers must
keep in mind in their enforcement strategies. Vehicles travelling too slow on public roads
pose as much (if not more) danger to other road users than those who exceed the speed
limit. A few urban freeways in South Africa have minimum speed limits but these are
very rarely enforced. Fast moving vehicles on the same road as slow moving vehicles
create an immense level of conflict due to the high percentage of vehicles passing each
other and the inherent potential for crashes. It is therefore a well founded argument that
enforcement officers focus their attention solely on the fast moving vehicles as this creates
a source of income whilst the slow moving vehicles are rarely stopped or restricted from
using the roadway. The graphs hereunder also refer to the Solomon's curve and clearly
reflect that vehicles moving at approximately 10 km/h faster that the average speed of
vehicles on a roadway is in fact safer than those who travel 10 km/h slower than the
average speed.

The different average speeds on urban freeways also reflect that the average speed in the
fast lanes are up to 30km/h faster than that of vehicles in the slow lane. (Van Rooyen, B.
2002)

Traffic law enforcement officers should whilst on patrol identify those vehicles that travel
at speeds far lower than the average speed, stop the drivers and either restrict them from
driving any further on that road or to re-direct them to another road. Any failure to
eliminate these risks on public roads is tantamount to a neglect of duty. Many lives have
been lost due to speed variation. A vehicle travelling at 30 km/h is for all practical reasons
stationary in relation to a vehicle travelling at say 130 km/h. The objective of road
authorities should be to minimise the rate of speed variation as much as possible.

15.4 Speed variance and crash risk

The graphs reflected hereunder show that crash risk is minimised for those drivers
traveling 10-15 km/h over the average speed. Average speeds in British Columbia are
almost always over posted speeds. Contrary to popular belief, there are more crashes at
slower speeds than at faster speeds. (Parker Jr. M.R. et.al. 2003) Raw speed and crash
risk are not directly related, however, there is a U-shaped relationship which shows few
fast drivers involved in crashes, and many more slow drivers involved in crashes.

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 Figure 15.2

Figure 15.3

Photo radar and BC speed limits target safe drivers

Under current British Columbia speed limits, safe drivers are included within the red
enforcement zone (the fastest 15% of vehicles). Speed enforcement should only target the
top 2-5%.

Enforcement tolerances set by law enforcement agencies are often incorrect and result in
even lower tolerances. Tolerances in South Africa are prescribed as 10 percent above the
posted speed limit. This implies that on a road with a 60 km/h speed limit,

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the tolerance level will be 66 km/h. On freeways the tolerance is 12 km/h but many
officers set the limit before enforcement commences at 135 km/h.

Figure 15.4

15.5 Proper speed limits increase safety

Setting speed limits according to the standards of the Institute of Transportation Engineers
(the 85th percentile method) will:-

 focus enforcement on dangerous drivers, not revenue collection;

 increase speed limit compliance;
 provide greater consistency of speed limits;
 reduce speed variance resulting in reduced crashes.

The 85th percentile is the speed at which 85 percent of drivers travel at or below (under
average, free-flow conditions).

One of the major problems with camera prosecutions is that it is solely focussed on the
drivers that drive faster than 132 km/h. No heavy motor vehicles can be 'entrapped' due
to the fact that if they exceed the speed limit of 80 km/h but do not drive faster that the
general speed limit of 120 km/h plus the tolerance permitted (132 km/h) the camera will
not record them as offenders. Differentiated speed limits must therefore be enforced by
means of visible (roadside) law enforcement.

15.6 Speed adaptation

The theory of speed adaptation predicts that apparent vehicle speed is influenced by the
speed and duration of recent travel in the vehicle. This adaptation to vehicular speed is
the combined result of the visual, auditory, and proprioceptive feedback associated with
various rates of travel. Speed adaptation is a commonly experienced phenomenon that
results in an under estimation of speed after encountering a reduced-

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speed zone (Schmidt and Tiffin, 1969; Mathews, 1978). In short, according to the speed
adaptation hypothesis, the perceived speed of one's own vehicle will be lower than the
actual speed if the driver has recently been operating the vehicle at a higher speed.

Speed adaptation refers to a reduction of speed from a higher to a lower speed due to a
lowering of the posted speed limit, or due to circumstances that requires a lower speed
for safety reasons. Many law enforcement officers have a tendency to conduct speed law
enforcement at these sites where a lower speed limit is posted for the one or other
(supposedly) valid reason. If the speed enforcement is conducted too close to the point
where the lower limit comes into affect it may precipitate extreme negative feelings of
resentment towards the enforcement agency. This is deemed not to be fair enforcement
practice as it takes time for the normal driver to adapt to the lower speed limit within a
short distance. This is particularly true when there is no real change in the geographical
properties of the road. This is often found on roads where a town or other settlement is
ahead. The lower speed limit should not be reduced at such a large distance from the
actual start of the built-up area that it makes no sense to the average driver. A lower limit
must only be posted when the lower speed is required for real safety reasons.

15.7 Speed variance/ distribution/dispersion

Speed variance refers to the phenomenon where vehicles are driven at different speeds. It
therefore refers to fast and slow moving vehicles on the same road or in different lanes
on a freeway. A higher degree of speed variance increases crash risks exponentially. The
increase in the number of lane changes, overtaking manoeuvres and the risk of rear-end
crashes all contribute to this increased risk. The risk is further aggravated if slow moving
vehicles occupy the fast lanes (inter-vehicle conflict). Speed variance after peak hour
traffic, especially at sunset creates additional complications as visibility deteriorates and
perception - reaction times increase. The margin of error decreases substantially with an
increase in speed variance. Added to this factor is the increase in the number of
intoxicated drivers over weekends commencing on a Friday evening. This partly explains
the sudden and steep increase in the number of fatalities from Friday evenings throughout
the weekend. It is however very difficult to resolve the issue of speed variance in urban
areas. One possible solution is to reduce the speed limit from say 120 km/h to 100 km/h.
A 120 km/h speed limit plus a 10 percent tolerance margin allows drivers to travel at
approximately 135 km/h before they become susceptible to prosecution. The large
number of slow moving commercial vehicles on urban freeways creates the perfect 'storm'
for fatal crashes. Vehicles that are moving more than 15 km/h slower than the average
speed have a higher risk of getting involved in crashes than vehicles that are driving 15
km/h or more higher than the average speed. The focus of traffic law enforcement
agencies are on the higher speeds and not the slow moving commercial vehicles.

15.8 The setting of speed limits

The main question to ask is who sets speed limits? Most scholars in traffic law
enforcement will reply that it is the responsibility of the road engineers. Yet in many local
authorities this is the responsibility of the local traffic enforcement agency. It requires
more than a "thumb-suck" approach as it impacts directly on a number of

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related issues such as crash risks, compliance rates etc. It does not really matter which
agency has the responsibility to determine and post speed limits, as long as it is done
scientifically and based on approved methods. There are a number of approaches to the
setting of speed limits.

Speed limits are most frequently set through statutes. Speed limits can usually be lowered,
or sometimes raised, from the legislated speed limit through a process called speed
zoning. Common factors influencing speed zoning are: (www.wikipedia.org)

 85th percentile speed;

 design speed;
 road features;
 crash records;
 administrative judgment;
 engineering judgment;
 political influences.

The 85th percentile speed is the method preferred by most authorities. The speed limit
should be set to the speed that separates the bottom 85% of vehicle speeds from the top
15%. The 85th percentile is slightly greater than a speed that is one standard deviation
(SD) above the mean of a normal distribution.

The theory is that traffic laws that reflect the behavior of the majority of motorists may
have better compliance rates than laws that arbitrarily criminalize the majority of
motorists and encourage violations. The latter kinds of laws lack public support and often
fail to bring about desirable changes in driving behavior. In practice the 85th percentile
refers to the speed limit at which 85 percent of road users will be compliant. The
remaining 15 percent of drivers will exceed this limit. It also implies that if this speed
limit is determined statistically and then posted that a relatively large (15 percent) of
drivers will still require some other means of coercion to comply to ensure an acceptable
rate of compliance. This is primarily the responsibility of the law enforcement agencies.

15.8.1 The arbitrary approach

Many traffic law enforcement practitioners rely on the arbitrary approach to determine
speed limits. This is due to a lack of knowledge of speed limit setting. This approach
refers to guessing an appropriate speed limit. Experienced law enforcement practitioners
are able to 'guess' an appropriate speed fairly accurately. The problem however remains
that this approach cannot stand up to cross examination in a court of law or to public
scrutiny. Most practitioners using this approach use the general speed limit as a basis and
then 'guess' whether the specific roads warrant a slightly higher or lower speed limit. Their
'gut-feel' may be correct but the problem is that they are often forced to change speed
limits due to political and community influences.

15.8.2 The legalistic approach

Most public roads are legally assigned a default maximum speed limit. The relevance of
default speed limits to road users varies; in some places authorities always post a sign
stating the maximum speed limit(s) applicable to a given road with a numerical value
which may or may not be the default speed limit. In other places, default speed

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limits that are relevant to road users may be indicated by a non-numeric sign, a lack of
speed limit signs, the presence of streetlights, or the physical arrangement of the road. If
a default limit applies everywhere within a municipal area or freeway, it is known as the
general speed limit. Different default speed limits usually apply to urban streets, rural
highways, and freeway-like roads and these values may also vary according to the type
of vehicle. A posted limit that is lower than a default speed limit is generally given
precedence. A posted speed limit differing from the default speed limit is typically a linear
speed limit and only applies to that road, and not necessarily any intersecting roads. Zonal
speed limits apply on all roads beyond the sign that defines them. (www.wikipedia.org)

As mentioned earlier too many authorities rely on the general speed limit as prescribed in
legislation. This implies that many roads in a municipal area have a 60 km/h speed limit
although there may be good reasons to raise (or lower) this limit. If no signs are posted
on a specific road then the general speed limit applies. The lack of a more scientific
approach often lead to a strict enforcement of a speed limit that is not really warranted in
terms of the physical characteristics of that road. Strict enforcement on these roads leads
to an increased level of resentment from the public. It accentuates the perception that
speed law enforcement is not focused on safety but other objectives.

15.8.3 The engineering approach

The design speed of a road is the maximum speed at which a motor vehicle can be
operated safely on that road in perfect conditions. The precise definition is "the maximum
safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions
are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern. The assumed design speed
should be a logical one with respect to the topography, the adjacent land use, and the
functional classification of the highway. (www.wikipedia.org) Civil engineers design
roads with a specific speed limit in mind. Higher order roads will have higher design
speeds. Ideally the design speed is the maximum speed prudent drivers would choose
when environmental conditions are very good and traffic volumes are light. Certain
highway design features, including curvature, sight distance, and roadside elements, are
highly sensitive to the choice of design speed, while others, including lane and shoulder
widths, do not change appreciably with design speed. (Managing Speed, TRB. 1998)
Vehicular volumes and density, especially in urban areas annihilate the advantages of the
design speed. Although a freeway is designed to allow safe traveling conditions in excess
of 120 km/h this is most of the time not possible due to congestion. It is therefore
important to monitor the average speed of vehicles on these roads as there is likely to be
a high dispersion of speeds i.e. fast and slow moving vehicles. This creates serious safety
risks. On the other side of the coin many roads in residential areas are of such a high
standard that they can accommodate high speeds. These urban roads often become 'race
tracks' with a concomitant negative response from the residents. Roads may have high
design standards but this does not necessarily imply that they are safe. There are many
other issues that impact on the safe speed limit such as the presence of children, bicycles,
elderly pedestrians, entrances to properties, etc. Speed management is therefore an
important component of traffic law enforcement agencies. Engineers may design safe
roads but the way that these roads are utilised is the responsibility of the enforcement
agencies. These two stakeholders should manage speed in a symbiotic relationship.

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15.8.4 The statistical approach
The statistical approach refers to the 85th percentile speed. This is the preferred method
to determine the most appropriate speed for a specific street or road. It must however be
kept in mind that no speed limit may exceed the maximum speed limit of 120 km/h
prescribed in legislation.

15.9 Speed enforcement practice

Speed enforcement practices should be focussed on increasing compliance rates and not
to generate income. The use of cameras for speed enforcement purposes has created a
perception that speed enforcement has nothing to do with safety and everything to do with
making money for the authorities. The public private partnerships between the suppliers
of camera equipment and the law enforcement agencies has not quelled the idea that the
"privatisation" of speed enforcement is now considered an economic issue. Fines are
generated administratively and posted to offenders. There is no contact between the
offender and the law enforcement officer with the result that many motorists see speeding
as an acceptable risk and that the penalty is a monetary penalty. Although the National
Prosecuting Authorities prescribes certain minimum conditions for speed enforcement by
camera the law enforcement agencies often do not comply strictly with these conditions.
One of the conditions is normally that the camera enforcement should be conducted only
at sites that have high crash risks. This can only be determined with data generated by a
law enforcement agency's accident bureau. It has been reported in the media that
mischievous officers replace speed restriction signs with lower restrictions to increase the
offence rates. This is tantamount to obstructing the course of justice and must be
condemned in the strongest possible manner.

Some law enforcement officers set their speed enforcement equipment at speed
adaptation zones i.e. where the speed limit is reduced. This often occurs at (1) the
entrances to rural towns, 92) where freeways terminate or (3) where higher crash risks
exist despite the fact that the geometric properties of the road have not changed. It takes
some time for a driver to reduce the vehicle's speed to the lower limit and this explains
the reason why speed restrictions must be reduced incrementally by 20 km/h intervals. It
is self explanatory that a speed limit cannot be reduced from 120 km/h to 60 km/h within
a short distance and then to conduct speed checking a few meters from where the lower
limit has been posted.

One main issue that discredits speed enforcement practices - is the strict enforcement of
an incorrectly set speed restriction. A high non-compliance rate must indicate that there
may be something fundamentally wrong with the posted speed limit. Some officers are
of the opinion that speed limits must be set in terms of the general speed limits prescribed
in the National Road Traffic Act and its Regulations. This is an inappropriate approach
and local authorities have the right to set different speed limits for different roads and
even different speed limits on the same road. It is wrong to post a general speed limit on
a road that warrants a higher speed limit. Speed enforcement will aggravate already
negative perceptions in these instances.

15.10 The effects of raising or lowering speed limits

The relationship between vehicle speed and crash severity is unequivocal and based on
the laws of physics. The kinetic energy of a moving vehicle is a function of its

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mass and velocity squared. Kinetic energy is dissipated in a collision by friction, heat,
and the deformation of mass. Generally, the more kinetic energy to be dissipated in a
crash, the greater the potential for injury to vehicle occupants. Because kinetic energy is
determined by the square of the vehicle's speed, rather than by speed alone, the probability
of injury, and the severity of injuries that occur in a crash, increase exponentially with
vehicle speed. For example, a 30 percent increase in speed (e.g. 80 to 105 km/h) results
in a 69 percent increase in the kinetic energy of a vehicle.

The relationship between travel speed and the severity of injuries sustained in a crash was
examined by Solomon (1964), who reported an increase in crash severity with increasing
vehicle speeds on rural roads. From an analysis of 10,000 crashes, Solomon concluded
that crash severity increased rapidly at speeds in excess of 96 km/h, and the probability
of fatal injuries increased sharply above 112 km/h. The risk of a fatality begins to rise
when the change in speed at moment of impact exceeds 48 km/h and is more than 50
percent likely to be fatal when the change exceeds 96 km/h. The probability of death from
an impact speed of 80 km/h is 15 times the probability of death from an impact speed of
40 km/h. The relationship between impact speed and crash severity is particularly critical
for pedestrians, the most vulnerable road users. In a recent review of the issues, the
European Transport Safety Council (1995) report that only 5 percent of pedestrians died
when struck by a vehicle traveling at 32 km/h; however, the proportion of fatalities
increased to 45 percent at 48 km/h and to 85 percent at 64 km/h. (Synthesis of Safety
Research Related to Speed and Speed Limits Federal Highway Administration) South
Africa has an extremely high rate of pedestrian fatalities. Speed zoning and the provision
of adequate road safety measures can minimize this rate! Unfortunately the main focus is
on vehicular movement and not pedestrians with the result that vehicle speeds increase
with improvements in road infrastructure.

One of the problems that increase non-compliance with speed limits is the indiscriminate
use of lower speed limits on certain roads. If a speed limit is lowered due to the presence
of pedestrians and drivers do not see any pedestrians for ‘miles' they start to doubt the
usefulness of the lower speed limit. Traffic law enforcement officers are often seen at
these 'obscure' speed zones in some rural areas enforcing limits that are not perceived to
be valid. Lowering speed limits will minimise the risk of pedestrian related crashes only
if they are warranted and properly enforced.

15.11 Performance measurement

Prior to the implementation of any speed enforcement program it is necessary to analyse
the incidence of speeding offences and traffic crashes. Most of the country's fatal crashes
occur over weekends when congestion is considerably lower compared to weekdays. The
graphs (Figure 15.5 and 15.6) clearly illustrate this phenomenon. It is also a fact that the
lowest level of traffic enforcement occurs during the days and times that most crashes
occur. Policing is supposed to be increased during the critical times that crash risks are
more prevalent. Almost 60 percent of all fatalities on South African roads occur between
the hours 18h00 on a Friday evening to 06h00 on a Monday morning (i.e. over weekends).
Any selective traffic enforcement program must focus on these facts. The focus of the
enforcement agency should be to select - say the 5 main contributory causes of road
crashes - and then to increase enforcement activities. It is self-explanatory that driving
whilst intoxicated and reckless driving should be included in the list of major contributory
offences.

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 % Fatalities per Day of Week

Figure 15.5
Source Arrive Alive - South Africa
__________________________________________________

% Fatal Crashes per Time of Day

Figure 15.6
Source - Arrive Alive - South Africa

15.12 The effect of speed enforcement on crime

The deterrent effects of police practices on crime have been a topic of research and debate
for several years. The 1974 report describing the impact of the Kansas City Preventive
Patrol Experiment (Kelling, et al., 1974) was an early evaluation of the effect on crime of
increasing or decreasing police personnel. No significant differences in the incidence of
crime, citizen's fear of crime, or satisfaction with police services were found between
Kansas City, Missouri's neighborhoods with varying levels of enforcement. The Kansas
City study was criticized for only examining variations in force size and not taking into
account the type of police strategies used in combating crime.

In response to the Kansas City study, Wilson and Boland (1978) developed a model;
predicting that police techniques that maximise the level of interaction between the police
and the community (termed aggressive policing) will result in a reduction in crime.

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To support their model, they examined the historical incidence of robbery in 35 large
American cities and found that robbery rates were lower in cities in which more traffic
citations were written (their measure of aggressive policing). Despite criticism of the
measure of aggressiveness used by Wilson and Boland (Jacob and Rich, 1981), similar
historical research by Sampson and Cohen (1988) supports the model developed by
Wilson and Boland. Weiss employed quasi-experimental methodology to directly
manipulate the level of traffic enforcement and measure its impact on local area crime.
Local crime levels in areas treated with traffic enforcement were compared to locations
where no enforcement took place. No relationship was found between traffic enforcement
levels and the prevalence of crime in the experimental sites. While the researchers
postulate that traffic enforcement may indeed have no impact on crime, they also
recognize several flaws in their research that may have made such an effect undetectable.
(Weiss et.al. 1993)

Stuster's study of municipal speed enforcement examined the effects of municipal traffic
enforcement methods on a variety of dependent measures. In addition to measures of
traffic safety, reported previously, the incidence of crimes in the special zones was
analysed for a control and two experimental communities. Overall, serious crimes (e.g..
murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, larceny, arson, and motor vehicle theft, declined
by eight percent in the special enforcement zones of one of the experimental communities,
and by one percent in the other experimental community. Less serious crimes (e.g. drug
violations, vandalism, disorderly conduct, and prostitution) increased by four percent in
the comparison community's control zones. None of the changes in serious crimes as a
whole was statistically significant, but both experimental communities experienced
significant declines in the incidence of the larceny and theft. This is the one type of crime
equally likely to occur during nighttime as well as daylight hours (i.e. when the special
enforcement was conducted). Analysts found the 11 and 12 percent declines in larceny
and theft to be statistically significant and attributable to the deterrence effects of the
special enforcement programs; larceny/theft declined less than 2 percent statewide and
increased by 4 percent in the control zones of the comparison community.

Although research in this field has not conclusively linked aggressive speed enforcement
to a decline in other crime indices, it is generally acknowledged that any law enforcement
activity has an inherent crime prevention value. Manned speed checks therefore serve
more than to monitor speed limits. The mere visibility of law enforcement activity has a
deterrent value whereas automated (camera) enforcement does not have this positive
effect on crime. Many criminal activities are reliant on the use of vehicles and effective
speed enforcement by officers is an effective crime prevention activity. Enforcement
becomes more effective when speed law enforcement is not only restricted to the issuing
of a traffic ticket for the speed offence but where it is extended to a vehicle inspection.
Metropolitan police departments that neglect their traffic law enforcement activities in
favour of a more general approach to crime prevention without a clear focus on what to
do should take note of the positive impact that effective traffic law enforcement practices
have on other categories of crime. Law enforcement officers that postulate that driving
around in a patrol vehicle without any clearly stated and measurable objective is sufficient
to combat crime are misguided.

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15.12.1 Speed Enforcement Policy
Every law enforcement agency with a speed enforcement program needs written policies
and formal training guidelines. The policy should contain a statement identifying at what
levels discretionary/mandatory enforcement will take place. In some departments a
certain number of kilometres per hour over the posted limit are allowed as discretionary
enforcement and any speed over this level requires a mandatory ticket. If you set such a
requirement as this, recognise that not all motorists have accurate speedometers, and the
tolerance should allow for at least normal speedometer error. Some departments allow
their officers to issue warnings at differing speeds depending on time of day and road,
traffic and weather conditions. Still other departments determine the 85th percentile
speed-that is, the speed at which 85 percent or greater of all traffic is travelling below,
and set a tolerance for each roadway depending on that figure. All policies should include
a monitoring function to ensure compliance. (Highway Safety Desk Book)

A policy should include the following areas:-

 Qualifications of officers;
 Recertification of speed measuring devices;
 Supervision;
 Selecting a location;
 Positioning the unit;
 Operation and calibration of radar or LIDAR;
 Apprehension;
 Arrest and detention;
 Prosecution;
 Written warnings;
 Storage of the radar or LIDAR units;
 Logs (Implementation and maintenance).

15.13 The reasons why drivers exceed speed limits

Many different factors can influence the speed at which a motorist chooses to drive. Speed
choice can be influenced by driver age, gender, attitude, and the perceived risks of law
enforcement or crash. Speed choice also is influenced by situational factors, such as
weather, road or vehicle characteristics, speed zoning, speed adaptation, impairment, or
simply "running late." It is important that law enforcement agencies attempt to determine
why motorists speed on certain roads during certain days and times. This will enable them
to focus more specific on remedial interventions - education, engineering or enforcement
or a combination thereof. The following factors that influence a driver's decision to
exceed the posted speed limit have been cited in research. (Synthesis of Safety Research
Related to Speed and Speed Limits Federal Highway Administration). Speed enforcement
in adverse conditions is usually limited due to the increase in safety risks in stopping and
prosecuting offenders. This may precipitate dangerous driving by inconsiderate drivers.

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15.13.1 Driver attitudes and behaviour
Solomon (1964) identified the driver and vehicle characteristics associated with speeding
on rural highways during the late 1950s. He reported higher mean speeds for young
drivers, out of state vehicles, buses, and late model passenger vehicles, especially high-
performance models. Other early studies linked driving speed to age, trip length, and
presence or absence of passengers.

More recently, Fildes unobtrusively measured the speeds of vehicles on urban and rural
road segments in Victoria, Australia, and then stopped a sample of the vehicles to
interview the drivers. The researchers found that younger drivers, drivers without
passengers, drivers of newer cars, drivers traveling for business purposes, and high
mileage drivers were more likely to drive faster than average and exceed the speed limit.
(Fildes, et.al. 1991)

Mustyn and Sheppard (1980) found more than 75 percent of drivers claiming they drive
at a speed that traffic and road conditions permit, regardless of the posted speed limit.
Although the motorists who were interviewed tended to consider speeding to be one of
the primary causes of crashes, they did not consider driving 16 km/h over the limit to be
particularly wrong. However, most of those interviewed considered driving 32 km/h over
the limit to be a serious offense.

Of all drivers involved in fatal crashes, young males are the most likely to have speed as
a contributing crash factor. In 1995, nearly 40 percent of the fatal crashes involving male
drivers 15 to 20 years old were speed related (NHTSA 1995). The relative proportion of
speed-related crashes to all crashes decreases with increasing driver age.

A recent study of the behavioral cues associated with driving while intoxicated (DWI)
found that drivers who were exceeding speed limits by 16 km/h or more were DWI (Blood
alcohol concentration BAC > 0.08) only in 9 percent of all nighttime enforcement stops,
but those driving more than 16 km/h under the limit were found to be DWI in 48 percent
of the stops (Stuster, 1997); driving under the speed limit does not include maneuvers that
require slow speed. A previous study of motorcyclist DWI detection found that 10 percent
of speeding motorcyclists have BAC's of 0.08 or greater (Stuster, 1993). These
probabilities of driving whilst intoxicated are low compared to other behaviors, such as
weaving, turning with a wide radius, or drifting during a curve (all with probabilities of
DWI greater than 50 percent).

Driving at an excessive speed is risk-taking behavior that often is found in association

with other risk-taking behaviour. For example, in 1995, only 37 percent of passenger
vehicle drivers under 21 years old who were involved in fatal crashes related to speed
were wearing safety belts at the time of the crash. In contrast, 56 percent of drivers in the
same age group were properly restrained when speed was not a factor. For drivers 21
years and older, the percentage of drivers involved in speed-related fatal crashes who
were using restraints at the time of the crash was 34 percent, but 62 percent of drivers
were restrained in fatal crashes that were not speed related. The next table indicates the
attitude of drivers towards a selected number of offences. It is clear from this research
that exceeding speed limits on freeways are considered to be the least serious. (Hope, S.
et.al. 2003)

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Judged seriousness of infringements

Very Quite Quite Very

[Row % s]
serious serious minor minor
Driving when you thought you were
99 <1 <1 -
over the drink-driving limit
Having a 'race' with another driver 94 6 <1 <1
Driving after drinking alcohol but
89 9 2 <1
when you think you are OK
Driving at 50mph in a 30mph zone 86 13 1 -
Driving through a red light 84 16 <1 -
Driving without wearing seat belts 70 22 6 2
Driving at 90mph in a 70mph zone 64 28 8 1
Passengers not wearing a seat belt 63 29 7 1
Overtaking on the inside 63 27 8 1
Following too closely the vehicle in
62 33 5 <1
front
Speeding up when being overtaken 61 32 6 1
Carry out a manoeuvre without
49 38 12 2
signalling
Crossing a continuous white line 48 41 10 1
Driving at 40mph in a 30mph zone 34 49 15 2
Driving at 80mph in a 70mph zone 23 36 30 10

Table 15.1
Judgment on the seriousness of offences

Drink-driving and racing another driver were rated the most serious of these driving
infringements. Excessive speed in a built-up area ('50mph in a 30mph zone') was rated
very serious by more respondents than excessive speed on the motorway or dual
carriageway (144 km/h in a 110 km/h zone') (86 percent : 64 percent). Excess, but not
excessive, speed in built-up area (34 percent very serious) or outside (23 percent very
serious) were rated the least serious. The next table reflects the views of the respondents
in relation to the likelihood of being caught for speeding on different types of roads:-
(Hope, S. et.al. 2003)

 P1 - Freeways;
 P2 - Dual carriageways;
 P3- Wide suburban roads;
 P4 - Main road in town;
 P5 - Wide residential road;
 P6 - Narrow residential road;
 P7 - Rural road.

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 [Row Very Quite Not very Not at all
%s] likely likely likely likely
P1 16 32 41 12
P2 15 41 35 9
P3 18 46 28 9
P4 18 35 35 12
P5 14 35 38 13
P6 14 28 42 17
P7 4 17 48 32

Table 15.2
Rated likelihood of getting caught while speeding for each road type

It is interesting to note that more than 50 percent (41 + 12) of drivers were of the opinion
that the likelihood of being caught for speeding on a freeway is not likely or not likely at
all. The research although conducted in Scotland provides an insight of the attitudes of
drivers towards the likelihood of being apprehended for speeding on the different
categories of roads. Almost 80 percent of the respondents were of the opinion that the
likelihood of being caught for speeding on rural roads is either not very likely or not likely
at all.

15.13.2 Contributory factors to fatal crashes - South Africa

Table 15.3 provides an overview of a range of identified offences that contributed to fatal
crashes in South Africa during 2003. (www.arivealive.co.za) Speed too high for
circumstances account for the second largest percentage of fatal crashes. Although this
causative factor only contributed to 7.98 percent of all fatal crashes it must be mentioned
that most of the fatal crashes in South Africa are not properly investigated and the data
therefore merely reflect the initial observations of law enforcement officers. The three
main factors in crash causation viz. the human, the vehicle and the road environment are
indicated as almost equal in this data set. Tables 15.5 to 15.8 provide an overview of
related data pertaining to the role of speed in crash causation and the distribution of
speeding offences per province. Traffic law enforcement administrators will be able to
defend their speed enforcement practices if they allocate approximately 10 percent of
their available patrol enforcement resources to speed monitoring and enforcement. This
will enable them to counteract accusations that the agency is merely focussed on
generating income instead of minimising crash risks. It can be expected that even if only
ten percent of the resources are utilised for speed enforcement that these units will
generate up to 80 percent of the total number of prosecutions. This can be attributed to
the level of sophistication that has been achieved with speed enforcement. Automated
(camera) prosecutions will constitute the bulk of these prosecutions. The informal
reliance on speed prosecutions to boost prosecution rates is misplaced.

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Traffic law enforcement agencies must not neglect their responsibility to focus on the
other serious moving violations such as driving whilst intoxicated, reckless driving,
failing to stop at red traffic signals, etc.

CONTRIBUTORY FACTORS TO FATAL CRASHES: 2003

(As reported by the SAPS to the National Fatal Accident Information Centre)
HUMAN FACTORS Urban Rural Total Group % % of Total
Pedestrian Jay walking
High Speed
Overtook when unsafe
Turned in front of oncoming traffic
Disregarded red robot
Followed vehicle in front too close
Driver suspected alcohol
Pedestrian suspected alcohol
Fatigue
Holding cell phone
Other
Unknown
Total
VEHICLE FACTORS Urban Rural Total Group % % of Total
Overloaded
Faulty brakes
Tyre burst
Smooth tyres
Lights faulty
Other
Unknown
Total
ROAD FACTORS Urban Rural Total Group % % of Total
Poor Visibility
Poor Street Lightning
Sharp Bend
Blind rise corner
Bad road surface
Road wet/slippery
Defective Street marking
Narrow road
Road works
Other
Unknown
Total
Grand Total

Table 15.3
(Source - Arrive Alive - South Africa)

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Percentage Vehicles Exceeding Speed Limit per Province
Province 2002 2003 Change % Change
Gauteng
Kwa Zulu Natal
Western Cape
Eastern Cape
Free State
Mpumalanga
North West
Limpopo
Northern Cape
RSA

% Veh's Exceeding Speed Limit – Prov

Tables 15.4 and 15.5

Vehicles Exceeding Speed Limit per National Route Route

Route 2002 2003 Change % Change
N1
N2
N3
N4
N5
N6
N7
N12
Other
Av

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 % Veh's Exceeding Speed Limit – Route

% of Traffic per Hour in Speed Range

Tables 15.6 to 15.8

(Source - Arrive Alive - South Africa)

15.13.2 Road Characteristics

Road characteristics contribute to the speeds at which drivers operate their vehicles.
Warren (1982) reported the most significant characteristics to be curvature, grade, length
of grade, number of lanes, surface condition, sight distance, lateral clearance, number of
intersections, and built-up areas near the roadway. Tignor and Warren (1990) reported
that the number of access points and nearby commercial development are the factors that
have the greatest influence on vehicle speeds. In contrast, Fildes et al. (1987, 1989) found
road width and number of lanes to have the greatest influence on speed choice. More
recently, the European Transport Safety Council (1995) reported that width, gradient,
alignment, and layout, and the consistency of these variables, are the determinants of
speed choice on a particular stretch of road. Road characteristics determine what is
physically possible for a vehicle, but they also influence "...what seems appropriate to a
driver."

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In this regard, individual perceptions of appropriate speed are influenced by the
maintenance condition of the road. For example, Cooper et al. (1980) found that average
vehicle speeds increased 2 km/h after resurfacing major roads in the United Kingdom; no
change in traffic speed was found in locations where surface unevenness remained the
same after resurfacing. Parker (1997) found no change in speeds on two rural highways
and a 5 km/h increase on two urban streets that were resurfaced and had the speed limit
rose. It was not possible to determine if the speed change was due to the higher speed
limit or the resurfacing.

Roadway surroundings, especially proximity of tall objects to the road, can also influence
the speeds at which motorists choose to drive. Designing roadway features to influence
driver perceptions of appropriate speeds is a subject that will be addressed briefly in
section 15.14.

The theory of speed adaptation predicts that apparent vehicle speed is influenced by the
speed and duration of recent travel in the vehicle. This adaptation to vehicular speed is
the combined result of the visual, auditory, and proprioceptive feedback associated with
various rates of travel. Speed adaptation is a commonly experienced phenomenon that
results in an under estimation of speed after encountering a reduced- speed zone (Schmidt
and Tiffin, 1969; Mathews, 1978). In short, according to the speed adaptation hypothesis,
the perceived speed of one's own vehicle will be lower than the actual speed if the driver
has recently been operating the vehicle at a higher speed.

Several studies have explored the speed adaptation hypothesis. For example, Denton
(1976) found that drivers who had traveled at 113 km/h for three minutes tended to drive
8 to 24 km/h faster in a 48 km/h zone than drivers who had not previously driven at the
faster speed. Casey and Lund (1987) found a lesser, but more persistent, effect when
drivers made the transition from 88.5 to 56.3 km/h. Vehicle speeds on streets and
roadways leading from highways and freeways were greater than the speeds approaching
the highways and freeways, even though the posted speed limits are the same.

The review of speed-related issues prepared by Fildes and Lee (1993) for the Australian
Federal Office of Road Safety describes the cognitive aspects of speed perception. In
particular, the authors summarize how the visual pattern that is presented to a moving
observer creates a blur of increasing magnitude at greater deviations from the fixation
point. This "retinal streaming" provides cues that are used to help estimate speed. Human
capabilities, however, are limited in this regard. Most research on the topic has found that
drivers underestimate their speeds, especially at the medium and high speed ranges.
Further, research has found perceptual limitations that contribute to drivers
underestimating the curvature of an approaching bend (Shinar, 1977). Brummelaar (1983)
and Fildes (1986) identified road curve features that influence a driver's perception of
curvature.

15.13.3 Environmental Conditions

Weather conditions influence the vehicle speed selected by most drivers. For example,
reduced visibility due to fog caused a 10 km/h decline in mean speeds on a freeway in
Minnesota (CRC, 1995). Greater reductions in speed can be observed under extreme
conditions (Schwab, 1992). Although drivers reduce their speeds

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during poor environmental conditions, this reduction is often accompanied by higher
variation in speeds. Liang et al. (1998) in an analysis of speeds on a rural freeway in Idaho
found the standard deviation of speed doubles during fog events and triples during snow.
The researchers also found that drivers reduce their speeds an average of 0.4 km/h for
every 1 km/h that wind speed exceeds 40 km/h.

Although wet road surfaces will affect traction when attempting to stop, pass, or negotiate
a curve or turn, most drivers do not reduce their speeds very much when traveling on wet
roads. Olson et al. (1984) compared speed data collected during daylight hours on wet
and dry days at 22 sites in Illinois and found no practical differences. The maximum
difference in speed was less than 4km/h. Similarly, Lamm et al. (1990) found no
differences in operating speeds on dry and wet pavements for 11 curves studied on two-
lane rural roads in New York. Although light rain had little effect on speeds, Ibrahim and
Hall (1994) observed 5 to 10 km/h reductions during periods of heavy rain.

15.14 Speed control by optical illusion and school zoning

Figure 15.7
Speed control by environmental design
(Source - Washington Post)

Speed control by optical illusion is an attempt to change the markings and other features
on or alongside a road to create a perception that the driver is going faster than what his
actual speed is. Figure 15.7 above illustrates how painted bars are used to create this
perception. Traffic lanes can be narrowed by painting bicycle lanes, emergency lanes etc.
to create the illusion that the actual lane width is narrower than reality. This is a new
concept and if developed with time may become a cheap method to design out traffic
risks. It is anticipated that the use of painted marks will be restricted to high risk areas
only in order to preserve its effectiveness.

15.14.1 School zones

School speed zones are common in the USA but have not been implemented extensively
in South Africa. School zone speed limits are often, but not always, only applicable during
posted weekday hours near the beginning and ending of school when children are likely
to cross roads. In some jurisdictions, the school zone speed limit is effective at all times
when school is in session, plus additional time before and after the school day. Flashing
amber lights often indicate when the school zone is effective.

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When a school zone also has a large playground facility, it may double as a playground
zone and the speed limit could be in effect longer - or even continuously.

In California, school zones are in effect only if children are present, and usually have a
speed limit of 40 km/h.

School zones may also at times be in effect during school holidays, due to holiday
programs that utilise school premises. In some locations however, school zone signs will
be locked up during school holidays so that motorists can drive to the normal speed limit.
School zones typically have speed limits between 25 and 40 km/h. Overtaking moving or
stationary vehicles in active school zones is prohibited in some jurisdictions.
(www.wikipedia.org)

Figure 15.8
School zone – USA

15.2 Conclusion
The setting of speed limits and enforcing them is a science. Traffic law enforcement
practitioners have the responsibility to ensure that speed limits are correctly set, that they
are warranted, that they are clearly posted and they are enforced effectively. The strict
enforcement of unwarranted speed limits merely serves to aggravate negative perceptions
that already exist towards law enforcement agencies.

Road users who see speed limits and their enforcement merely as a money making
exercise may exceed limits to their own detriment due to a lack of understanding of other
related safety issues such as the influence of kinetic energy, perception reaction times and
their impact on stopping distances, etc.

Speed management therefore clearly requires an integrated approach by the educators,

the engineers and the enforcers. There are no conclusive or a uniform approach to the
complicated issue of setting and enforcing speed limits. Professional traffic law
enforcement administrators will experiment and monitor the impact of their enforcement
activities in order to find an appropriate response to this issue. Doing nothing is never an
option for the professional law enforcement practitioner.
0000000

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 CHAPTER 16

PEDESTRIAN SAFETY MEASURES

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 Understand the conduct of pedestrians at schools.

 Differentiate between the conduct of juvenile and older pedestrians.
 Initiate special measures at schools.
 Integrate the 3 E Principle into school safety measures.
 Propose specific measures for traffic signals at schools.
 Discuss and introduce traffic calming to minimise crash risks.
 Enforce legislation pertaining to pedestrians.

16.1 Introduction
Pedestrian safety is a critical aspect in a South African context. Pedestrian fatalities
account for approximately 45 to 50 percent of all road deaths. Yet very little enforcement
is done by the law enforcement agencies responsible for road safety. There are a number
of reasons why, despite this high road fatality rate, officers are reluctant to prosecute
offending pedestrians and motorists. One has to acknowledge that the vast majority of the
country's citizens do not have a motor vehicle and use public transport facilities. This
section of the community commutes to and from their work, school or other public
facilities and are reliant on pedestrian facilities. Law enforcement officers will agree that
very little attention is given to pedestrian issues by the various levels of government.

Nearly half of the deaths that occur on South African roads are of pedestrians. This is true
for other developing countries, where the percentage of pedestrian deaths ranges from 65-
90 percent. The following issues are relevant to pedestrian safety:-

 Many roads are not designed for pedestrian usage, with features such as side-
walks and pedestrian crossings and/or fences are often non-existent;
 High levels of alcohol abuse result in intoxicated people walking on the roads. 70
percent of adult pedestrians who are killed on our roads are intoxicated;
 Lack of visibility of pedestrians is an issue, and several projects are being
introduced to address this problem, including the use of retro-reflective material
on school uniforms being introduced in 2006;
 Due to a lack of public transport in some areas, people walk long distances to
reach buses or taxis;
 Informal, unplanned housing and even formal suburbs are often separated from
schools, shops, clinics or places of recreation by freeways;
 We are one of the few countries in the world where first class roads run across
"third world" settlements.

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There is a general disrespect for pedestrians' right to use public roads. Pedestrians often
have to "run for cover" at intersections or at the few pedestrian crossings that have been
provided. Drivers in South Africa have very little respect for pedestrian crossings,
pedestrian traffic signals and other road safety measures intended to safeguard
pedestrians.

During 2004 pedestrian fatalities accounted for 42.74 percent of all fatalities. Fatalities
resulting from overtaking related crashes increased from 33.56 percent in 2003 to 35.70
percent in 2004. The biggest increase was in the Free State with 25.66 percent followed
by Mpumalanga with an increase of 21.04 percent. (RTMC, 2005) The authorities
responsible for road infrastructure often neglect to plan and budget for pedestrian
facilities, and if they do, these facilities are often not maintained properly. Pedestrians do
not have much of a chance to evade a crash on a public road in circumstances where the
driver of a vehicle has not observed the pedestrian in good time. The graphs in Figure
16.1 and 16.2 reflect the minimum stopping distance versus speed and the chances of a
pedestrian being killed in a crash at different speeds.

The faster a motorist drives, the more likely injuries to a person on foot will result in
death. When crashes occur with a vehicle travelling at a speed of 65 km/h, 85 percent of
pedestrians are killed, compared to a death rate of 45 percent at a vehicle speed of 50
km/h, and only 5 percent at a vehicle speed of 30 km/h. The ability to stop in time for
crossing pedestrians also significantly decreases as vehicle speed increases.

One common obstacle in the design of pedestrian facilities is assuming that one standard
can be applied to fit an "average" population. For example, the speed that pedestrians
travel can vary greatly, yet pedestrian signals are often timed for average walking speeds
of 4.8 km/h to 6.4 km/h. Children, older adults, and people with certain disabilities
typically travel at much lower walking speeds e.g. 3.2 km/h. (Pedestrian Facility
Guidebook. 1997)

The primary need of young pedestrians is adult supervision. Even design with the best of
intentions cannot fully protect children from the dangers of streets. Educational programs
geared toward increasing a child's awareness of traffic and safety measures are an
important tool to increasing their safety as pedestrians. In addition to adult supervision
and effective education programs, good design of the places children walk most, such as
school zones and school walking routes, neighbourhood streets, and parks, can
significantly help to improve their safety.

16.2 Common Pedestrian Characteristics by Age Group

The characteristics indicated hereunder reflect what can be expected from young children
in relation to road use. Law enforcement officers and planners have to take these matters
into consideration when they plan and educate stakeholders.

Age 0 to 4
 Learning to walk;
 Requiring constant parental supervision;
 Developing peripheral vision, depth perception;

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Age 5 to 12
 Increasing independence, but still requiring supervision;
 Poor depth perception;
 Susceptible to "dart out"/ intersection dash;

Age 13 to 18
 Sense of invulnerability;
 Intersection dash;

Age 19 to 40
 Active, fully aware of traffic environment;

Age 41 to 65
 Slowing of reflexes;

Age 65+
 Street crossing difficulty;
 Poor vision;
 Difficulty hearing vehicles approaching from behind;
 High fatality rate.

16.3 Older Pedestrians

Older pedestrians have needs different to young pedestrians. The following provides an
indication of the needs of older pedestrians:-

 Reduced roadway crossing distances (bulb-outs and curb extensions);

 Signals within approximately 20 meters of viewing distance; easy-to-read signs;
 Refuge areas in roadway crossings;
 Traffic calming;
 Shelter and shade;
 Handrails;
 Smooth surfaces and unobstructed travel ways;
 Signal timing at lower than average walking speeds.

16.4 Pedestrian facilities

Pedestrian facilities both encourage people to walk and improve pedestrian safety along
certain routes. The facilities must be well designed and maintained to be effective, and
must include the following features:-

 Widened paved shoulders to allow safer travel for pedestrians;

 Sidewalks, paths or walkways which are wide, relatively clear of obstructions and
separated from traffic lanes;
 Grade separated pedestrian crossings, which are clearly justified, since such
facilities go unused or create illegal street crossing behaviour by pedestrians if not
properly planned, designed and located;
 Pedestrian malls which are well-planned with respect to commercial development,
traffic circulation and visual appeal;

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  Proper design and operation of traffic and pedestrian signals, including pedestrian
push buttons, where appropriate;
 Barriers that physically separate pedestrians from motor vehicle traffic at selected
locations.

There are many pedestrian facility guidelines, nationally and internationally. Traffic
practitioners interested in solving pedestrian related problems must consult these
guidelines in an effort to identify the most appropriate response to pedestrian safety risks.
South Africa has an unacceptably high pedestrian fatality rate. Part of the problem is the
intoxicated pedestrian but in many instances the lack of proper facilities exposes
pedestrians to undue risks.

Design of pedestrian friendly streets is strongly encouraged by current planning and

design directives at the local and regional levels. The meaning of "pedestrian friendly"
can be interpreted in many ways, but generally, the intent is for street design to
incorporate elements that enhance the safety, security, comfort, and mobility of
pedestrians. Pedestrian friendly streets may be created with any combination of the
following interventions:-

 Clear delineation and direction for the pedestrian (special paving on sidewalk or
at edge of pedestrian travel area, easy-to-reach signal actuators, etc.);
 Lively building faces with architectural relief, windows, or attractive surfacing;
 Street furnishings, such as benches, garbage receptacles, drinking fountains, and
newspaper stands, if not placed in the route of travel;
 Public art, murals, banners, sculpture pieces and water features;
 Colourful planters, holiday lighting and other attractive features;
 Signs, information kiosks, maps and other elements to help pedestrians;
 Streets that are interconnected and small block patterns provide good
opportunities for pedestrian access and mobility;
 Narrower streets, scaled down for pedestrians and less conducive to high vehicle
speeds (note: street trees at the sides of streets create the perception of a narrower
roadway);
 Traffic calming devices to slow traffic or if appropriate, reduced speed limits;
 Median refuge islands to provide a refuge area for crossing pedestrians;
 Public spaces and pedestrian "pockets" adjacent to the main pedestrian travel way
that provide a place to rest and interact (sidewalk cafes, benches, etc.);
 Awnings/covered building entrances that shelter pedestrians from weather;
 Planting buffers, with landscaping and street trees that provide shelter and shade
without obstructing sight distances and help to soften the surrounding buildings
and hard surfaces;
 Street lighting designed to pedestrian scale (shorter light poles with attractive
fixtures that are effective in illuminating the pedestrian travel way but not
obtrusive or harsh);
 Wide and continuous sidewalks or separated walkways that are fully accessible.

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16.5 Special considerations related to children and schools
Pedestrian safety at schools is of critical importance due to the more severe risks that exist
at these premises. Safety issues at primary schools are also very critical due to the fact
that juveniles exhibit more irrational and unpredictable behaviour. Traffic law
enforcement agencies should attempt to conduct a road safety audit at school premises at
least once every two years or more frequently if specific reasons exist to warrant this.
Signals, signs and markings must at all times be maintained in an impeccable condition.
Neglected maintenance may create a perception that the signs and markings are not
important anymore and may precipitate non-compliance. The school environment is an
ideal locality to foster respect for pedestrians (as road users) and to educate pedestrians
on how to be safe road users. Parents are often the group that disrespect road safety at
schools the most. It is therefore important that school officials monitor their conduct and
report this to the principals' office. Informing and educating parents often have the desired
effect. If cooperation cannot be secured in this manner, it will be prudent to request law
enforcement intervention. Parents that contravene road safety measures may neutralise
the impact of education by the school. This has the potential to confuse children insofar
as the necessity for law abidance is concerned. Traffic law enforcement agencies should
establish dedicated units that focus on school safety issues.

As pedestrians, children are exposed to more crashes for several reasons. One of the most
problematic characteristics of child pedestrians is that their movements are less
predictable than adults. Young children tend to dart-out into traffic or cross the street
without looking for oncoming traffic more often than adults. Young children also lack the
visual acuity and peripheral vision to judge speeds of oncoming traffic and adequacy of
gaps in the flow of traffic. Since children do not drive, they lack the understanding of
what a driver's intentions might be at an intersection or crossing point. The list hereunder
reflects the special limitations of children aged five to nine. It's important to remember
the special limitations of this age group when designing for them. Research has shown
that adults uniformly tend to overestimate a child's capabilities to deal with traffic,
particularly when crossing the street. Adults sometimes fail to realise that many children
under age nine lack the developmental skills to safely and consistently cope with moving
traffic.

 Children are shorter than adults; typical eye height is 1 meter above ground; their
field of vision is different;
 Children have one-third narrower side vision than adults and are less able to
determine the direction of sounds;
 Children have trouble judging speeds and distances of moving cars;
 Children are sometimes too small to be seen by fast moving or inattentive drivers;
 The movements of children are less predictable than adults;
 Children have shorter attention spans and may grow impatient at crossings;
 Children have less experience as pedestrians and may not be fully aware of
dangerous conditions.

Pedestrian facilities at schools also require specific attention due to the concentration of
pedestrian activity at school sites. The following provide an indication of the issues that
must be borne in mind when planning for safety at these sites:-

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  Surrounding streets are equipped with sidewalks and bike lanes;
 The building is accessible to pedestrians from all sides (or at least, from all sides
with entries/exits);
 Trails and pathways provide direct links between the school site and the
surrounding neighbourhoods;
 Bus drop-off zones are separated from auto drop-off zones to minimise confusion
and conflicts;
 Buses, cars, bicycles and pedestrians are separated and provided with their own
designated areas for travelling;
 Pedestrian travel zones (sidewalks, etc.) are clearly delineated from other modes
of traffic (through the use of striping, coloured and/or textured pavement, signing
and other methods);
 Parking is minimised; people are encouraged to walk to school;
 Pedestrians are clearly directed to crossing points and pedestrian access ways by
directional signing, fencing, bollards or other elements;
 Strategically located, well-delineated crossing opportunities are provided,
including marked crosswalks at controlled intersections and mid-block crossings
(signalised if warranted);
 Traffic calming devices (raised crossings, refuge islands, on-street parking, traffic
circles, landscaping, etc.) are installed in the vicinity to slow vehicles;
 View obstructions are avoided so there is clear visibility of pedestrians throughout
the area.

The following graphs merely depict the risks that pedestrians face in road traffic
conditions:-

Minimum Stopping Distance vs. Speed

Figure 16.1

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 Shortest Stopping Distances

Figure 16.2

16.6 The 3 E-Approach - Engineering alone is not sufficient

Improved pedestrian safety at intersections requires coordination among public
authorities, professional engineers, media, education experts and vehicle designers to
reduce both the number and severity of pedestrian crashes. Pedestrian safety cannot be
improved by traffic engineering alone; it is a partnership between the driver, pedestrians,
parents of young children, schools, police departments and others. From an enforcement
perspective we need to ensure motorist compliance with traffic control devices, posted
speeds and pedestrian safety laws. Pedestrians need to understand and obey intersection
traffic control measures and legislation that regulate their conduct. Pedestrians need to
make them more visible during evening and night time hours. One way to do this is to
wear reflective clothing and accessories. All stakeholders need to develop a sustained and
comprehensive intersection safety public awareness campaign that reaches both motorists
and pedestrians. (www.ite.org)

16.6.1 Coordination among engineers, educators and enforcement personnel

Improved pedestrian safety at intersections requires coordination among public
authorities, professional engineers, media, education experts and vehicle designers to
reduce both the number and severity of pedestrian crashes. Pedestrian safety cannot be
improved by traffic engineering alone. (www.saferoads.org)

Enforcement
 Motorist compliance with pedestrian safety laws;
 Pedestrian compliance and;
 Reducing speeding through intersections.

Education
 Develop a sustained, comprehensive public awareness campaign that reaches both
motorists and pedestrians. This must be focussed towards young pedestrians.

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Engineering
 Re-assess the adequacy of pedestrian-signal timings; Signal timings must make
specific provision for the needs of pedestrians;
 Consider pedestrian-only phasing in a traffic signal cycle and;
 Ensure that the pedestrian signal is visible and that any push-buttons are
accessible. Signals may be supplemented with audible messages for visually
impaired persons;
 Repair/re-stripe crosswalks and stop lines;
 Improve lighting;
 Provide additional signage where necessary;
 Install barriers such as fences, shrubs, or uncomfortable median surfaces to
discourage pedestrians from crossing at unsafe locations;
 Provide a wide refuge island on a median with fencing and;
 Make crosswalk improvements.

16.7 The role of the law enforcement officer

Law enforcement officers have a major responsibility to facilitate the changes and the
attitude of civil engineers towards the pedestrian safety problem. Apart from the risk of
civil claims associated with the lack of safe pedestrian facilities, law enforcement
agencies have the mandated responsibility to ensure that all road users are safe and secure.
This is also a responsibility of metropolitan police officers as traffic policing is their first
major function. The safety of pedestrians can be enhanced with the 3 E principle referred
to in previous chapters. Here it is anticipated that education and engineering will play a
bigger role than actual law enforcement activities. Law enforcement officers must
therefore have a sound knowledge of pedestrian safety issues and possible remedies. They
should not leave these issues to other role players. They are on the roads daily and they
observe these issues when on patrol. Engineers have the knowledge to solve problems but
they often fail to identify the problems that impact negatively on road users. Law
enforcement officers are better equipped to identify crash risks that effect road users than
civil engineers. Crash investigators are particularly well equipped to identify specific
crash risks. They too have the responsibility to refer problems to other role players.
Failure to do this is tantamount to a neglect of duty. Another issue that often plague law
enforcement agencies is the perceived neglect on the part of road engineers and
maintenance crews to re-establish road markings after a road has been re-sealed with new
tarmac. It is important that they either take photographs of road markings prior to the
commencement of maintenance or to compile detailed sketches/plans of a road. This will
enable the re- introduction of markings that existed prior to their eradication.

16.8 Pedestrian safety at intersections

Pedestrians are extremely vulnerable as a road user group. Conflict between motorised
users and pedestrians leave the latter exposed to extreme safety risks. Only a small
percentage of vehicle drivers comply fully with the legal requirements insofar the rights
of pedestrians are concerned. South Africa unfortunately has a legacy where drivers claim
rights which legally they are not entitled to. The law enforcement fraternity also have no
inclination to enforce the rights of pedestrians. It has become an integral part of our
culture as road users that pedestrians have to give way to vehicles.

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Pedestrians often have to 'run for cover' when drivers fail to give way to them when a
traffic signal turns green. Pedestrians on the other hand also disrespect the prescriptions
of the legislation that governs their responsibilities. Pedestrian facilities at intersections
include pedestrian traffic signals, signs and road markings.

16.8.1 Traffic signals - Pedestrian signals

Before traffic signals are introduced a proper study must be conducted to ascertain
whether the signals are warranted or not. The South African requirements for signalisation
are prescribed in the South African Road Signs Manual. Other countries have similar
requirements. Hereunder is a brief summary of warrants as they are applied in the USA:
(www.brgov.com)

Signal Warrant Studies

Traffic signals are valuable devices for the control of vehicle and pedestrian traffic.
However, because they assign the right-of-way to the various traffic movements, signals
exert a profound influence on traffic flow. Properly located and operated control signals
may provide for the orderly movement of traffic, increase the traffic-handling capacity of
an intersection while reducing the overall capacity of the roadway on which it is placed
and reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents. After extensive study and analysis,
the Federal Highway Administration developed the 11 traffic signal warrants contained
within the Manual On Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD).

These 11 warrants define minimum conditions under which signal installations may be
justified. The Manual suggests that traffic control signals should not be installed unless
one or more of the signal warrants are met. However, the satisfaction of a warrant or
warrants is not in itself justification for a signal. Every situation is unique and warrant
guidelines must be supplemented by the effects of specific site conditions and the
application of good engineering judgment. Installation of a traffic signal should improve
the overall safety and/or operation of an intersection and should be considered only when
deemed necessary by careful traffic analysis and after less restrictive solutions have been
attempted.

Warrant 1 Minimum vehicular volume

Traffic volumes on intersecting streets exceed specified values for any 8 hours on an
average day.

Warrant 2 - Interruption of continuous traffic

The traffic volume on a major street is so heavy that traffic on a minor intersecting street
suffers excessive delay or hazard in entering or crossing the major street. Specified values
are exceeded for any 8 hours on an average day.

Warrant 3- Minimum pedestrian volume

The vehicular volumes on a major street and the pedestrian volumes crossing that street
exceed specified values for any 8 hours on an average day.

Warrant 4 - School crossing

Inadequate gaps exist in traffic for schoolchildren to cross at established school crossings.

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Warrant 5 - Progressive movement
Signalization is necessary to maintain proper grouping or platoons of vehicles and
effectively regulate group speed.

Warrant 6 - Accident experience

The number of reported accidents potentially preventable by a signal exceeds a specified
value. Additionally, volume requirements of warrants 1, 2 or 3 are 80 percent satisfied
and less restrictive solutions have been attempted.

Warrant 7 – Systems
This warrant encourages concentration and organization of traffic flow networks.

Warrant 8 Combination of warrants

No single warrant is satisfied, but warrants 1 and 2 are satisfied to the extent of 80% or
more.

Warrant 9 - Four Hour Volumes

In each of any four hours of an average day the hourly volumes on the major street and
the minor street exceed specified values.

Warrant 10- Peak Hour Delay

For one hour of an average day the minor street traffic suffers undue delay in entering or
crossing the major street.

Warrant 11 - Peak Hour Volume

The peak hourl, volumes on the major street and the minor street exceed specified values
for any one hour of an average day.

Warrant 3 above reflects on the issue where signalisation becomes necessary based on
the number of pedestrians that crosses an intersection or road. Pedestrian signals at mid-
block locations cater almost exclusively for pedestrians. These pedestrian signals are also
found at some schools where the traditional intersection type of signalisation is not
warranted. It is important that pedestrian signals provide for dedicated activation i.e. the
pedestrian must press a button to activate the signal. Pre-set pedestrian signals may
precipitate higher non-compliance rates with a concomitant increase in crash risks if the
operate on pre-set cycles. Drivers must be aware of the fact that when a pedestrian signal
is activated that there are pedestrians that want to cross the road.

Signalised intersections often have additional signal heads that cater specifically for
pedestrians. These signals are usually found in business districts, in areas where large
concentrations of pedestrians are present, at shopping centres and in close proximity to
schools. "Pedestrian signals are installed for a variety of reasons such as:-
(www.azdot.gov)

 When the layout of an intersection is such that vehicular indications are not visible
to pedestrians;
 If pedestrian volumes are very heavy, as in a central business district;

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  When the traffic movements at an intersection are so complex that special efforts
have to be made to communicate with pedestrians;
 If a special pedestrian path has to be defined across a complex intersection;
 If pedestrians have to be given exclusive use of an intersection in the interest of
safety.

"Traffic signs and signals should be useful for all pedestrians. It is essential to provide
signals that are phased and timed to allow senior citizens, children, and pedestrians with
disabilities, who are generally slower than other pedestrians, adequate crossing time.
Words on signals and signs should be visible to pedestrians of different heights (both
adults and children); large enough for those with vision impairments to read and their
messages should be simple to understand" (www.marylandroads.com)

"Traffic signal timing is a very complex topic and requires specialist training. For
example timing 'WALK' signals for a wide pedestrian crossing and slower pedestrians
(for example the elderly) could result in very long waits for vehicles, and thus increases
the likelihood of cars ignoring the light, which could potentially cause accidents.
Therefore, optimizing the safety of intersections involves multiple factors like street
width, lane width, number of intersecting streets, availability of electricity for a signal,
number of cars per unit of time, even/uneven nature of flow, number and type of
pedestrians and many other factors." (www.wikipedia.com) Traffic law enforcement
officers are capable of identifying intersections where the signal timing is deficient. This
will result in poor operating conditions, crash risks, congestion etc. When this seems
evident it must be reported to engineers for investigation and remedial action. Doing
nothing when it is obvious that the signals are not functioning optimally constitutes a
neglect of duty.

Setting signal cycle times require an investigation as it varies from intersection to

intersection based on a number of variables. The length of the green cycle for pedestrians
is based on the width of the intersection and the composition of pedestrians by age. Visual
observation must be conducted to ascertain whether the settings are adequate. The
provision of cycle times to cater for pedestrians must be carefully balanced with the need
of vehicular traffic. Safety must at all times be paramount and traffic flow, including
congestion as secondary factors. The following strategies may be considered where large
concentrations of pedestrians are found:- (www.mtc.ca.gov)

16.8.2 Leading pedestrian phases

Leading pedestrian phases minimise conflict between pedestrians and motorists. Traffic
signals may be programmed for leading pedestrian phases, which provide pedestrians
with a few seconds of lead time prior to the onset of the associated vehicle phase. The
lead time allows pedestrians to be in the crosswalk when the green interval for the
associated vehicle phase begins, making them more visible to motorists.

16.8.3 Exclusive pedestrian phases

Exclusive Pedestrian Phases: At locations with high volumes of pedestrians, traffic
signals may be programmed for an exclusive pedestrian phase (also known as an all-
pedestrian phase, pedestrian scramble, or scramble phase), which provides an all-red

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indication to all vehicular traffic. In such cases, pedestrians may be allowed to cross the
intersection diagonally and left turns on red may have to be restricted during the all-
pedestrian phase."

Drivers in South Africa have little respect for the rights of pedestrians and normally turn
at signalised intersections when the signals turn green. This is a contravention of the
National Road Traffic Act but it attracts no or little attention from the law enforcement
agencies. It is imperative that this issue be addressed if we want to minimise the fatality
rate of pedestrians. Pedestrians too have to comply with road traffic rules and this requires
not only education but enforcement too.

16.9 Pedestrian safety on road sections

Mid-block pedestrian crossings are intended to provide pedestrians with safe crossing
opportunities between intersections. These mid-block facilities are basically painted
pedestrian crossings with or without pedestrian traffic signals. Drivers in South Africa
are not inclined to give way to pedestrians at non-signalised crossings. Although this is
required in terms of the Road Traffic Act, it is very rarely enforced and compliance rates
are negligible. Due to the high non-compliance rates it may not be prudent for individual
officers to commence with isolated enforcement actions as this may result in confusion
and crashes.

16.10 Traffic and volume calming

Traffic calming is ideally suited as interventions to reduce speed in the immediate vicinity
of schools. Its intention is to protect vulnerable road users. The range of measures that
are available will depend largely on the road characteristics, the location of the school
and the associated risk factors. Traffic calming can only be considered after a thorough
investigation and analysis of the risk factors present at each location. The different
measures are discussed in Chapter 17. In some instances it may be advantageous to
include the possibility of introducing traffic volume calming measures. The latter refer to
those measures that will 'divert' traffic away from the vicinity of the school. This by itself
may reduce risk factors at the school.

16.11 School safety zones

The introduction of school safety zones as a comprehensive strategy to deal with road
safety risks is still a relatively scarce concept in South Africa. Most of the projects at
schools are ad-hoc interventions. A more holistic approach is required and school safety
zones should be explored as a strategy to minimise the risks that vulnerable road users
are exposed to. The zone may include a wide range of measures, but the most important
aspect of this concept is that it creates an acute awareness in the mind of drivers that they
are within the range of school safety issues and this should deter any speeding and/or
negligent driving.

16.12 Pedestrian safety investigations

Road safety investigations often indicate unique solutions to a problem. There is not a
uniform solution to each traffic safety problem. This is why it is considered necessary

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that a specialist team be established to investigate traffic safety issues. The investigation
may range from simple observations to a full-scale road safety audit.

The latter is normally reserved for complicated issues where a solution does not seem
evident and where area-wide investigations are required. Irrespective of the extent of the
investigation, it must encompass a follow-up investigation after some time to ascertain
the effectiveness of the interventions made. Engineering interventions are the easiest to
implement. Law enforcement rarely succeeds over the long term due to its inherent
sporadic characteristics. Enforcement to be effective requires an inordinate amount of
resources - something which is not available to most traffic law enforcement agencies.
The vast number of school sites negates the effectiveness of law enforcement and it is
therefore best to focus on engineering and education as long term interventions. Law
enforcement must be increased when non-compliance becomes an issue. School
governing bodies must assume responsibility to monitor the level of non-compliance.
Their intervention is often all that is required to make school pedestrian sites safer. If
however they fail to elicit a positive response from parents it may be prudent to request
law enforcement to be stepped up. An investigation into road safety issues at schools must
include all relevant stakeholders. Not only will this assist with the exact nature of the
issues that affect road safety but it will also ensure buy-in when improvements are made
to the road environment or when education projects are considered.

16.13 Traffic safety strategies: Strategic Imperatives

The South African National Road Agency (SANRAL) has identified pedestrians as a
specific road user group that requires interventionist strategies to minimise pedestrian
road fatalities. The agency listed the following activities as part of the strategy:-
(www.nra.co.za)

 Pedestrian visibility campaigns;

 Education of school children;
 Reduction of speed limits in areas of heavy pedestrian activity;
 Enforcement of no-pedestrian laws on freeways;
 Advertising - radio campaigns on community radio - visibility;
 Engineering solutions e.g. bridges, sidewalks and traffic calming;
 Enforcement activities for pedestrians;
 Revision of drink-walking laws;
 Limit vehicles carrying passengers on load areas to 80 km/h, and eventually
prevent this type of transport altogether.

Vehicle speed in areas of high pedestrian activity (schools, intersections, outside shebeens
etc) should be reduced to 30 km/h. "At impact speeds over 30 km/h pedestrians and
cyclists risk sustaining life-threatening injuries. At 60 km/h, death is virtually certain."
(www.nra.co.za)

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 Figure 16.3
Limited pedestrian safety measures

Figure 16.4
Incorrect lane demarcation and inadequate provision for pedestrian movement on
the right hand side of the road

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16.14 Pedestrian's right of way in pedestrian crossing
The regulations pertaining to pedestrians prescribe as follows:-
(National Road Traffic Act, 1996 (Act No. 93 of 1996) National Road Traffic
Regulations, 1999)

"315.
(1) Where a pedestrian crossing is situated in conjunction with a traffic signal, a
pedestrian shall not enter such crossing except in accordance with the indications of such
traffic signal as prescribed in these regulations.

(2) In circumstances not referred to in sub-regulation (1), the driver of a vehicle shall
yield the right of way, slowing down or stopping if need be to so yield to a pedestrian
crossing the roadway within a pedestrian crossing when the pedestrian is upon that half
of the roadway upon which the vehicle is travelling, or when the pedestrian is approaching
so closely from the opposite half of the roadway as to be in danger.

(3) No pedestrian shall suddenly enter a pedestrian crossing and walk or run into the path
of a vehicle which is so close that it is impossible for the driver to yield as contemplated
in sub-regulations).

(4) Whenever any vehicle is stopped at a pedestrian crossing to permit pedestrians to cross
the roadway, the driver of any other vehicle approaching from the rear shall not pass such
stopped vehicle.

Duties of pedestrians
316.
(1) Whenever a sidewalk or footpath abuts on the roadway of a public road, a pedestrian
shall not walk on such roadway except for the purpose of crossing from one side of such
roadway to the other or for some other sufficient reason.

(2) A pedestrian on a public road which has no sidewalk or footpath abutting on the
roadway, shall walk as near as is practicable to the edge of the roadway on his or her
right-hand side so as to face oncoming traffic on such roadway, except where the presence
of pedestrians on the roadway is prohibited by a prescribed road traffic sign.

(3) No pedestrian shall cross a public road without satisfying himself or herself that the
roadway is sufficiently free from oncoming traffic to permit him or her to cross the road
in safety.

(4) A pedestrian, when crossing a public road by means of a pedestrian crossing or in any
other manner, shall not linger on such road but shall proceed with due despatch.

(5) No pedestrian on a public road shall conduct himself or herself in such a manner as to
or as is likely to constitute a source of danger to himself or herself or to other traffic which
is or may be on such road.

(6) A pedestrian may cross a public road only at a pedestrian crossing or an intersection
or at a distance further than 50 metres from such pedestrian crossing or intersection."

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 Figure 16.5

Figure 16.5 reflects how a wide intersection can be made safer by reducing the
area that pedestrians have to cross traffic lanes.

(Source - Project for Public Spaces - New York)

16.14 Conclusion
The pedestrian safety problem is currently not receiving the attention that it warrants.
Traffic law enforcement officers often fail to enforce the legislation provided to protect
pedestrians and in addition hereto they fail to liaise with the engineers to develop and
construct pedestrian facilities that would minimise crash risks. A sizeable reduction in
pedestrian facilities can only be achieved if all the stakeholders contribute collectively to
minimise the pedestrian injury and fatality rate.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 17

TRAFFIC CALMING

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 Identify when traffic calming is desirable.

 Differentiate between the different speed hump profiles.
 Initiate a preliminary investigation.
 Conduct basic research to motivate what types of traffic calming is preferred.
 List and discuss the advantages of different traffic calming techniques.
 Differentiate between isolated and area wide traffic calming techniques.
 Cite the advantages and disadvantages of various traffic calming interventions.
 Monitor the results of traffic calming interventions.
 Develop traffic calming policies.
 Discuss the second generation of traffic calming techniques - Reclaiming public
streets

17.1 Introduction
In the Netherlands, traffic calming started in the sixties when the concept "woonerf" was
created. Based on evaluations, the strategy - Sustainable Safety - was developed in which
the capacity of the human being was taken as a basis. Speed management is one of the
main elements in this strategy. Starting in 1998 about 15 percent of all potential living
zones had a 30 km/h limit. The Netherlands, like everywhere in the motorised world, the
roads are unsafe, although the situation is not as bad as in many other countries. Together
with the United Kingdom and some Scandinavian countries, the Netherlands is in the top-
ten traffic safety performers. Nevertheless, the country is not satisfied with its relatively
favourable position.

Traffic calming has become a buzz word in recent years due to increased public demand
placed on local authorities i.e. to do something about speeding and the associated crash
risks in residential areas. Speeding has become a serious issue in many communities and
traffic law enforcement agencies often recommend that traffic calming be considered as
an adequate response to quell public concerns. Speed humps have become a popular
traffic calming device after its initial success in the erstwhile Germiston City Council.
The Germiston Traffic Department first commenced with research into the feasibility of
speed humps on public roads in residential streets. The first experimental speed humps
were closely monitored after their construction. The Automobile Association initially
indicated their resistance to speed humps as they were regarded as an obstruction on a
public road and therefore illegal. Due to public demand speed humps spread throughout
the country. It is mostly a reactive approach to design standards that are inappropriate for
residential areas.

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Traffic law enforcement practitioners are not responsible to investigate and implement
traffic calming measures but must have a sound knowledge of these measures as they
often attend community based meetings where the issue of speeding is discussed. Law
enforcement officers play an important role in facilitating communication between
different stakeholders when requests for speed calming and volume calming are
considered.

"There are 3 E's that traffic engineers refer to when discussing traffic calming: (civil)
engineering, (community) education, and (police) enforcement. Because neighborhood
traffic management studies have shown that often it is the residents themselves who are
contributing to the perceived speeding problem within the neighbourhood, it is stressed
that the most effective traffic calming plans will entail all three components, and that
engineering measures alone will not produce satisfactory results." (www.wikipedia.com)

17.1 The need for speed

Speeding is often the result of congested streets and overloaded intersections on arterial
roads and freeways that divert drivers through residential areas. These drivers are often
in a hurry to get to work or on their way home and this frustrate residents who fear for
their own safety but more specifically that of their children. Speed also seems much
higher in some residential streets due to the perception accentuated by the sound of a
passing vehicle, the width of the streets, vegetation, etc. One fatal crash due to speeding
in a residential area has the potential to spur a whole community into action. Many roads
have been dug up in townships due to a perception that the authorities are unwilling to
assist the residents. There are many factors that are taken into consideration when
reviewing residential traffic concerns i.e. to determine the most feasible traffic calming
measure. These factors include: the surrounding roadway network, resident's access,
speed and/or volume of traffic, accident history and construction in the nearby area.
(Residential Traffic Calming Handbook, Florida) The first aspect that needs to be cleared
is whether there is a speeding problem in the area or whether it is a case of through traffic
that frustrates residents. The response to these two issues is slightly different. Traffic
calming measures such as speed humps and mini circles may be effective in slowing the
average speed but it may not necessarily reduce traffic volumes. If through traffic is the
major concern; measures such as road closures, one-way streets, chokers etc. may serve
a better purpose. The majority of requests for speed and volume calming originate from
communities due to their intimate knowledge of what occurs in their respective suburbs.
Traffic calming measures will only be considered after a thorough investigation has been
concluded and the results indicate a definitive need for interventions. Not every request
results in the implementation of speed calming measures. For instance, speed calming is
generally not considered in collector and arterial roads. Policy directives may differ
between local authorities and it is therefore advised that the local councils' policy be
studied. Many investigations also reveal other less drastic measures to mitigate speeding
and "rat-running.”

A traffic study may include any or all of the following, depending on the scope of the
concern:- (Residential Traffic Calming Handbook, Florida)

 Traffic conditions at the location under investigation;

 Existing traffic signs and road markings;

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  Motorists' travel patterns;
 Effect of the roadway system in the vicinity;
 Construction in the nearby area;
 Traffic or roadway plans for the vicinity and contributing roadway system;
 Time of day, day of week relationship;
 Apparent causes of concern;
 History of the location;
 Determination of roadway classification (local, collector or arterial);
 Emergency concerns and;
 Public transport routes.

Traffic studies may be necessary to determine the following information:-

 24-hour traffic count to determine the average daily traffic (ADT);
 Vehicle speed check (to determine the 85th percentile speed);
 Vehicle turning movement counts;
 Origination/Destination study;
 Pedestrian counts;
 Crash report summary;
 Crash diagram studies.

It may also be necessary to conduct a survey in the area to test the attitude of residents
towards any proposals for traffic and/or volume calming measures. A small group of
residents may advance requests for these measures but may not necessarily be supported
by the majority of residents. Some of the speed - and volume calming measures create
unintended consequences which may not be acceptable to some residents such as an
increase in noise levels in close proximity to speed humps and speed bumps. The
deceleration and acceleration of some vehicles create excessive noise levels. Speed
calming measures in streets with a presence of commercial vehicles may create extremely
noisy conditions. Some of the measures may also displace traffic to adjacent streets hence
the need to consult extensively prior to the implementation of any measures. The manner
used to conduct some of the listed traffic studies, is explained in Chapter 18.

17.2 Types of speed calming devices

Traffic calming can include any of the following engineering measures:-
(www.wikipedia.com)

 Narrower traffic lanes streets can be narrowed by extending the sidewalk, adding
bollards or planters, or adding a bike lane or parking. Narrowing traffic lanes
differs from other road treatments by making slower speeds seem more natural to
drivers and less of an artificial imposition, as opposed to most other treatments
used that physically force lower speeds or restrict route choice;
 Speed bumps, sometimes split or offset in the middle to help emergency vehicles
reduce delay;
 Speed humps, parabolic devices that are less aggressive than speed bumps and
used on residential streets;
 Speed tables, long flat-topped speed humps that slow cars more gradually than
humps;

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  Speed cushions, a series of three small speed humps that slow cars down but allow
emergency vehicles to straddle them so as not to slow response time;
 Chicanes, which create a horizontal deflection causing vehicles to slow as they
would for a curve;
 Raised pedestrian crossings and raised intersection;
 Curb extensions (also called bulb outs) which narrow the width of the roadway at
pedestrian crossings;
 Pedestrian refuges or small islands in the middle of the street;
 Median diverters to prevent left turns or through movements into a residential
area;
 Changing the surface material or texture (for example, the selective use of brick
or cobblestone);
 Additional give way (yield) signs;
 Converting one-way streets into two-way streets;
 Chokers, which are curb extensions that narrow the roadway to a single lane at
points;
 Allowing parking on one or both sides of a street;
 Converting an intersection into a cul-de-sac or dead end;
 Boom barrier, restricting through traffic to authorised vehicles only;
 Closing of streets to create pedestrian zones;
 Reducing speed limits near institutions such as schools and hospitals;
 Vehicle activated sign, signs which react with a message if they detect a vehicle
exceeding a pre-determined speed.

Many local authorities use stop signs as a speed calming measure. This is not the intended
use of stop signs but due to cost and other implications this is often the preferred
intervention by many traffic law enforcement agencies. The unwarranted use of stop signs
may lead to higher rates of non-compliance. (The Law of Unintended Consequences at
work!)

17.3 Speed and volume calming measures

This section contains information about the different types of speed and volume calming
measures that have been developed and implemented in different parts of the world. Every
type of speed and volume calming measure has its own characteristics and each one has
varying advantages and disadvantages. The main objective with these measures is to
reduce the average speed of drivers over a specific section of roadway. The following
information has been obtained from traffic consultants Fehr and Peers.
(www.trafficcalming.org)

17.3.1 Speed humps (Vertical deflector)

Speed humps are rounded raised areas placed across the roadway. They are generally 3
to 4 meters long (in the direction of travel), making them distinct from the shorter "speed
bumps" found in many parking lots, and are 75mm to 100 millimetres high. The profile
of a speed hump can be circular, parabolic, or sinusoidal. They are often tapered as they
reach the curb on each end to allow unimpeded drainage. Speed humps are good for
locations where very low speeds are desired and reasonable, and noise and fumes are not
a major concern.

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Advantages:-
 Speed humps are relatively inexpensive and can be constructed from tarmac or
rubberised compounds;
 They are relatively easy for bicycles to cross if designed appropriately;
 They are very effective in slowing travel speeds

Disadvantages:-
 They cause a "rough ride" for all drivers, and can cause severe pain for people
with certain skeletal disabilities;
 They force large vehicles, such as emergency vehicles and those with rigid
suspensions, to travel at slower speeds;
 They may increase noise and air pollution;
 They have questionable aesthetics;
 They may cause damage to vehicles if they are not constructed correctly i.e. the
ramp is to steep and too short;
 They have to be repainted/maintained at regular intervals;
 A number of speed humps are required if the stretch of road exceeds
approximately 300 meters. A number of speed humps are therefore required in
long stretches of road.

Effectiveness:-
 They are only effective for a distance of approximately 50 meters on each side of
the hump. This is the distance required to decelerate and to accelerate again.
 For a 3 meter wide speed hump:-
o Average of 22% decrease in the 85th percentile travel speeds, or from an
average of 60.0 to 45 kilometres per hour;
o Average of 11% decrease in crashes; from an average of 2.7 to 2.4 crashes
per year;
 For a 4-meter wide speed hump:-
o Average of 23% decrease in the 85th percentile travel speeds, or from an
average of 55 to 42 kilometres per hour.

17.3.2 Speed tables (Trapezoidal humps or speed platforms) (Vertical deflector)

Speed tables are flat-topped speed humps often constructed with brick or other textured
materials on the flat section. Speed tables are typically long enough for the entire
wheelbase of a passenger car to rest on the flat section. Their long flat fields give speed
tables higher design speeds than speed humps. The brick or other textured materials
improve the appearance of speed tables, draw attention to them, and may enhance safety
and speed-reduction. Speed tables are good for locations where low speeds are desired
but a somewhat smooth ride is needed for larger vehicles. They are often used in
commercial areas where a reduction in speed is required for inter alias pedestrian safety
reasons.

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Advantages:-
 They are smoother on large vehicles (such as fire trucks and buses) than speed
humps;
 They are effective in reducing speeds, though not to the extent of speed humps

Disadvantages:-
 They have questionable aesthetics, if no textured materials are used;
 Textured materials, if used, can be expensive and;
 They may increase noise and air pollution;
 They have to be marked with a range of traffic signs and markings to enhance
their effectiveness

Effectiveness:-
 For a 7 meter speed table:-
o Average of 18% decrease in the 85th percentile travel speeds, or from an
average of 60 to 48 kilometres per hour;
o Average of 45% decrease in crashes; from an average of 6.7 to 3.7 crashes
per year

17.3.3 Raised crosswalks (Vertical deflector)

Raised crosswalks are speed tables outfitted with crosswalk markings and signage to
channelize pedestrian crossings, providing pedestrians with a level street crossing. Also,
by raising the level of the crossing, pedestrians are more visible to approaching motorists.
Raised crosswalks are good for locations where pedestrian crossings occur at haphazard
locations and vehicle speeds are excessive.

Advantages:-
 Raised crosswalks improve safety for both pedestrians and vehicles;
 If designed well, they can have positive aesthetic value;
 They are effective in reducing speeds, though not to the extent of speed humps;

Disadvantages:-
 Textured materials, if used, can be expensive;
 Their impacts on drainage needs to be considered particularly on gradients;
 They may increase noise and air pollution.

Effectiveness:-
For a 7 meter speed table (the most similar device for which data is available):-
 Average of 18 percent decrease in the 85th percentile travel speeds, or from an
average of 58.8 to 48.2 kilometres per hour;
 Average of 45 percent decrease in crashes; from an average of 6.7 to 3.7 crashes
per year.

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17.3.4 Raised intersection (Vertical deflector)
Raised intersections are flat raised areas covering an entire intersection, with ramps on
all approaches and often with brick or other textured materials on the flat section. They
usually rise to the level of the sidewalk, or slightly below to provide a "lip" that is
detectable by the visually impaired. By modifying the level of the intersection, the
crosswalks are more readily perceived by motorists to be "pedestrian territory". Raised
intersections are good for intersections with substantial pedestrian activity, and areas
where other traffic calming measures would be unacceptable because they take away
scarce parking spaces. They are usually found at built-up areas and in central business
districts.

Advantages:-
 Raised intersections improve safety for both pedestrians and vehicles;
 If designed well, they can have positive aesthetic value;
 They can calm two streets at once;

Disadvantages:-
 They tend to be expensive, varying by materials used;
 Their impact to drainage needs to be considered;
 They are less effective in reducing speeds than speed humps, speed tables, or
raised crosswalks;
 They have to be marked well especially in areas where they are not usually
expected.

Effectiveness:-
 Average of 1 percent decrease in the 85th percentile travel speeds, or from an
average of 55.4 to 54.9 kilometres per hour.

17.3.5 Textured road surface (Vertical deflector)

Textured and colour pavement includes the use of stamped pavement or alternate paving
materials to create an uneven surface for vehicles to traverse. They may be used to
emphasise either an entire intersection or a pedestrian crossing, and are sometimes used
along entire street blocks. Textured pavements are good for "main street" areas where
there is substantial pedestrian activity and noise is not a major concern.

Advantages:-
 Textured pavements can reduce vehicle speeds over an extended length of road;
 If designed well, they can have positive aesthetic value;
 Placed at an intersection, they can calm two streets at once;

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Disadvantages:-
 They are generally expensive, depending on the materials used;
 If used on a crosswalk, they can make crossings more difficult for wheelchair
users and the visually impaired.

Effectiveness:-
 No data has been compiled on the effects of textured pavements but it can be
expected that they will reduce safety risks especially for pedestrians.

17.3.5 Traffic circles (Horizontal deflectors)

Traffic circles are raised islands, placed in intersections, around which traffic circulates.
They are good for calming intersections, especially within neighbourhoods, where large
vehicle traffic is not a major concern but speeds, volumes, and safety are problems. Many
motorists fail to realise that mini-circles have the same requirements insofar as traffic
rules are concerned. Drivers in a main road often fail to yield to the right i.e. to oncoming
vehicles from a "secondary" street. This has inherent safety risks to road users.

Advantages:-
 Traffic circles are very effective in moderating speeds and improving safety;
 If designed well, they can have positive aesthetic value;
 Placed at an intersection, they can calm two streets at once;

Disadvantages:-
 They are difficult for large vehicles (such as fire trucks and buses) to
circumnavigate;
 They must be designed so that the circulating lane does not encroach on the
crosswalks;
 They may require the elimination of some on-street parking;
 Landscaping must be maintained, either by the residents or by the municipality;
 Some drivers do not understand the rules governing access to traffic circles;
 They must be well marked and the required signage must be maintained regularly.
Failure to do so may cause serious crashes.

Effectiveness:-
 Average of 11 percent decrease in the 85th percentile travel speeds, or from an
average of 54.6 to 48.3 kilometres per hour (from a sample of 45 sites);
 Including a large sample from Seattle, an average of 73 percent decrease in
crashes; from an average of 2.2 to 0.6 crashes per year (from a sample of 130
sites);
 Excluding the large sample from Seattle, an average of 29 percent decrease in
crashes; from an average of 5.9 to 4.2 crashes per year (from a sample of 17 sites).

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17.4 Volume calming
Volume calming differs from traffic calming. Reducing through traffic volume in
residential streets is another primary objective of traffic calming. Traffic volume
reduction on traffic calmed streets depends on the availability of alternative routes and on
the devices installed. Traffic calming has the objective to reduce the average speed of
traffic and is mostly found in residential suburbs. This is normally introduced due to
community concerns about the incidence of speeding and the risk to road users especially
the more vulnerable groups such as young pedestrians and cyclists. Volume calming
differs slightly from traffic calming as it does not in the first instance intend to decrease
the average (or 85th percentile speed) but to reduce the volume number of vehicles
entering a specific street. Volume calming can also become a subject of concern as
residents that are affected by increased traffic volumes, may pressurise the authorities to
introduce measures to keep vehicular traffic out of their streets. "Intrusion is increased
volume or excessive non-local traffic along a neighbourhood street. This cut-through
traffic is caused by drivers who use a local street to go through a neighbourhood and save
time on their trip. Local streets that are less impeded than other local streets within the
same neighbourhood will often invite cut-through traffic. Routes that are perceived to be
timesaving will attract more traffic. This increased cut through traffic can cause a local
street to function more like a collector road." (D.C. Department of Transportation -
Design and Engineering Manual - (www.wpcaonline.org)

Volumes often increase in certain streets due to traffic congestion on major arterials and
freeways. Drivers are always on the lookout for alternative routes to and from their
destinations. Construction work on major routes often prompt drivers to search for
alternative routes, often to the detriment of residents who have had quiets roads in their
neighbourhoods. The measures required to calm volumes are often the same as those used
for traffic calming, but some are exclusively used for traffic volume reduction purposes.
The following measures can be considered for volume calming:-

 Speed humps;
 One-way systems;
 Restricted access to certain classes of vehicles;
 Diverters;
 Regulatory signs.

17.4.1 One-way systems

One-way systems may be established to divert traffic away from the affected area. If a
street which is used for through traffic is changed to a one-way street it may result in a
substantial reduction in traffic. The implementation of a one-way street has to be done
with due consideration to a number of issues such as access to residents, the impact on
adjacent streets, the possibility of higher speeds in a one-way street, etc. the
implementation of a one-way system may have a detrimental impact on a residential
suburb if it is not done with circumspect. One-way streets also tend to have a greater
incidence of illegal parking activity compared to two-way streets. A higher average

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speed in one-way streets is the result of the perception that the lower number of
conflicting vehicle turning movements makes the road safer.

17.4.2 Restricted access to certain classes of vehicles

There is not much more frustrating to residents in a neighbourhood than the presence of
large vehicles using their roads unnecessarily. If they have to make deliveries it is
acceptable, but using residential roads as a short-cut is not! If residential roads are abused
in this manner, it may be prudent to consider the erection of signs to restrict access into
the area by means of appropriate road traffic signs. These restrictions have to be policed
regularly to increase its effectiveness.

17.4.3 Diverters
These physical barriers redirect traffic heading for a certain street onto a different course,
reducing vehicle overload on vulnerable (usually residential) streets overrun by through
traffic looking for shortcuts.
 Diagonal Diverters traverse an entire intersection, actually creating two
unconnected streets that each turn sharply away from one another;
 Semi-Diverters restrict traffic in one direction to prevent entrance to a street,
while permitting traffic to pass through in the other direction.

Although they effectively reduce traffic volume, diverters must be part of a

comprehensive improvement scheme or else they can end up simply displacing
congestion.

Figure 17.1
Diverters to deter traffic from an area

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17.5 Community involvement
No traffic calming devices should be installed permanently without seeking comments
and opinions of residents directly affected by the proposed measures. There are several
reasons for involving the public in planning and implementation of traffic calming
processes. First of all residents are well aware of the problems in their area as they observe
it over an extended period of time. Traffic calming strategies in general require alteration
in road users' behaviour so it is necessary to convey the message to the residents from the
early stages of the planning process. There are several ways to involve the public in a
traffic calming process -meetings, walkabouts, leaflets; public events are the ways of
communication between residents and municipal staff. However, the methods for
including citizens in the traffic calming process are quite varied. Furthermore, in the case
of financial constraints, if there is strong neighbourhood support for the traffic calming
proposal then they are more likely to be funded by residents, although this is not
recommended practice. Community involvement is critical to the success of any traffic
calming project. The Canadian Guide to Neighbourhood Traffic Calming states that:-
'Examples of groups of people to be considered in the 'public involvement' except general
residents are: the fire services, police, emergency services, maintenance services, schools,
environmental action groups, delivery services and handicapped people."
(www.easts.info). Strict guidelines for the implementation of calming measures must be
developed. If not, too many areas will qualify unnecessarily and this may place immense
pressure on the local authority to implement these measures. Failure to follow the
guideline will in all probability illicit negativity and possibly also political intervention.

17.5.1 Process for conducting community traffic studies

No authority involved with road engineering responsibilities should attempt to introduce
speed and volume calming measures without a proper community engagement project.
Such an attempt will often become futile and may result in hostility. There are many
possibilities open to road authorities to elicit community participation. The following is
one of many approaches to consult with the affected community

Stage 1
Problem identification:-
 Establish a traffic committee;
 Identify traffic concerns;
 Collect and analyse traffic and safety data;
 Establish study goals and objectives;

Stage 2
Develop a traffic plan:-
 Identify potential solutions;
 Develop the proposed traffic plan;
 Determine community support for the traffic plan;

Stage 3
Trial measures:-
 Present traffic plan to the relevant authority for approval, if necessary;
 Implement traffic calming measures for a trial period;

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  Monitor traffic conditions during the trial period; assess benefits and impacts to
the neighbourhood and transportation network – (This will include a variety of
traffic studies);

Stage 4
Project completion:-
 Review the traffic plan and identify changes as appropriate;
 Present the final version of traffic plan to the community for approval;
 Submit the plan to an appropriate committee for a final decision and
implementation of the resolutions;

Stage 5
Project monitoring:-
 The project must be reviewed after a period of time to ascertain its effectiveness;
 Conduct a survey to establish the impact of the measures and the level of
satisfaction or dissatisfaction among the residents;
 Make final recommendations for remedial action if it is deemed required;
 Keep the records of the plan for future reference.

17.6 Maintenance of speed calming measures

An important aspect that requires the attention of law enforcement officers and engineers
is the continual maintenance of speed and volume calming measures. Many road
authorities implement these measures and then fail to maintain them. Many speed humps
for instance are not maintained properly. The paint marks on the humps wear off at a
faster rate than other road markings with the result that humps often become invisible to
road users especially those that are unfamiliar in the area where the humps are located.
Vehicles are easily damaged if humps are not maintained regularly. Humps can also blend
in with the roadway to such an extent that they become almost invisible. It is for this
reason that humps have to be demarcated with appropriate warning signs in addition to
the prescribed marking. The use of effective markings further slows down the speed of
vehicles. Certain paint patterns create a perception that the humps are higher than what
they really are. The upkeep of humps is critical to the long term success of these speed
calming devices.

Speed and volume calming measures that are neglected can lead to civil claims against a
road authority - that is if it can be proved that negligence contributed to a road crash.
Poorly maintained road infrastructure also precipitate crashes especially during night and
at times when inclement weather conditions restrict sight distances. Many road users have
lost their lives as a result of poorly maintained road infrastructure. Risks increase
exponentially when traffic and volume calming interventions such as speed humps,
chokers, and median islands etc. are not maintained in an impeccable manner. Road
marking and - signs have to be replaced at regular intervals. Road authorities must also
refrain from using sub-standard materials in an effort to reduce costs when purchasing
signs and paint.

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The reflectivity of signs is an important aspect of road safety. The reflectivity of some of
these signs is so poor that they are barely visible at night. Authorities must set clear
specifications when they procure road signs and road marking paint. If they purchase sub-
standard products they will merely have to replace them at more regular intervals.

Law enforcement officers have, as previously stated in this manual, an important

monitoring function. Monitoring is not restricted to a day-time activity. The visibility of
road side furniture during night time and during inclement weather is as important if not
more important than during day time conditions. The fact that most law enforcement
agencies have patrol officers during the night allows them to perform this function
without any added costs. In order to be effective, law enforcement officers have to be
sensitised to this oversight role.

Figure 17.1
Poorly maintained speed calming devices

The speed hump depicted in Figure 17.1 has no signs indicating its presence and the
markings are inadequate. Vehicle skid marks at speed calming devices may be an
indication that the devices are not clearly marked and signposted. Traffic law enforcement
officers must inspect the markings and signs required at speed and volume calming
devices to ensure that they are safe and compliant. Inspections must be conducted during
adverse weather conditions as well as during night time. The vast majority of law
enforcement officers ignore their responsibility in this respect as they seem to consider
this not to be part of their job.' Road infrastructure inspections and intervention is an
important pro-active function of law enforcement practitioners. It is probably more
important than the issuance of a few notices for minor road infringements. In any event
effective law enforcement cannot be conducted without effective road signs and
markings. Maybe it is the fact that they have to report these issues in writing to the
relevant authority that makes it to much of

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an effort. Officers that fail in this important function do not deserve to be deployed
operationally as law enforcement officers. They inadvertently place citizens' lives at risk.
One missing sign can lead to the death of many innocent road users.

17.7 Conclusion
Road infrastructure is not the sole responsibility of the road engineers. Traffic law
enforcement officers are the eyes and ears of the authorities as they spend most of their
working time on the road network. They are in an excellent position to observe what
transpires on our roads and the effectiveness of road furniture. They are therefore duty
bound to report any matter that in their view requires remedial intervention, upgrade or
whatever is necessary to make roads safer.

0000000

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 CHAPTER 18

TRAFFIC STUDIES

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 Identify the traffic studies available to investigate road safety issues.

 Select the appropriate studies for a specific need.
 Develop the required tools to implement the study.
 Conduct studies.
 Analyse the results of traffic studies.
 Interpret data that would indicate a specific response to a traffic problem.

18.1 Introduction
Traffic studies are important tools available to traffic engineers and law enforcement
agencies to investigate road safety problems and associated risks to road users. The cost
of traffic safety measures is inhibitive and the authorities have to ensure that any measures
implemented will produce the required outcomes. An inappropriate response to a road
safety issue may not only be costly but may in fact increase road safety risks. Resources
are scarce and road authorities do not have the luxury of continuous experimentation. The
use of appropriate traffic studies will allow decision makers to select a response that will
suit the requirements of all stakeholders. In many instances, the road authorities make use
of the services of external consultants to conduct these studies. It is nevertheless important
that traffic law enforcement officers have a proper understanding of the various studies
that are available and how they operate. This Chapter is primarily based on the Iowa
Handbook of Simplified Practice for Traffic Studies Iowa DOT Project TR-455 CTRE
Project 01-80 - November 2002. It is a very useful guide for the development and use of
a range of studies in a road traffic environment.

18.2. Spot speed studies

Speed is an important transportation consideration because it relates to safety, time,
comfort, convenience, and economics. Spot speed studies are used to determine the speed
distribution of a traffic stream at a specific location. The data gathered in spot speed
studies are used to determine vehicle speed percentiles, which are useful in making many
speed-related decisions. Spot speed data have a number of safety applications, including
the following:- (Robertson 1994)

1. Determining existing traffic operations and evaluation of traffic control devices:

 Evaluating and determining proper speed limits;
 Determining the 50th and 85th speed percentiles;
 Evaluating and determining proper advisory speeds;
 Establishing the limits of no-passing zones;
 Determining the proper placements of traffic control signs and markings;
 Setting appropriate traffic signal timing.

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2. Establishing roadway design elements
 Evaluating and determining proper intersection sight distance;
 Evaluating and determining proper passing sight distance;
 Evaluating and determining proper stopping sight distance.

3. Assessing roadway safety questions

 Evaluating and verifying speeding problems;
 Assessing speed as a contributor to vehicle crashes;
 Investigating input from the public or other officials.

4. Monitoring traffic speed trends by systematic ongoing speed studies.

5. Measuring the effectiveness of traffic control devices or traffic programs including

signs and markings, traffic operational changes.

6. Monitoring speed enforcement programs.

18.3 Selective traffic law enforcement programs (STEPS)

Traffic law enforcement agencies are often confronted with requests to conduct speed
enforcement on roads where it is doubtful whether it is warranted. In such instances it
would be helpful if a spot check is conducted first. The results of the spot check will
indicate the need for speed enforcement. Spot speed studies are also used for quality
control purposes i.e. a periodic analysis of the incidence of speeding within the
jurisdiction of the agency. Such an analysis reveals the extent of speeding on an area-
wide basis and assists law enforcement administrators to allocate resources to various
units within the law enforcement agency. A quality control model consists of a number
of spot checks that have been selected randomly and which represents the type of roads
that are included in such a survey. In other words it cannot be used to determine whether
increased speed enforcement is required on freeways if freeways do not form the focus
of the check. The implementation of quality control surveys is based on statistical
methods and requires a basic knowledge of sampling and analysis. They may require
some effort to implement but the advantages of having quality control systems allows an
agency to fairly accurately deploy its resources and to only focus on those issues that
require focussed intervention. Such an approach also allows a law enforcement agency to
refute wild allegations in the media that its enforcement practices are focussed on
generating income rather than safety. The use of quality control in selective enforcement
programs may succinctly support the enforcement activities of individual officers. It may
provide the psychological stimulus that some officers require to maintain high levels of
enforcement activity. Some officers feel after an extended period of time that their
enforcement activities are in vain as there is no sign of it being effective. Law
enforcement agencies have to develop selective enforcement programs in order to give
proper structure to programs aimed at reducing crash risks. If the enforcement activities
are seen to have a statistical basis it focuses the agency's attention to achieve success. The
shotgun approach of some agencies is bound to fail over a period of time. Law
enforcement is a science and must be based on sound principles. For a spot speed study
at a selected location, a sample size of at least 50 and preferably 100 to 150 is required.
Traffic counts during a Monday morning or a Friday peak period may show exceptionally
high volumes and are not

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normally used in the analysis; therefore, counts are usually conducted on a Tuesday,
Wednesday or Thursday. When traffic volumes increase the average speed decreases. At
a certain point when the road capacity is reached the average speed decreases substantially
and it then does not reflect the extent of speeding under normal operating conditions. Spot
speed data are gathered using one of three methods: (1) stopwatch method, (2) radar meter
method, or (3) pneumatic road tube method. These methods are described in this chapter
in order from least expensive to most expensive. The stopwatch method is the least
expensive but also the least accurate of the methods. (Section 18.5)

18.4 Speed percentiles

Speed percentiles are tools used to determine effective and adequate speed limits. The
two speed percentiles most important to understand are the 50th and the 85th percentiles.
The 50th percentile is the median speed of the observed data set. This percentile
represents the speed at which half of the observed vehicles are below and half of the
observed vehicles are above. The 50th percentile of speed represents the average speed
of the traffic stream. The 85th percentile is the speed at which 85% of the observed
vehicles are travelling at or below. This percentile is used in evaluating or for
recommending speed limits based on the assumption that 85% of the drivers are travelling
at a speed they perceive to be safe. In other words, the 85th percentile of speed is normally
assumed to be the highest safe speed for a roadway section. Weather conditions may
affect speed percentiles. For example, observed speeds may be slower in rain or snow
conditions. The calculation of speed percentiles is easier if a sample size of 100 vehicles
is collected. When the sample size equals 100 vehicles, the cumulative frequency and
cumulative percent are the same. The exact 50 percent and 85 percent (50th and 85th
percentiles) are not found in the cumulative percent column. To reach these exact
percentages, a calculation is completed using percentages and speeds from the
distribution table. If a more accurate description of the 85th percentile speed is required,
a bigger sample will be required, say between 300 and 500 observations. The following
example (Table 18.1) reflects the construction of a frequency table in order to ascertain
the 50th and 85th percentile.

Speed intervals Frequency of Cumulative Cumulative Speed

(Km/h) Vehicles Frequency Percentage Percentile
<20 0 0 0%
20 – 25 1 1 1%
26 – 30 1 2 2%
31 – 35 2 4 4%
36 – 40 3 7 7%
41 – 45 5 12 12%
46 – 50 8 20 20%
51 – 55 16 36 36%
50th Percentile
56 – 60 28 64 64%
61 – 65 17 81 81%
85th Percentile
66 – 70 12 93 93%
71 - 75 7 100 100%

Table 18.1

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The 50th and 85th speed percentiles are determined from the cumulative percentage
column. For the example data in Table 18.1, the 50th percentile falls between 51 and 60
km/h and the 85th percentile falls between 61 and 70 km/h. The calculation of speed
percentiles is easier if a sample size of 100 vehicles is collected. When the sample size
equals 100 vehicles, the cumulative frequency and cumulative percent are the same.

As can be observed from Table 18.1, the exact 50% and 85% (50th and 85th percentiles)
are not found in the cumulative percent column. To reach these exact percentages, a
calculation is completed using percentages and speeds from the distribution table. Shown
below is the equation for calculating speed percentiles:

−
= ( − )+
−
Where:
SD = speed at PD,
PD = percentile desired,
Pmax = higher cumulative percent,
Pmin = lower cumulative percent,
Smax = higher speed, and
Smin = lower speed.

Example speed percentile calculations follow, using the example frequency distribution
table in Table 2.1.
The 50th percentile of speed (PD = 50%) falls between 51 and 60 km/h (see Table 2.1),
so Smax = 60 km/h and Smin = 51 km/h. The higher cumulative percent (Pmax) is 64%, and
the lower cumulative percent (Pmin) is 36%. Therefore, to find SD at PD = 50%,

The 50th percentile speed is calculated as follows:-

50 − 36
= × (60 − 51) + 51
64 − 36

= 55.5 /ℎ

The 85th percentile speed is calculated in the same manner.

Where SD = speed at PD, PD = percentile desired, Pmax = higher cumulative percent, Pmin
= lower cumulative percent, Smax = higher speed, and Smin = lower speed.
Example speed percentile calculations follow, using the example frequency distribution
table in Table 2.1. The 50th percentile of speed (PD = 50%) falls between 51 and 60 km/h
(see Table 2.1), so Smax = 70 km/h and Smin = 61 km/h. The higher cumulative percent
(Pmax) is 64%, and the lower cumulative percent (Pmin) is 36%.
Therefore, to find SD at PD = 50%,

85 − 81
= × (70 − 61) + 61
93 − 81

= 63.9 /ℎ

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18.5 Stopwatch method
A spot speed study with a stopwatch includes five key steps:-

1. Obtain an appropriate study length;

2. Select a proper location and layout;
3. Record the observations on a stopwatch spot speed study data form;
4. Calculate vehicle speeds;
5. Generate frequency distribution table and determine speed percentiles.

18.5.1 Obtain an appropriate study length

The study length is important because it is used in the calculation of vehicle speeds. Table
18.2 provides recommended study lengths, which are based on the average speed of the
traffic stream. Using these recommended study lengths makes speed calculations
straightforward and less confusing. If these lengths are not appropriate, another length
can be used assuming it is long enough for reliable observer reaction times. If distances
longer than 80 meters are used it will be necessary to use two observers to record the
times of vehicles over the set distance. This will be done with radio communication and
it will necessitate the simultaneous stopping of the two stopwatches to ascertain the
difference in the time that it took the two observers to start their stopwatches. For the
purpose of the spot speed study it is recommended to use the shorter distances although
it may be slightly less accurate. The following street lengths are considered appropriate:-

Note that the symbol < refers to - smaller or less than and;
> refers to - greater than.

Traffic stream average speed Recommended study length

< 40 km/h 30 meters
40 - 60 km/h 50 meters
> 60 km/h 80 meters

Table 18.2

18.5.2 Select proper location and layout

Figure 18.1 illustrates a typical layout for conducting a spot speed study using a
stopwatch. When selecting a location and layout, care must be exercised so that the
observer can clearly see any vertical reference posts. The observer should preferably be
positioned higher than the study area and be looking down. The position could be on a
bridge or a roadway back slope. The observer should use reference points to aid in
collecting the elapsed time it takes a vehicle to travel through the study area. The
reference point to start timing may be a brightly coloured vertical post. The reference
point to end timing may be a tree or a signpost in the observer's sight line. An accurate
sketch of the site should be documented, including number of lanes, position of observer,
and description of reference points.

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 Figure 18.1
Speed study layout

18.5.3 Record observations on Stopwatch Spot Speed Data Form

On the stopwatch spot speed data form; the observer records the date, location, and posted
speed limit, weather conditions, start time, end time, and down time. As the front wheels
of a vehicle (or only the lead vehicle in a group) cross a mark or pavement crack at the
beginning of the predetermined study length, the observer starts the stopwatch. The watch
is stopped when the vehicle's front wheels pass a reference line in front of the observer.
A slash is recorded on the data form corresponding to the elapsed time observed.

18.5.4 Calculate vehicle speeds

To calculate vehicle speed, use the predetermined study length and the elapsed time it
took the vehicle to move through the course (as recorded on the stopwatch data form) in
the following formula:-

V = D/0.278 x t or V = Distance ÷ (0.278 x time)

Where:-
V = Velocity in km/h
D = Distance in meters
t = Time in seconds
0.278 is a constant

Therefore if a driver of a vehicle takes 3.2 seconds to cover a distance of 50 meters, the
speed of that vehicle can be calculated with the formula stated above:-

50
=
0.278 × 3.2

= . /

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This formula is used to pre-calculate the speeds of vehicles over the selected distances
and used in tables for ease of reference.
In the event of a distance of 80 meters a time of 5.2 seconds will yield the following
result:-
80
=
0.278 × 5.2

= . /

18.5.5 Laser
Most of the traffic law enforcement agencies nowadays have laser speed recording
devices that are hand held or mounted on a tri-pod. These meters are very accurate and
easy to use. Some of the laser meters are also pre-programmed to calculate the 85th
percentile speeds after a number of speed recordings. This make them very user friendly
to operate. A normal radar set sends out a radio pulse and waits for the reflection. Then it
measures the Doppler shift in the signal and uses the shift to determine the speed. Laser
(or lidar, for light detection and ranging) speed guns use a more direct method that relies
on the reflection time of light rather than Doppler shift. You have probably experienced
the reflection time of sound waves in the form of an echo. For example, if you shout down
a well or across a canyon, the sound takes a noticeable amount of time to reach the bottom
of the well and travel back to your ear. Sound travels at something like 300 meters per
second, so a deep well or a wide canyon creates a very apparent round-trip time for the
sound.

A laser speed gun measures the round-trip time for light to reach a car and reflect back.
Light from a laser speed gun moves a lot faster than sound - about 300,000,000 meters or
roughly 30 cm per nanosecond. A laser speed gun shoots a very short burst of infrared
laser light and then waits for it to reflect off the vehicle. The gun counts the number of
nanoseconds it takes for the round trip, and by dividing by 2 it can calculate the distance
to the car. If the gun takes 1,000 samples per second, it can compare the change in distance
between samples and calculate the speed of the car. By taking several hundred samples
over the course of a third of a second or so, the accuracy can be very high. The advantage
of a laser speed gun (for the police anyway) is that the size of the "cone" of light that the
gun emits is very small, even at a range like 300 meters. The cone at this distance might
be one meter in diameter. This allows the gun to target a specific vehicle. A laser speed
gun is also very accurate. The disadvantage is that the officer has to aim a laser speed gun
at the specific vehicle it wants to monitor.

Figure 18.2
(Source - Lasertech)

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18.5.6 Pneumatic loops and other loop detectors
Speed checks can also be conducted by means of pneumatic loops. These velocity meters
primarily use rubber tubing or cables that provide an electric impulse when a vehicle
travels over them. The same principle of time over distance provides the basis for
calculating speed.

The pneumatic road tube method is normally used for longer data collection time periods
than those of either the stopwatch or laser meter method. Using this method, pneumatic
tubes are placed in the travel lanes (see Figure 18.3) and are connected to recorders
located at the side of the road. One of the disadvantages of this method is that drivers
often see the tubes/cables across the road and brake before travelling over them. This may
distort to some extent the average and percentile speeds. (Handbook of Simplified
Practice for Traffic Studies: Iowa. 2002)

18.5.6.1 Inductive loop detectors

Inductive loop detectors are widely used for both permanent and temporary counting on
freeways. Many traffic counters and reporting software are available to law enforcement
agencies. Single loops are sufficient for volume counting, while dual-loop speed traps are
required for speed measurements. Loop detectors have sufficient accuracy in all weather
but they require a good pavement and are very costly to maintain, not only because of
their short le but due to the high probability of tyre lock-up that usually break the
tubing/cables.

18.5.6.2 Pneumatic tubes

Pneumatic tubes are suitable only for temporary counts in urban areas (and not on
highways). Many low cost counters are available with the required air-switches to allow
counting, measuring speed and classifications by axle spacing. Although not as intrusive
as loops, they can only be installed when there is no traffic on the road. They cannot be
used for permanent count stations or on highways because the rubber tubes get torn or
damaged after a certain number of vehicles, and they cannot take the tyre friction typical
to high speed freeway traffic. Per-lane and speed/classification requires a very complex
installation of many tubes.

18.5.6.3 Piezo sensors

Piezo sensors are rods that are installed in the road for permanent counting and
classification. They must have a solid foundation in order to last and are generally
expensive to install and maintain. Two spaced rods can do a very good job of speed and
classification by axle spacing. The amplitude of their pulses is proportional to the axle
weight that produces them, so they find their main application in WIM (Weigh- In-
Motion) stations. (www.rtms-eis.com)

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 Figure 18.3
Vehicle counter sensors

18.6 Traffic volume study

Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number, movements, and
classifications of roadway vehicles at a given location. This data can help identify critical
flow time periods, determine the influence of large vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular
traffic flow, or document traffic volume trends. The length of the sampling period
depends on the type of count being taken and the intended use of the data recorded. For
example, an intersection count may be conducted during the peak flow period. If so,
manual count with 15-minute intervals could be used to obtain the traffic volume data.
(Handbook of Simplified Practice for Traffic Studies Iowa. 2002)

Traffic law enforcement agencies often get involved with traffic volume counts to
determine whether traffic signals are warranted or to re-establish the traffic signal time
settings of the system. In rare instances traffic volume counts are conducted to establish
whether traffic signals should be removed or not! Traffic volume counts may also be
required to establish the extent of traffic volumes in residential suburbs in order to verify
complaints about through traffic. Traffic volume counts may also be required to determine
crash rates on a specific road or section of road. Traffic volume counts are relatively easy
to conduct. Counting at intersections will include all turning movements in every
direction as this will also reveal the necessity of turning lanes and/or exclusive turning
signals. Civilians can be contracted to conduct traffic volume counts as it expensive to
utilise traffic law enforcement personnel for this purpose. In the event that civilians are
used, it remains the function of the authority to inspect the counting procedures to ensure
its reliability and validity.

Two methods are available for conducting traffic volume counts: (1) manual and (2)
automatic. Manual counts are typically used to gather data for the determination of

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vehicle classification, turning movements, direction of travel, pedestrian movements, or
vehicle occupancy. Automatic counts are typically used to gather data for the
determination of vehicle hourly patterns, daily or seasonal variations and growth trends,
or annual traffic estimates. The selection of study method should be determined using the
count period. The count period should be representative of the time of day, day of month,
and month of year for the study area. For example, counts at a summer resort would not
be taken in July. The count period should avoid special events or compromising weather
conditions. Count periods may range from 5 minutes to 1 year. Typical count periods are
15 minutes or 2 hours for peak periods, 4 hours for morning and afternoon peaks, 6 hours
for morning, midday, and afternoon peaks, and 12 hours for daytime periods. For
example, if you were conducting a 2-hour peak period count, eight 15-minute counts
would be required.

Manual counts are typically used for periods of less than a day. Normal intervals for a
manual count are 5, 10, or 15 minutes. Traffic counts during a Monday morning rush hour
and a Friday afternoon rush hour may show exceptionally high volumes and are not
normally used in analysis; therefore, counts are usually conducted on a Tuesday,
Wednesday, or Thursday. Exceptional days should also be avoided such as the day
preceding public holidays i.e. at Easter etc. Counting on these days will yield results that
are not applicable to normal days. If however counting is specifically aimed at
determining holiday traffic volumes it must be concluded on these days. A manual count
study includes three key steps:-

 Perform necessary office preparations;

 Select proper observer location;
 Label data sheets and record observations.

18.6.1 Perform necessary office preparations

Office preparations start with a review of the purpose of the manual count. This type of
information will help determine the type of equipment to use, the field procedures to
follow, and the number of observers required. For example, an intersection with multiple
approach lanes may require electronic counting boards and multiple observers.

18.6.2 Select proper observer location

Observers must be positioned where they have a clear view of the traffic. Observers
should be positioned away from the edge of the roadway. If observers are positioned
above ground level and clear of obstructions they usually have the best vantage point.
Visual contact must be maintained if there are multiple observers at a site. If views are
unobstructed, observers may count from inside a vehicle. (Handbook of Simplified
Practice for Traffic Studies: Iowa. 2002)

18.7 Intersection counts

Intersection counts are used for timing traffic signals, designing channelization, planning
turn prohibitions or provision for additional turning lanes, computing capacity, analysing
high crash intersections, and evaluating congestion. The manual count method is usually
used to conduct an intersection count. A single observer can complete an intersection
count only in very light traffic conditions.

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The intersection count classification scheme must be understood by all observers before
the count can begin. An intersection with 4 approaching directions has a maximum of 12
possible movements. The intersection movements are straight through, left turn, and right
turn. The observer records the intersection movement for each vehicle that enters the
intersection.

18.8 Pedestrian counts

Pedestrian count data are used frequently in planning applications. Pedestrian counts are
used to evaluate sidewalk and crosswalk needs, to justify pedestrian signals, and to time
traffic signals. Pedestrian counts may be taken at intersection crosswalks, mid- block
crossings, or along sidewalks. When pedestrians are tallied, those 12 years or older are
customarily classified as adults. Persons of grade 7 school age or younger are classified
as children. The observer records the direction of each pedestrian crossing the roadway.
Other pedestrian studies include the walking speed of pedestrians, especially at wide
intersections. This allows traffic signals to be set correctly to allow pedestrians to cross
the intersection safely. Pedestrian volume counts in rural areas and at long stretches of
roadway must take into account the desired pathways followed by pedestrians. Many
authorities have fallen into the trap of providing pedestrian facilities at localities that are
not favourable for pedestrians to use. The impact hereof is a waste of public funds and no
real cost benefit in terms of safety risks.

18.9 Vehicle classification counts

Vehicle classification counts are used in establishing structural and geometric design
criteria, computing expected highway user revenue, and computing capacity. If a high
percentage of heavy trucks exist or if the vehicle mix at the crash site is suspected as
contributing to the crash problem, then classification counts should be conducted.
Typically cars, station wagons, light delivery vehicles and motorcycles are classified as
passenger cars. Other trucks and buses are classified as trucks. School buses and farm
equipment may be recorded separately. The observer records the classification of the
vehicles and the vehicles' direction of travel at the intersection.

18.10 Average daily traffic and annual average daily traffic counts
Average daily traffic (ADT) counts represent a 24-hour count at any specified location.
These counts are obtained by placing an automatic counter at the analysis location for a
24-hour period. Accuracy of the ADT data depends on the count being performed during
typical roadway, weather, and traffic demand conditions. Local authorities will typically
conduct this type of count. Annual average daily traffic (AADT) counts represent the
average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location averaged over a full 365-day year.
AADT volume counts have the following uses:-

 measuring or evaluating the present demand for service by the roadway or facility;
 developing freeways or major arterial roadway system;
 locating areas where new facilities or improvements to existing facilities are
needed;
 programming capital improvements

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18.11 Traffic counting applications
Traffic Counting is a discipline and methodology that provides the most basic
measurement required by traffic engineers for any design, plan or control of traffic. Its
data is used for many and diverse applications, among them:- (www.rtms-eis-com)

 Planning of roads construction/widening;

 Statistical analysis of road use;
 Origin/destination matrix generation;
 Intelligent transport systems design;
 Designing signal control timing plans;
 Funding provincial governments or local authorities for road repair or
maintenance;
 Toll freeway audits;
 Parking facilities control.

Each application has its own requirements in terms of:-

 Location of counting stations;
 Type of additional data besides volume (e.g. speed, vehicle classification);
 Length of counting period;
 Accuracy requirements;
 Type and format of reporting.

Among the counting data analyses and reports generated are:-

 Peak hours;
 Peak hour flow rate;
 Average volume and speed versus day of week;
 Peak hour factor;
 Flow rate versus time;
 Traffic density versus time;
 Speed versus volume and speed versus flow;
 Headway versus time;
 Directional distribution;
 Lane use distribution;
 Vehicle classification distribution;
 AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic);
 Vehicles/day by class versus day of the week;
 Percentage of daily traffic versus time of day;
 ADT as a percentage of the AADT per month;
 Daily traffic as a percentage of total weekly traffic versus day of week;
 Hourly volume threshold (in % AADT) versus the number of hours exceeded;
 Turning movement and origin/destination reports.

Most urban traffic counting is temporary (for a period less than one week) and used as
input in order to produce optimised timing plans for signal controllers. Many of these
require only volume, and not necessarily segregated by lane and require 5 or 15 minutes
time aggregated reports. Some (depending on the sophistication of the traffic control
system) require speed and perhaps classification between busses and all the rest of the
vehicles.

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Other urban counting are very demanding, such as turning-movements counts which
report for each approach the number of vehicles that turn left, turn right and go through.
Because these decisions in many cases are taken by the driver right at the stop line, where
traffic is standing half the time, no detector technology has proven to be accurate enough
for this application and it is currently done either by video recording of the entire
intersection and manual counting based on the recorded video or manual counting at the
location by observers.

Traffic law enforcement officers have a major responsibility to monitor the performance
of traffic signals and to report any problematic operations. It is not uncommon that signal
timings go awry and or traffic patterns change over a period of time due to new road
developments or newly developed shopping centres. The law enforcement officers are
uniquely placed to operate in saturated traffic conditions on a daily basis and can clearly
identify systems that require new or improved signal settings. A failure to report these
problems are tantamount to a neglect of duty. Congestion and a waste of fuel are common
problems associated with wrong signal settings. The fact that they report a malfunctioning
system does not necessarily imply that it can operate better but it remains worthwhile to
at least investigate the system based on a proper traffic count and analysis of the data. A
dysfunctional traffic signal system can easily be identified! Where the officer observes a
back-up of traffic at one of the approaches to the intersection; it may indicate that the
signal settings are either old or they have been programmed wrong by the manufacturer.
The officer should also look for a signal system that unnecessarily stops the main stream
of traffic without any specific reason. Another problem that often manifests itself is a
signal system that allows too much time for the minor (secondary) street i.e. if there are
only a few vehicles entering the intersection from such an approach.

18.12 Stopping sight distance studies

A study of stopping sight distances is an important aspect for traffic crash investigators
as it may require interventions if the stopping sight distance is insufficient for safe travel
patterns. Intersecting streets to a major arterial in curving and mountainous areas is
particularly dangerous. Inclement weather further aggravates dangerous driving
conditions. Although traffic law enforcement officers are not directly involved in the
planning and construction of public roads, they must have a basic understanding of some
of the more important design concepts as they deal with road crashes and have to ascertain
the conditions that may have contributed directly to those crashes. Road defects, including
design defects may be a causative factor. Knowledge of design parameters will assist
them to identify deficiencies in the road environment and then to make recommendations
to mitigate future risks. Any intersection or section of roadway with a high crash rate
should be the focus of attention of crash investigators. It was already indicated in this
guide that there is a direct relationship between crash causation and the three elements
the road, the vehicle and the driver. A crash investigator must have the requisite skills to
determine whether road design complies with recommended good practice or not. It
cannot be accepted in good faith that every road and every intersection designed and build
by road engineers comply with good practice. A road may have been designed correctly
but over the years' conditions change and this require interventions to keep crash risks to
a minimum.

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This may be attributed to a wide range of aspects e.g. population growth, new
developments, additional roads and intersections, illegal access to public roads, missing
signs, etc. One of the critical aspects of road design and management is the issue of
stopping sight distance.

Stopping sight distance is the distance traveled while the vehicle driver perceives a
situation requiring a stop, realizes that stopping is necessary, applies the brake, and comes
to a stop. Actual stopping distances are also affected by road conditions, the mass of the
car, the incline of the road, and numerous other factors. For design purposes, a
conservative distance is needed to allow a vehicle traveling at design speed to stop before
reaching a stationary object in its path. Typically the design sight distance allows a below-
average driver to stop in time to avoid a collision. (www.wikipedia.com) This distance
allows drivers to perceive, react, and safely stop; a minimum stopping sight distance must
be available. Stopping sight distance is defined as the sum of two distances:- (a + b)

a) Reaction distance - the distance travelled by the vehicle from the instant the driver sees
an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied; plus

b) Braking distance - the distance travelled by the vehicle from the instant brake
application begins to the instant when the vehicle has come to a complete stop. The
reaction distance is based on the reaction time of the driver and the speed of the vehicle.
The braking distance is dependent upon the vehicle speed and the coefficient of friction
between the tyres and roadway.

Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:-

 The distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an
obstruction to the instant the brakes are applied and;
 The distance required to stop the vehicle from the instant the brakes are applied.

These are referred to as brake reaction distance and stopping distance, respectively.

These two components, using a reaction time of 2,5 seconds and a deceleration rate of 3,0
m/s2, result in the relationship:-

s = v (0,694 + 0,013v)

Where: s = stopping sight distance, m

v = initial speed, km/h

It is important for traffic law enforcement officers to have a proper understanding of this
type of study as it is an integral component of crash investigation practice. Incorrect
stopping sight distances may precipitate crashes.

The type of vehicle (vehicle mass - together with speed relating to momentum) also plays
a role - for example: in emergency situations a light passenger car travelling at

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approximately 100 km/h needs about 60 meters to stop, a truck weighing less than 5t
would require about 70 metres and a truck weighing between 5t and 10t would require in
the order of 80 - 90 metres (both doing about 100 km/h). (In all these cases vehicles do
not go into a skid situation and distances given do not include driver observation and
decision distances). Speed plays a major role in driver observation, recognition, decision
and reaction time. In the case of a hazard or an incident on the road, the driver of a medium
size motorcar driving at a speed of 120 km/h will need a total distance of about 227 metres
from the point of first observing a hazard and taking evasive action until the vehicle comes
to a standstill. A vehicle travelling at a speed of 180 km/h requires a distance of 480
metres to stop. This is a major problem during night time as the distance that the
headlights of a vehicle lit up the road ahead is limited to approximately 150 metres with
bright lights and 75 metres with dimmed lights. The distance required to stop safely thus
by far exceed the distance that a driver can see the road ahead. This is a major reason why
law enforcement officers have the responsibility to ensure that obstructions and obstacles
on public roads are removed. In rural areas animals are often found wandering about on
public roads. Poor visibility coupled with the stated stopping distances required to safely
manoeuvre a vehicle make these animals "death traps".

18.12.1 Design speed

Geometric design parameters are based on the design speed of a road. The design speed
of a road is the maximum speed at which a motor vehicle can be operated safely on that
road in perfect conditions. The precise definition is "the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the
design features of the highway govern. The assumed design speed should be a logical one
with respect to the topography, the adjacent land use, and the functional classification of
highway." (www.wikipedia.com) It is self-explanatory that some roads are not designed
to permit high speed travel whilst freeways are built to very high design criteria that
allows high speed travel at relatively high safety margins.

18.13. Stopping sight distance studies- the four key steps:-

 Determine the minimum recommended stopping sight distance;
 Obtain or construct sighting and target rods;
 Measure current sight distances and record observations;
 Perform sight distance analysis.

18.13.1 Stopping sight distance procedures

On a sight distance diagram, the observer records the date and time, posted or operating
speed, site location, and weather conditions. Standing at a pre-determined location along
the road, the observer should sight from the top of the sighting rod while the assistant
moves away in the direction of travel. The assistant stops when the bottom 60 cm portion
of the target rod is no longer visible. This is the distance at which a 60 cm tall object can
no longer be seen by an approaching driver. The distance from the disappearing point to
the observer is measured and recorded. The analysis of stopping sight distance consists
of comparing the recommended sight distance to the measured sight distance. The
measured stopping sight distance should

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be greater than the recommended stopping distance. On a horizontal curved roadway, a
sight obstruction may be due to the curve or to physical features outside of the roadway.
On a straight roadway, the sight obstruction will be due to the vertical curvature of the
roadway alone. Table 18.3 indicates the recommended stopping sight distances in South
Africa. (www.nra.co.za)

Table 3.5: Recommended stopping sight distances for design

Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Design Speed
Recommended for
(km/h) Calculated Green Book 2000
Design
30 32.5 35 35
40 48.6 50 50
50 67.2 70 65
60 88.4 90 85
70 112.3 110 105
80 138.7 140 130
90 167.8 170 160
100 199.4 200 185
110 233.6 230 220
120 270.5 270 250
130 309.9 310 285

Table 18.3
Recommended stopping sight distances

Table 3.4: Object height design domain

Object Height (m) Applicability
Risk of road washouts
0.00
Pavement markings in critical locations
Risk of fallen trees or rocks
0.15 Risk of log or construction debris fallen from truck
Risk of fallen person

0.60 Vehicle tail or brake light

Passing sight distance for top of car
1.30
Intersection sight distance

Table 18.4
Object height design parameters

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The designer should adopt an object height based on the probability of a particular object
occurring on the roadway, as shown in Figure 18.4 below. For stopping sight distance, a
conservative tail light height of 0.60 m is recommended. If fallen trees or rocks are a real
risk, an object height of 0.15 m is recommended. In this context, research has established
that the probability of a collision involving an object of a height of 0.15 m or less is
infinitesimally small. For passing sight distance, an object height of 1.30 m will allow the
driver to discern the top of an oncoming car. A zero object height is recommended where
road washouts are a serious risk. It is also recommended for pavement markings in
situations such as at intersections or interchanges, where these provide essential guidance.
(www.nra.co.za)

Figure 18.4
Sight distances

18.14 Passing sight distance

On a two-lane rural road, the passing (overtaking) manoeuvre is one of the most
significant yet complex and important driving tasks. The process is relatively difficult to
quantify, primarily because of the many stages involved, the relative speed of vehicles
and the lengthy section of road needed to complete the manoeuvre. Road safety, capacity
and service levels are all affected by the passing ability of faster vehicles. This ability is
influenced by a variety of factors, including traffic volumes, speed differentials, road
geometry and human factors. The minimum sight distance required by a vehicle to
overtake safely on two-lane single carriageway roads is the distance which will enable
the overtaking driver to pass a slower vehicle without causing an oncoming vehicle to
slow below the design speed. Head-on crashes are particularly dangerous and normally
result in serious injuries and fatalities. Traffic law enforcement officers must be vigilant
to ensure that overtaking offences are included in any selective law enforcement program.
An abnormally high incidence of either crashes or offences must alert the law
enforcement administrators to investigate the causative factors. It is not uncommon to
find that road markings allow overtaking that may be regarded as problematic due to
insufficient passing sight distances. In some instances, overtaking is prohibited in
localities where it could be permitted. The contractors that are responsible for the painting
of road marks do err at times when they have to re-paint marks that were destroyed by
the resealing of the road surface. The law enforcement officers must therefore not accept
at face value that every road marking complies with good design parameters and
maintenance.

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 Table 3.6: Passing sight distance
Design Speed Absolute Minimum Desirable Minimum
(km/h) Passing Sight Distance (m) Passing Sight Distance (m)
30 220 250
40 290 350
50 350 400
60 410 450
70 490 550
80 550 650
90 610 750
100 680 900
110 730 1000
120 800 1100
130 860 1200

Table 18.5
Passing sight distances

18.15 Decision sight distance

Stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to allow reasonably competent and alert
drivers to stop under ordinary circumstances. However, these distances are often
inadequate when:-

 Drivers must make complex decisions;

 Information is difficult to perceive, or;
 Unexpected or unusual manoeuvres are required.

Limiting sight distances to those provided for stopping may also preclude drivers from
performing evasive manoeuvres, which are often less hazardous and otherwise preferable
to stopping. Even with an appropriate complement of standard traffic control devices,
stopping sight distances may not provide sufficient visibility for drivers to corroborate
advance warning and to perform the necessary manoeuvres. It is evident that there are
many locations such as exits from freeways, or where lane shifts or weaving manoeuvres
are performed where it would be prudent to provide longer sight distances. In these
circumstances, decision sight distance provides the greater length that drivers need. If the
driver can see what is unfolding far enough ahead, he or she should be able to handle
almost any situation. Decision sight distance, sometimes termed anticipatory sight
distance, is the distance required for a driver to:-

 Detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult- to-perceive information source or

hazard in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered;
 Recognize the hazard or its potential threat;
 Select an appropriate speed and path and;
 Initiate and complete the required safety manoeuvre safely and efficiently.

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Because decision sight distance gives drivers additional margin for error and affords them
sufficient length to manoeuvre their vehicles at the same or reduced speed rather than to
just stop, it is substantially longer than stopping sight distance.

Drivers need decision sight distances whenever there is likelihood for error in information
reception, decision-making, or control actions. Critical locations where these kinds of
errors are likely to occur, and where it is desirable to provide decision sight distance
include:-

 Approaches to interchanges and inter sections;

 Changes in cross-section such as at toll plazas and lane drops;
 Design speed reductions and;
 Areas of concentrated demand where there is apt to be "visual noise", e.g. where
sources of information, such as roadway elements, opposing traffic, traffic control
devices, advertising signs and construction zones, compete for attention.

The minimum decision sight distances that should be provided for specific situations are
shown in Table 18.6 If it is not feasible to provide these distances because of horizontal
or vertical curvature or if relocation is not possible, special attention should be given to
the use of suitable traffic control devices for advance warning. Although a sight distance
is offered for the right side exit, the designer should bear in mind that exiting from the
right is in total conflict with driver expectancy and is highly undesirable. The only reason
for providing this value is to allow for the remote eventuality that a right side exit has to
be employed. In measuring decision sight distances, the 1 050 mm eye height and 0 mm
object height have been adopted.

Table 3.7: Decision sight distance

Situations
Design
Speed Interchanges : Lane shift
Lane drop,
(km/h) Sight distance to nose Sight Intersections
closure, merge.
(metres) distance to Sight
Sight distance
beginning distance to
to taper area
Left Exit Right Exit of shift turn lane
(metres)
(metres)
50 N/A N/A 150 86 150
60 200 275 200 100 200
80 250 340 250 150 250
100 350 430 350 200 350
120 400 500 400 250 400

Table 18.6
Decision sight distances

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18.16 Traffic crash study
Crashes are rare events. A typical intersection experiences less than one crash for every
one million vehicles that travel through the intersection. Crashes occur because of various
factors including the driver, vehicle, roadway, and environment; the 3 E's. The primary
source of crash data is the local traffic law enforcement agencies. Local law enforcement
agencies are usually an excellent source for current conditions at a particular crash
location.

Crash data are used to help understand why crashes occur, to help identify high-crash
locations, to aid in the choice of safety programs or countermeasures, and to assist
evaluations of countermeasure effectiveness. The main purpose of crash analysis is to
improve safety by identifying crash patterns, mitigating crash severity, and reducing the
number of crashes by adopting suitable countermeasures. From a law enforcement
perspective the traffic enforcement agency want to identify those locations that require
focussed attention in terms of patrol and enforcement. (Handbook of Simplified Practice
for Traffic Studies - Iowa. 2002)

A crash analysis study includes six key steps:-

1) Identify the locations that are candidates for improvement or increased police
visibility;
2) Quantify the main crash trend(s) at a particular location;
3) Determine the source of the problem(s);
4) Evaluate types of improvements to address the crash problem(s);
5) Obtain an expert opinion about safety improvement(s);
6) Obtain funding to implement a safety improvement.

18.16.1 Identify candidate locations

The process of identifying the candidate locations must be approached with some caution.
It is the responsibility of experienced administrators to identify the intersections or road
sections that should be included in the study. Every local law enforcement agency must
develop its own system. The most elementary approach would be to select the top 20
percent of locations based on the number of crashes recorded over the previous 3 years.
This is not necessarily the best approach but it is better than having no system in place to
annually review crash patterns and to re-focus attention to the problem areas. This
approach therefore focuses on the number of crashes irrespective of any other criteria
such as the traffic volume or the seriousness of the crashes. Chapters 1 and 3 provide
information on the different techniques to identify those locations that have the highest
crash rates.

To calculate the crash rate for an intersection, the following data are needed: the number
of crashes at the intersection for the time period of the study (found using the computer
programs as described above), the number of years in the study, and the annual average
daily traffic (AADT) for each leg of the intersection. To develop a

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crash trend, it is recommended to collect three to five years of crash data. When using
AADT to calculate crash rates, use the following equation:-

∗ ∗ , ,
=
∑ ∗ ∗

Where
Ri = crash rate per million entering vehicles,
C = number of crashes, and
Y = number of years analysed.

For example, at the intersection of 4th Street and Main Street, a total of fifteen crashes
occurred in five years. The two-way AADT's for the legs of the intersection were 4,000,
4,000, 1,000, and 1,000. The sum of these AADT's equals 10,000 vehicles. The crash rate
per million entering vehicles is as follows:-

2 ∗ 15 ℎ ∗ 1,000,000
= = 1.64 ℎ ℎ
10,000 ℎ ∗5 ∗ 365

The calculation shows that there were 1.64 crashes for every million vehicles that entered
the intersection of 4th Street and Main Street during the given five year period. The
national average crash rate for this type of intersection is 0.8 crashes per million entering
vehicles. That indicates the crash rate at this intersection is approximately twice as high
as the national average and the intersection should be considered for further analysis. A
crash may be higher than the national average but not significantly different. It may be
difficult to find national crash rates for comparable locations in South Africa. In the
absence of such data it will still be advantageous for a law enforcement practitioner to
determine the crash rates for his jurisdiction and to prioritise these locations.

From theoretical point of view this rate is the most accepted as a measure (the approach)
of the accident risk. This rate is based on the concept, that there is a linear relationship
between the number of crashes and the traffic volume. The relationship between traffic
volume and crashes can be expressed as follows: (Elvik and Vaa, 2004):-

A = a.Qb

Where:-
A: number of accidents;
Q: measure of traffic volume;
a and b are constants.

If b = 1, 1 percent increase in traffic volume is associated with a 1 percent increase in the

number of crashes. For injury crashes b 0,911, which means that there is a nearly linear
relationship between the frequency of crashes and the traffic volume, at least within the
interval of the usual traffic volumes. Based on this relationship it can be said that
increased traffic volumes are basically connected with increasing crash numbers and vice
versa. (Project Development and Design Manual - 2008)

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18.16.2 Crash history
The crash history for a project should be developed and analysed to determine possible
causes and to select appropriate safety enhancements. Where practical, crashes should be
summarised by location, type, severity, contributing circumstances, environmental
conditions and time period. This will help identify high accident locations (HALs) and
may indicate some spot safety deficiencies. Depending on how crash information is filed,
it may be necessary to record the information first and then group all crashes occurring at
specific locations. This serves to identify HALs. Analysis of the types of crashes can
suggest appropriate corrective action. The use of computer spread sheet programs will
enhance the ability to evaluate this data. Limited crash data are common on rural two-
lane freeways with low to moderate traffic volumes. Data generated from a small
sampling can be misleading because they can be significantly influenced by small
variances. The limited amount of this type of data often makes traditional methods of
analysis difficult. Crash or fatality rates are calculated by a formula consisting of the
number of crashes or fatalities, the time over which the crashes or fatalities occurred, the
traffic volume, and the length of the segment. This implies using the formula indicated
above.

Crash analysis study procedures involve determining the significance of the crash history
and developing summaries of the crash characteristics. The project's crash rates and
summaries are used to detect abnormal crash trends or patterns and to distinguish between
correctable and non-correctable crashes. Analyses of these summaries are used to identify
possible safety deficiencies of the existing facility.

When summarising crash data for analysis purposes, the following criteria must be
adhered to:-

 Time period: Select a time period for the collection of the crash data (e.g., five
years). The time period chosen should contain reasonably current information on
traffic volumes, pavement condition and other site-related data. Past changes in
the character of the facility (e.g., physical changes, roadside development) are
accounted for when evaluating the crash activity.

 Direction of traffic: Examine crash data with respect to the direction the vehicles
were travelling.

 Location: Examine crash data with respect to location. Crashes occurring within
an intersection area should be separated from those occurring outside the area of
influence of the intersection. In addition, similar crash types occurring in differing
situations should be recorded separately. For example, left-turn crashes into a
driveway should not be included with left-turn crashes at an intersection. Collision
diagrams may be useful in the analysis.

 Project termini: Examine the number of crashes and the crash rates within the
project termini. A comparison of this data with national norms for similar facilities
should provide a reasonable indication of the relative safety of the existing
roadway.

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  Compare crash statistics: Summarise the crash data and compare it to typical
statistics on similar facilities. A specific crash type categorises patterns. The
identification of crash-type patterns may be used to suggest possible causes.
Consider the severity patterns to determine if particular roadway or roadside
features have contributed to the overall severity of the crashes that have occurred.

 Contributing circumstances: Summarise the contributing circumstances portion

of the crash report. This identifies possible crash causes noted by the investigating
law enforcement officer. Contributing circumstances are categorised by:-
o Human (driver) factors
o Vehicle related factors, and
o Environmental factors

The contributing circumstances information is used to verify; add or delete possible

causes developed by the crash summary by type procedure.

 Correctable versus non-correctable crashes: The contributing "circumstance"

data can be used to separate correctable and non-correctable crashes. In separating
the crashes by these classifications, careful consideration should be given to
ensure that the crashes are indeed non- correctable. Table 18.7 lists the
contributing circumstances found on most crash reports and indicate if they are
generally correctable or non-correctable through road improvements.

 Environmental conditions: Summarise crashes by environmental conditions.

This procedure identifies possible causes of safety deficiencies related to the
existing condition of the roadway environment at the time of the crash. Typical
classifications used in the analysis include lighting condition (i.e., daylight, dusk,
dawn, dark) and roadway surface condition (i.e., dry, wet, snowy, icy, unknown).
These summaries are compared to average or expected values for similar locations
or areas to determine whether the occurrence of a specific environmental
characteristic is greater or less than the expected value at the location. (Project
Development and Design Manual - 2008)

Many intersection or road sections that have similar features show a high frequency of
crashes. This means that the particular road environment precipitates inappropriate driver
responses or provides misleading stimuli to driver perception that creates confusion
and/or delayed reactions. To identify and examine these locations and to characterise the
safety deficiencies is a challenge for traffic law enforcement administrators and road
engineers. The mere appearance of an accumulation of crashes with similar characteristics
offers excellent guidance as to where to apply appropriate law enforcement interventions
and traffic engineering treatments that create self-explanatory roads and forgiving
roadsides. These are the most suitable way to increase the safety of all road users. The
availability of crash data offers a greater concentration of safety improvement
intervention options than does conducting a road safety inspection, where the
understanding of recent crash history is unnecessary.

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(Road Accident Investigation Guidelines for Road Engineers, PIARC. 2002) The
availability of road crash data is a prerequisite for each efficient road safety management
system. Identification and definition of the relevant problem together with knowledge of
the data and parameters describing this problem is essential for its successful solution.
Comprehensive, up-to-date, crash data is needed for recognition of the scope of road
safety problems and for raising public awareness. Reliable and relevant data enable the
identification of the contributory factors of the individual crashes, and an unveiling of the
background of the risk behaviour of the road users.

Driver-Related
Unsafe speed Sick
Failed to yield right-of way Fell asleep
Following too close Lost consciousness
Improper passing Driver inattention
Disregard traffic controls Distraction
Turning improperly Physical disability
Alcohol involvement Drug involvement
Vehicle-Related
Brakes defective Tow hitch defective
Headlights defective Overload or improper loaded
Other lighting defects Oversize load on vehicle
Steering failure Tire failure/inadequate
Environment-Related
Animal on roadway Holes/deep ruts/bump
Glare Road under construction/maintenance
View obstructed/limited Improperly marked vehicle(s)
Debris in roadway Fixed objects
Improper/nonworking traffic controls Slippery surface
Shoulders defective Water ponding
Roadside hazards

Table 18.7
Crash contributory factors

Data management offers the best way to explore the prevention of crashes, and ways to
implement measures to reduce crash severity. Crash data is a crucial element for any road
safety intervention. But it is not only the description of the crash circumstances that are
needed. Contributing factors like road and traffic characteristics, vehicle parameters, and
information about the people involved in the crash have to be registered as well. (Road
Accident Investigation Guidelines for Road Engineers, PIARC, 2002) Crash data is
derived from the standardised accident report forms that are used by traffic law
enforcement agencies and the South African Police Service.

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The important aspect regarding accident reporting is that it must be done with dedication
and attention to detail. If the accident report forms are not completed accurately it makes
analysis extremely difficult.

18.17 Collision diagrams

The creation and usage of collision diagrams is a very simple and efficient tool when
conducting road accident analysis. Collision diagrams show important road accident
patterns with graphic symbols displayed in (or next to) a traffic scheme. Collision
diagrams provide a broader understanding of the number of accidents and common
contributory factors at analysed locations, without supplying extensive text comment. If
the same or similar accident patterns are found with the help of collision diagrams, it is
then possible to identify the suitable countermeasures. Collision diagrams are also a very
illustrative tool for the comparison of the accident frequency before and after the
implementation of a particular road safety measure. The minimum length of the "before-
and-after" period considered in any 'before/after' analysis should be at least 3 years.

Generally it is regarded a responsibility of either engineers or law enforcement

practitioners who specialise in crash investigation or crash analysis to compile these
collision diagrams. Law enforcement officers who want to become specialists in crash
data analysis and remedial intervention will find that collision diagrams is an extremely
useful tool to pinpoint problems at high frequency accident locations. Without these
diagrams engineers will find it much more difficult to identify the root cause of crashes
at a specific location. The diagram allows the engineers and law enforcement
administrators to focus at the exact position where the majority of crashes have occurred.

Figure 18.8
Collision diagram - German example

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 Figure 18.9
Collision diagram of after study

Figure 18.10
Collision example - Czech example

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 Figure 18.11
Collision diagram of before and after study

18.17.1 Fundamentals of collision diagrams

Collision diagrams are usually drawn at a scale of 1: 200 (or 1: 500). The scheme should
contain all important local characteristics, especially those relevant to the movement and
manoeuvres of pedestrians and vehicles. If there were changes in the geometry, or traffic
organisation or management at the site during the investigated period, it is necessary to
display them as well. Symbols for road crashes are marked according to the type of
conflict, based on the Road Accident Typology System. The various schematic symbols
are reflected on the official accident report form. The shape of the arrow shows the actual
or intended direction of the road user's movement, which corresponds with the direction
of travel immediately before the crash. However, collision diagrams not only display
those road users who participate in the accident, but all of those who influence the road
crashes in any way. It is also suitable to indicate e.g:-

 A pedestrian, who hesitated before crossing the road and caused a rear-end
accident, yet remained uninjured;

 All the vehicles which participated in an overtaking manoeuvre that caused the
oncoming driver to swerve into a roadside ditch.

When displaying those indirect participants in collision diagrams, specific patterns and
features will gradually become clear at the analysed location. The fewer roads crashes
shown in the scheme; the more important is the supplemental information. The
movements of crash participants after the crash are usually unimportant, e.g. it is
unnecessary to mark a vehicle which began skidding after the collision and then struck a
parked vehicle on the other side of the road. The collision diagram would not be clear if
the whole accident event was marked in it.

The road crashes that contain the similar conflict situations are summarised into groups,
even though it is impossible to mark the crash exactly at the site it occurred.

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Collision diagrams should also contain the important road signs, street names, road
numbers, road destinations and local characteristics (buildings, vegetation, slopes,
embankment, traffic islands, trees, etc.). Road details (road and pavement borderline, bus
stops, refuge islands, etc.) should only be marked if they affected the course of the
movement of pedestrians or vehicles. Traffic guiding facilities are considered only when
they have direct relation to crashes. The participant who caused the road accident and was
identified by the police investigation may not be specifically marked in the diagram,
because legal aspects of road crashes are not essential for this analysis. However, the
following issues may be marked:-

 Whether the a crash participant was unaware of the need to give the right of way
or;
 Whether the crash participant failed to comply with a traffic signal.

It is recommended that a table or a list accompanying the collision diagrams containing

additional information on road crashes be made. To keep it clear, the road crashes should
be numbered chronologically, and these numbers should be displayed in the collision
diagrams, as well as on copies of the accident report. In this manner, it is later easier to
find additional information in a particular road accident record (police accident report,
special circumstances, etc.). Using the collision: diagrams may be an effective tool, not
only for single high accident location solutions (e.g. horizontal curves or junctions), but
also for road section analysis.

It is important for the analysis that collision diagrams are created for time durations
(usually at least three years), and contain all the road crashes that are available from the
statistics. In general, the longer time the period considered, the clearer is the accumulation
of the accident type patterns and the appearance of the factors contributing to the origin
of the road accidents. If the road geometry or other conditions of the road traffic changes
during the period considered in the analysis, these changes must be accounted for in the
diagrams. When selecting the suitable time period for the safety analysis, frequency of
road crash occurrence at the investigated site has to be taken into account, as well.
Collision diagrams can be created and successfully analysed for shorter periods than the
recommended three years where road crashes are available in greater frequencies, and
there is only a small variation in their types (prevailing crashes of one or two type groups).
(Road Accident Investigation Guidelines for Road Engineers, PIARC, 2002)

0000000

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 CHAPTER 19

INTERSECTION CONTROL

After completion of this unit you should be able to:-

 List the various functions of control at intersections.

 Describe the requirements of traffic control devices.
 Differentiate between the different functions of traffic control devices.
 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of control systems.
 Differentiate and select the most appropriate form of control.
 Discuss signalisation at intersections.
 Describe priority control at intersections.
 Describe channelization at intersections.
 Differentiate between pre- and post phase turning signals.
 Distinguish between pre-timed, semi-actuated and fully actuated traffic signals.
 Describe methods to improve safety at signalised intersections.

19.1 Introduction
Intersections basically define the area where two or more roads interact. In principle it is
a major conflict area for vehicular traffic, pedestrians and cyclists due to the fact that each
user group uses the intersecting area differently and there is the constant change in
direction between road users. The huge difference between the speed and mass of vehicles
compared to that of pedestrians and cyclists make the latter two groups extremely
vulnerable. The purpose of control at intersections is to manage movement at these
locations and to minimise the risk as far as possible. Intersections due the nature thereof
require from road user groups to make more rapid and more complicated decisions, hence
the increased risk of conflict.

Intersection is a common area (space) shared by two or more roads. This area is
designated for drivers to turn to different directions to reach their desired destinations. Its
main function is to guide vehicles to their respective directions. Traffic intersections are
complex locations on any road. This is because vehicles moving in different directions
want to occupy the same space at the same time. In addition, pedestrians also seek the
same space for crossing. Drivers have to make split second decisions at an intersection
by considering the route, intersection geometry, speed and direction of other vehicles etc.
A small error in judgment can cause severe crashes. It also causes delay depending on the
type, geometry, and type of control. Overall traffic flow depends on the performance of
intersections. It also affects the capacity of a road. Therefore, both from a crash
perspective and a capacity perspective, the study of intersections is very important for
traffic engineers especially in an urban environment. (www.civil.iitb.ac.in) The essence
of the intersection control is to resolve these conflicts at an intersection for the safe and
efficient movement of both vehicular traffic and other categories of road users.

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Two methods of intersection controls are: time sharing and space sharing. The type of
intersection control that has to be adopted depends on the traffic volume, road geometry,
cost involved, importance of the road etc. (www.civil.iitb.ac.in)

Traffic law enforcement officers, although not directly involved with the planning, design
and implementation of traffic control devices, must have an understanding of the
principles guiding intersection control. They are also responsible to deal with the
consequences of intersection control, such as prosecuting offending road users, guiding
them and educating the public, etc.

Traffic control devices can be regarded as all road signals, signs and road markings
intended to regulate, warn guide and inform road users to safely negotiate through an
intersection. In South Africa, the warrants, implementation and maintenance of traffic
control devices is regulated by the prescriptions of the Road Traffic Act and the South
African Road Traffic Signs Manual.

The following concepts are important in the study of traffic control devices:-

 The functions of traffic control devices;

 The requirements for traffic control devices;
 The complications for not following the requirements.

19.2 The functions of traffic control devices

The first function of traffic control devices is to control vehicular traffic by indicating and
restricting the right of way. It is self-explanatory that traffic control devices do not always
provide a right of way; they also restrict other traffic when one stream is given a right to
proceed. Remember that traffic control devices include a range of measures, not only
traffic signals (robots) often associated with the term control devices. Stop signs and lane
markings for instance also fall into the category of traffic control devices.

The second function of traffic control devices is to warn road users of any road hazards.
Think of traffic signs that warn road users about a range of issues e.g. to slow down, to
engage lower gears at a steep downhill, sharp curves ahead, etc. the purpose of these
control devices is to make the road user aware of anything extraordinary in the road ahead
in order for that road user to anticipate such a condition. The amber signals of a traffic
signal system is intended to warn the driver that the signal is about to change to red and
that the driver must select an appropriate reaction.

The third function is to indicate direction, distance, etc to road users. Here lane markings
is an example as they indicate to a driver to follow a specific direction, they provide an
indication of changing road conditions ahead e.g. a signal at an intersection where the
driver can make a turn whilst the signal flashes, etc.

The fourth function relates to the fact that traffic control devices can be used to provide
additional information to road users. Information signs such as recommended speed,
directional signs indication a destination etc. fall into this category. The four functions
are thus - to control, to warn, to indicate and to inform

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 Figure 19.1
Traffic control device - but abused for advertising purposes

19.2 The requirements for traffic control devices

Traffic control devices must comply with certain requirements to be effective and to
achieve their aims. They include the following:-
 Unison;
 Accuracy;
 Conformity;
 Uniformity;
 Continuity.

19.2.1 Unison
The word unison means agreement, harmony or unity. There are national legislation,
policies and procedures that govern the use of traffic control devices. It cannot be left to
every local authority or road authority to use traffic control devices in a manner that suits
them instead of following the prescribed guidelines. Consider the chaos that will result if
some authorities use signs and signal systems in a manner different to other authorities.
Such a situation will result in chaos for road users who will not know how to react to the
different situations that confront them. The prescribed rules of unison are so strict that
those authorities that deviate from the prescribed guidelines and rules that govern their
application can be held liable for damages if it results in a crash. Unison in the application
of traffic control devices therefore provides a great measure of certainty to road users
when they find them on our road network. A traffic signal in a small rural town will
operate in the same manner as in big metropolitan areas.

19.2.2 Accuracy
Traffic control devices must accurately reflect on the road conditions in order to be
effective. There must be no confusion in the minds of motorists as to their exact
instruction, warning or meaning. All traffic control devices are prescribed in legislation
and policies and authorities must strictly abide by these prescriptions. For instance the
authority cannot display a speed sign of 60 km/h and prosecute for 50 km/h because this
is what they actually intended.

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A yield sign cannot be used at an intersection if road users cannot see approaching traffic
at a certain distance that give them sufficient time to react. The amber signal at a
signalised intersection must have a minimum time to allow road users to select a safe
response and to implement it safely.

19.2.3 Conformity
Conformity also implies consistency. All traffic control devices must conform to the exact
specifications contained in the legislation and guidelines (manuals) governing their use
by authorities. In other words a local authority cannot request stop signs in their
procurement specifications that do not comply with the minimum width, height, etc. Signs
cannot be made smaller than the prescribed dimension in order to save costs. They must
be made of materials that comply with reflectivity, visibility, etc. It cannot be painted
with white and red paint in order to save on costs. Traffic signals must have a minimum
strength of illumination; they must be displayed at a specific height and in a specific
manner (position) in order to comply with the manual guidelines. If this is not the case
traffic law enforcement officers will not be able to successfully prosecute road users that
do not comply with the control devices.

19.2.4 Uniformity
Uniformity can also be regarded as standardisation. It is also important that traffic control
devices be displayed in a uniform manner. Similar situations require similar responses in
terms of control devices. There are specific warrants for the use of say traffic signals.
Although a traffic signal system can hypothetically be installed at any intersection, it is
not best practice as this may precipitate wastage of resources. A certain procedure and a
number of investigations have to be concluded before specific measures are introduced.
Specific signs must be used for specific road conditions. This allows for certainty in the
minds of road users as to manner in which to react to the traffic devices.

19.2.5 Continuity
Continuity also implies a "connection." In other words there must be some connection
between the various traffic control devices that are on the road. For instance, if there is
danger ahead due to the one or other physical issue, the danger signs and speed limits
must have a connection with each other. A sign that says - danger ahead must be followed
up with other signs indicating the type of danger as well as the recommended or
prescribed maximum speed. Signs must read like known story. The one sign must follow
on the other in order to be effective. There must not be any confusion about the messages
that the signs want to "tell"

19.3 The objectives of intersection control

Control at intersections can take different forms as was explained above. It does not only
mean traffic signal control. As a matter of fact there are more intersections with other
forms of control than those intersections that are controlled by traffic signals. Some
intersections are so-called uncontrolled intersections as they have no formal control
measures such as yield signs, stop signs or traffic signals. In these instances road users
are tempted to use their discretion in negotiating the intersection. Intersections control
has three main objectives i.e:-

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19.3.1 Minimising delays and stops
The purpose of intersection control is not to stop and delay traffic unnecessarily. The
purpose is to create safety in the intersection and in order to do so, road users have to
slow down and stop if necessary. The total capacity of an intersection is lower than the
sum of the capacities of the approaches. This basically means that an intersection creates
a situation where the total road capacity of the roads leading up to the intersection is larger
than the capacity of that intersection itself. This explains the fact that there is an increase
in the risk of crashes within an intersection. Turning movements create conflict and has
a slowing effect on vehicular traffic. Intersections also create congestion when the traffic
volumes approaching the intersection exceed the capacity of that intersection to manage
the volumes. The intersection is thus a restrictive element in the road network and controls
at intersections are not implemented to create delays but to create safe operating
conditions. The use of stop signs to calm vehicular speeds is therefore misplaced.
Intersection controls are not intended to create delays (the slowing of vehicular traffic)
but to create safe operating conditions.

19.3.2 Reduce crash risks

A normal intersection with four approaches has at least 32 potential conflict points due to
turning movements. If the presence of pedestrians is also taken into consideration these
potential conflict points increase even further. Intersection controls are therefore intended
to minimise the risk of crashes. The correct application of control measures has a major
impact to mitigate the potential of crashes. When a traffic signal system is out of order
crash risks increase exponentially. This is due to the fact that road users have to make
complicated decisions in split seconds. To see this in practice, just observe how drivers
and pedestrians react at an intersection where the signals are out of order. If however,
intersection controls are applied incorrectly, they may increase crash risks. Traffic signals
and 4-way stop controls should only be considered when the conditions present at the
intersection meet with the minimum criteria as specified in the road traffic manuals. The
incorrect application of intersection controls has the potential to increase crash risks
instead of minimising them. Traffic signals for instance can increase the potential for rear-
end crashes due to the fact that there is an increase in the number of stops in the main
stream of traffic.

19.3.3 Protection of main street traffic

The function (purpose) of a specific street will determine the type of intersection control
used. Main arterial roads will probably qualify for traffic signalisation whereas local roads
will qualify for priority controls such as stop signs, yield signs and traffic circles. The
main streets have to be protected in terms of traffic flow and crash risks. Lower order
roads that intersect with the main street will be controlled in such a manner that they do
not unnecessarily impact negatively with the traffic on the main street, hence the phase
that the main street must be protected. The function of the main street is to facilitate traffic
flow at the highest possible level of safety.

19.4 Priority control measures

Priority control at intersections merely imply that the measures implemented give priority
to a specific stream of traffic i.e. the vehicles that are controlled give way to traffic that
enjoys priority. Vehicles that are "controlled" can only enter or pass through an
intersection using gaps in the opposing stream of traffic.

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A stop sign requires the vehicle to come to a complete stop before an attempt is made to
enter the intersection whereas a yield sign only requires the driver to slow down to a speed
that will allow safe access into the intersection. A yield sign can only be used for
intersection control if there is adequate sight distance to allow the driver to enter the
intersection safely. A sight distance study must be conducted if necessary to ascertain the
feasibility of a yield sign instead of a stop sign. Four-way stop signs are very popular in
South Africa and are often used in residential suburbs as a form of speed calming. This is
an inappropriate use of stop signs as it is not the intended or prescribed use of this form
of intersection control to calm speed. Four-way stop control at intersections leads to
unnecessary costs due to the fact that every vehicle approaching the intersection has to
stop. Consider the fuel wastage e.g. every vehicle that is forced to stop at the intersection
365 days a year multiplied by the average fuel consumption of a vehicle. There are
hundreds of thousands of unnecessary stop signs in the country with the result that
millions of litres of fuel are wasted per annum. They are also used as control measures at
intersections when conditions do not warrant the implementation of traffic signals.
Although four-way stop control is not supposed to be used to calm speed, they do contain
an element of safety as it forces traffic from all approaches to reduce speed and to stop
prior to entering the intersection. The problem with the unwarranted use of four-way stop
signs is that it may lead to disrespect for these controls. Road users may develop a
perception that they are merely there as a nicety to control speed whereas they are in fact
intended to protect traffic in the main stream and to control access from a secondary street
as a safety measure. Another form of priority control at intersections is the traffic circle.
Large traffic circles are effective forms of priority control. They provide equal access to
vehicles entering from all approaches without unduly affecting the traffic on the main
street. Traffic circles also facilitate right turning movements safer than signal and sign
control. One of the problems of traffic circles is that they require a large area which may
not always be possible, especially in well (older) established areas. Mini circles on the
other hand are mainly used to calm speed in residential suburbs. They are ineffective in
main arterial roads.

19.5 Traffic signal control

Traffic signals are a set of electrical signals displayed in a prescribed manner to control
traffic at intersections. They are widely used internationally to regulate traffic and can be
very effective subject thereto that they are warranted and that the signal settings are
optimised. Traffic law enforcement practitioners must have an understanding of the traffic
signal operation as they are in an ideal situation to monitor the performance of traffic
control at intersections. It must never be assumed that every traffic signal operates at
maximum efficiency. They do not! If it is suspected that the signal settings do not operate
optimally they have to request that the electrical or civil engineers inspect the system.
New traffic volume counts may have to be conducted to re-establish a better distribution
of cycle times to cater for the main stream of traffic. Traffic actuated signals often become
ineffective due to problems with the detectors under the road surface. When this happens
the signal operates on a normal cycle with the effect that too much time is allowed to the
secondary approaches to the intersection. This creates frustration and also fuel wastage!

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19.5.1 Advantages of traffic signals
Traffic signals have the following advantages:-

 They interrupt traffic on the main street to allow vehicular traffic and pedestrians
from a secondary street to cross in relative safety;
 They reduce delays and unnecessary stops to the main street, but only when the
vehicular volumes from the secondary approaches are high. If the volume from
the secondary street is low it causes unnecessary delays to traffic in the main
street;
 They can be set to effectively control the volume of traffic that enters the main
street;
 They can reduce the risk of certain types of crashes but may on the other hand
increase the risk of other categories of crashes e.g. rear-end crashes;
 Signals may provide for the orderly movement of traffic by assigning right-of-
way to conflicting movements of traffic;
 Signals may increase the traffic-handling capacity of an ersection by permitting
conflicting streams of traffic to share the same intersection;
 Signals may reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents, especially right-
angle (broadside) collisions;
 Signals may provide for continuous movement and progression of traffic through
coordination with surrounding traffic signals;
 Signals may interrupt heavy traffic to allow both vehicular and pedestrian traffic
to cross.

19.5.2 Disadvantages of traffic signals Traffic signals, especially when they have been
implemented not complying with the minimum warrants, have specific disadvantages
such as the following:-

 They require a high degree of expertise to set them optimally;

 They create unnecessary delays and stops especially when implemented without
complying to minimum warrants, when they operate defectively or when they are
out of order;
 They often precipitate serious crashes i.e. when road users ignore the instructions
that they convey. (Red light running) Traffic law enforcement officers must
enforce traffic light signal instructions very strictly!
 They cause a lot of fuel wastage if they are not set correctly;
 Signals may increase delay - both overall intersection delay and/or specific
movement delay;
 Signals may encourage the use of alternate and/or less adequate routes by drivers
wishing to avoid the signal;

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  Signals may encourage increased volumes of traffic on the minor street by drivers
wishing to use the signal;
 Signals may encourage disobedience and disregard of traffic control devices.
(During periods of lesser volume on the main street, drivers on the minor street
may have sufficient gaps to cross and/or enter traffic, but be prohibited from doing
so by the signal.);
 Signals may cause an increase in the frequency of certain types of accidents,
especially rear-end collision.

It is self-explanatory that the erection of traffic signals is preceded by a proper traffic

study. Many citizens view traffic signals as a cure-all for traffic problems. This is surely
not the case. The erection of unwarranted signals (even warranted signals) creates new
problems. Traffic entering a signalised intersection assumes that drivers from the side
street will comply with the signals. Failure to do so may result in serious crashes often
fatal. Traffic law enforcement agencies have to take a serious stance against non-
compliance (traffic offences) at signalised intersections. Drivers have to realise that any
failure to comply with the prescriptions of traffic signals will result in serious
repercussions. More emphasis must be placed on traffic signal violations than speed
enforcement at sites that do not warrant dedicated enforcement due to a low risk factor.
Traffic signals must be maintained meticulously and any malfunctioning must be attended
to as a matter of urgency. Apart from the fact that faulty traffic signals may cause serious
crash risks, they are also a major cause of congestion during peak hour traffic. Traffic
signals that are not functioning must be reported and followed up by law enforcement
agencies. They have to assume responsibility for the safety of road users at these localities
until such time that the signals are functioning properly again. Metropolitan police
officers have a tendency to ignore defective traffic signals. Their often nonchalant attitude
towards road safety issues is serious and precipitates negative attitudes towards their
agencies by road users.

Road traffic legislation prescribes minimum requirements that must be complied with
insofar as the erection of traffic signal systems is concerned. They may not be installed at
intersections unless the system was designed by a suitably qualified electro-technical
engineer. The final plans for the system must also be signed off by a registered civil
engineer with the requisite training in the filed of intersection design. This implies that
new installations that do not comply with this requirement may in fact be declared invalid
and prosecutions may be in jeopardy.

19.5.3 Signal phasing

Phasing represents the fundamental method by which a traffic signal accommodates the
various users at an intersection in a safe and efficient manner. A phase is defined as a
controller timing unit associated with the control of one or more movements. Each phase
at an intersection has a set of timing, possibly containing vehicle and pedestrian timing.
A phase may control both a through movement and a right turn - Federal Highway
movement on an approach. (Traffic Signal Timing Manual Administration. 2008)

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Another definition refers to the signal phase as the right-of-way, yellow change, and red
clearance intervals in a cycle that are assigned to an independent traffic movement or
combination of traffic movements.

A simple example of the concept of movements is the intersection of one-way streets

shown in Figure 19.2. In this example, the intersection is operated by two phases (2 and
4) and pedestrians are accommodated as concurrent movements to the traffic. Phase 2
will include a through and a right turn movement, while phase 4 will have a through and
a left turn movement (appropriate turning movements are omitted from the diagram for
simplicity). The right turn on phase 2 must yield to pedestrian traffic crossing the west
leg of the intersection.

Phasing Diagram Movement diagram

Figure 19.2

The following list defines some of the terms used to describe vehicle and pedestrian
phasing:-
 A vehicular phase is defined as a phase that is allocated to one or more vehicular
traffic movements, as timed by the controller unit;
 A pedestrian phase is defined as a traffic phase allocated to pedestrian traffic that
may provide a pedestrian indication either concurrent with one or more vehicular
phases, or separate from all vehicular phases;
 A traffic phase is defined as the green, change, and clearance intervals in a cycle
assigned to specified movement(s) of traffic;
 A cycle is defined as the total time to complete one sequence of signalization for
all movements at an intersection. In an actuated controller unit, the cycle is a
complete sequence of all signal indications.

Many guidelines indicate that a right-turn phase can be justified based on consideration
of several factors that ultimately tie back to the operational or safety benefits derived.
These factors include:-

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  Left-turn and opposing through volumes;
 Number of opposing through lanes;
 Cycle length;
 Speed of opposing traffic;
 Sight distance;
 Crash history. etc.

Right turn movements constitute the single biggest threat to road safety within the
confined space of a signalised intersection. The most serious crashes that occur at
signalised intersections as a result of vehicles that turns right in the face on oncoming
traffic whilst it is unsafe to do so. Right turn movements are complicate due to the fact
that drivers that wish to turn right often do so from a stationary position whilst the traffic
from the opposing direction travels at different speeds. It is often very difficult for drivers
in the intersection waiting to turn right to correctly judge the speed of oncoming vehicles
and to calculate the time required to accelerate from the stationary position and complete
a right turn without affecting the safety of the oncoming vehicle. Right turn movements
are further compounded by other distracters such as the presence of pedestrians in the
intersection, the number of traffic lanes to cross, restricted sight distance, inclement
weather, the blinding effect of headlamps at night In order to minimise the crash risks
associated with right turn movements at intersections is to provide exclusive right turn
phases. This can be achieved with the provision of exclusive pre-green (leading green) or
post-green (lagging green) phases. Exclusive right turn phases are indicated with flashing
arrows towards the traffic stream that has the right to proceed whilst te opposing traffic
is stopped from proceeding through the intersection. Both the pre- and post-green phases
have specific advantages and disadvantages. This will be discussed hereafter. An
important point to remember is that exclusive right turn phases work best when an
exclusive right turn lane has been provided for the traffic that wants to perform this
turning manoeuvre. Where an exclusive right turn phase is provided without such an
exclusive right turn lane, it often happens that a vehicle stands at the front of the queue
with the intention to travel straight. These vehicles then effectively annihilate the benefits
of the exclusive right turn phase. This problem can be mitigated by allowing all the
vehicles approaching from one direction the opportunity to proceed whilst the traffic from
the opposing direction is prohibited from moving into the intersection. The practice by
some authorities to provide exclusive right turns in both directions without exclusive right
turn lanes must be criticised.

19.5.4 Exclusive right turn phasing

As was indicated above, the pre-green or leading green turning phase allows vehicles to
turn right before the traffic from the opposite direction is allowed to enter the intersection.
"Pre" refers to the term "before or prior to." Without this turning phase the vehicles that
intend to turn right would have to wait until they get a gap in the traffic stream from the
opposite direction or would have to remain stationary until a post-green turning phase
allows them the opportunity to turn right. One of the problems with a pre-green turning
phase is that it may interfere with pedestrians that want to cross the intersection when the
signals turn green for the traffic moving in the same direction as they.

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A pre-green turning phase often has the effect that pedestrians have to wait until the
turning phase is terminated before they enter the intersection.

Post-green or lagging green turning phases corresponds largely to the normal manner in
which traffic turns right at intersections e.g. vehicles that want to turn right must wait for
a gap in the traffic from the opposite direction before they commence with the turning
movement. At intersections without any exclusive right turn phase, vehicles often have
to wait until the end of the cycle, before one or two vehicles get the opportunity to turn
before the traffic in the cross street get a green phase. The post-green phase gives en
exclusive right to right turning traffic at the end of the green cycle, i.e. just before the
signals display a red phase.

Drivers that are familiar with the signal phases at a specific intersection often tend to
accelerate fast when a pre-green turning phase commences. This may constitute danger
to other road users such as pedestrians. In the case of post-green turning phases, drivers
often wait unnecessarily long before they commence with a turning movement as they
display a wait-and-see attitude. They do not always know if traffic from the opposing
direction will stop when they see the right turn signal flashing to permit them to
commence with the turning movement. This practise often wastes valuable time at
intersections where conditions at the intersection become saturated. This is one of the
disadvantages of a post-green turning phase. In the case of the pre- green phase drivers
tend to keep on turning right when the phase terminates and thus constitutes a danger to
vehicles that enter the intersection from the opposite direction. It is in view of the above
important that traffic law enforcement officers strictly enforce the prescriptions of road
traffic signs and signals at intersections. There are a number of issues that require
dedicated law enforcement focus. Unfortunately many officers do not understand the
implications of these prescriptions with the result that offenders get away with serious
moving violations.

19.6 Modes of traffic signal operation

Traffic signals operate in either pre-timed or actuated mode or some combination of the
two. Pre-timed control consists of a series of intervals that are fixed in duration.
Collectively, the preset green, yellow, and red intervals result in a deterministic sequence
and fixed cycle length for the intersection. In contrast to pre-timed control, actuated
control consists of intervals that are called and extended in response to vehicle detectors.
Detection is used to provide information about traffic demand to the controller. The
duration of each phase is determined by detector input and corresponding controller
parameters. Actuated control can be characterised as fully- actuated or semi-actuated,
depending on the number of traffic movements that are detected. Table 19-1 summarises
the general attributes of each mode of operation to aid in the determination of the most
appropriate type of traffic signal control for an intersection. The attributes of the various
modes of operation are discussed in additional detail in the following subsections. (Traffic
Signal Timing Manual Federal Highway Administration. 2008)

19.6.1 Pre-timed (fixed time) control

The description of this type of controller clearly depicts its operation i.e. the phases are
fixed in advance and do not respond to traffic situations such as congestion, etc.

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the majority of signal systems in South Africa operate as pre-timed installations. The
reason for this is the fact that it is the cheapest form of signal controller and do not require
continuous advanced maintenance.

Pre-timed control is ideally suited to closely spaced intersections where traffic volumes
and patterns are consistent on a daily or day-of-week basis. Such conditions are often
found in business districts. They are also better suited to intersections where three or
fewer phases are needed. Pre-timed control has several advantages. For example, it can
be used to provide efficient coordination with adjacent pre-timed signals, since both the
start and end of green are predictable. Also, it does not require detectors, thus making its
operation immune to problems associated with detector failure. Finally, it requires a
minimum amount of training to set up and maintain. On the other hand, pre-timed control
cannot compensate for unplanned fluctuations in traffic flows, and it tends to be
inefficient at isolated intersections were traffic arrivals are random.

Pre-timed Actuated
Type of
Isolated Coordinated Semi-Actuated Fully Actuated Coordinated
Operation
Fixed Cycle Yes Yes No No No
Length

Conditions Where Where traffic Where defaulting Where detection is Arterial where
Where detection is is consistent, to one movement provided on all traffic is heavy
Applicable not available closely spaced is desirable, approaches, and adjacent
intersections, major road is isolated locations intersections are
and where posted <40 mph where posted nearby
cross street is and cross road speed is >40 mph
consistent carries light
traffic demand
Example Work zones Central Highway Locations without Suburban arterial
Application business operations nearby signals,
districts, rural, high speed
interchanges locations;
intersection of two
arterials

Key Benefit Temporary Predictable Lower cost for Responsive to Lower arterial
application operations, highway changing traffic delay, potential
keeps signals lowest cost of maintenance patterns, efficient reduction in delay
operational equipment and allocation of green for the system,
maintenance time, reduced depending on the
delay and settings
improved safety
Table 19.3

19.6.2 Semi-actuated control

Semi-actuated control uses detection only for the minor movements at an intersection.
The phases associated with the major-road through movements are operated as "non-
actuated." That is, these phases are not provided detection information. In this type of
operation, the controller is programmed to dwell in the non-actuated phase and, thereby,
sustain a green indication for the highest flow movements (normally the major street
through movement). Minor movement phases are serviced after a call for their service is
received by means of an approaching vehicle.. Semi-actuated control is most suitable for
application at intersections that are part of a coordinated arterial street system. Semi-
actuated control may also be suitable for isolated intersections with a low-speed major
road and lighter crossroad volume.

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Semi-actuated control has several advantages. Its primary advantage is that it can be used
effectively in a coordinated signal system. Also, relative to pre-timed control, it reduces
the delay incurred by the major-road through movements (i.e., the movements associated
with the non-actuated phases) during periods of light traffic. Finally, it does not require
detectors for the major-road through movement phases and hence, its operation is not
compromised by the failure of these detectors.

The major disadvantage of semi-actuated operation is that continuous demand on the

phases associated with one or more minor movements can cause excessive delay to the
major road through movements if the maximum green and passage time parameters are
not appropriately set. Another drawback is that detectors must be used on the minor
approaches, thus requiring installation and ongoing maintenance. Semi- actuated
operation also requires more training than that needed for pre-timed control. One major
disadvantage of semi-actuated control is that the systems often do not cater for cyclists.
The detector loops installed under the road surface often loses its sensitivity with the
result that a vehicle such as a bicycle does not activate the traffic signals from the
secondary approach to the intersection. These systems are very popular at isolated
intersections, often at schools where demand from a secondary street is limited to the
times that the school opens and closes. These systems must therefore have a pushbutton
facility for pedestrians.

19.6.3 Fully actuated control

Fully-actuated control refers to intersections for which all phases are actuated and hence,
it requires detection for all traffic movements. Fully-actuated control is ideally suited to
isolated intersections where the traffic demands and patterns vary widely during the
course of the day. Most modern controllers in coordinated signal systems can be
programmed to operate in a fully-actuated mode during low-volume periods where the
system is operating in a "free" (or non-coordinated) mode. Fully-actuated control can also
improve performance at intersections with lower volumes that are located at the boundary
of a coordinated system and do not impact progression of the system. Fully-actuated
control has also been used at the intersection of two arterials to optimise green time
allocation in a critical intersection control method. There are several advantages of fully-
actuated control. First, it reduces delay relative to pre- timed control by being highly
responsive to traffic demand and to changes in traffic pattern. In addition, detection
information allows the cycle time to be efficiently allocated on a cycle-by-cycle basis.
Finally, it allows phases to be skipped if there is no demand for service, thereby allowing
the controller to reallocate the unused time to a subsequent phase. The major disadvantage
of fully-actuated control is that its cost (initial and maintenance) is higher than that of
other control types due to the amount of detection required. It may also result in higher
percentage of vehicles stopping because green time is not held for upstream platoons.
(Traffic Signal Timing Manual Federal Highway Administration. 2008) The detector
loops require constant monitoring. This is one of the responsibilities of traffic law
enforcement officers to monitor all traffic control signals and to report them should they
fail to operate optimally. There constant presence on the road network ensures that they
are in the best position to monitor signals phase operation. There is nothing more
frustrating for road users if they are forced to stop at a defective traffic signal that does
not respond and the driver then has to elect to proceed through a red phase with serious
consequences.

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Some of the fully activated systems operate as pre-timed systems due to the fact that the
detectors get damaged and fail to respond to demand. When this happens, the system is
often in "emergency or temporary mode" and becomes less effective than a properly set
pre-timed system.

19.7 Phase intervals

An interval is defined as "a period of time during which signal indications (traffic lights)
do not change." Various parameters control the length of an interval depending on the
interval type. For example, a pedestrian walk interval (the time period during which the
Walking Person signal indication is displayed) is generally controlled by the single user-
defined setting for the walk parameter. The vehicular green interval, on the other hand, is
generally controlled by multiple parameters, including minimum green, maximum green,
and passage time. This section describes guidelines for setting basic parameters that
determine the duration of each interval associated with a signal phase. These intervals
include:
 Vehicular green interval;
 Vehicle change and clearance intervals;
 Pedestrian intervals.

19.7.1 Green interval for vehicular traffic

The vehicular green interval is the time dedicated to serving vehicular traffic with a green
indication. This interval is defined primarily by the minimum and maximum green
parameters in the case of an isolated intersection. At an actuated controller, other
parameters (e.g., passage time) also determine the length of this interval. It is also possible
that the duration of the vehicle green interval may be defined by the length of the
associated pedestrian intervals.

The minimum green parameter represents the least amount of time that a green signal
indication will be displayed for a specific direction of movement. Minimum green is used
to allow drivers to react to the start of the green interval and meet driver expectancy. Its
duration may also be based on considerations of queue length or pedestrian timing in the
absence of pedestrian call buttons and/or indications. A minimum green that is too long
may result in wasted time at the intersection; one that is too short may violate driver
expectation or (in some cases) pedestrian safety. Calls placed on the active phase during
the minimum green have no bearing on the duration of the green interval as the interval
will time at least as long as the minimum green timer. Lin conducted extensive simulation
analysis of fully-actuated controlled intersections to determine the effect of minimum
green intervals on delay. Through these simulations, he found that delay was minimal
when the minimum green interval was less than 4 seconds. Delay for the intersection
under the scenarios studied tended to increase slightly as the minimum green interval
increased from 4 to 8 seconds. (Traffic Signal Timing Manual - Federal Highway
Administration. 2008)

19.7.2 Minimum green for pedestrian crossing time

The minimum green duration must satisfy pedestrian crossing needs for through phases
that are not associated with a pedestrian push button but have a pedestrian

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demand. Under these conditions, the minimum green needed to satisfy pedestrian
considerations must be computed.

19.7.3 Maximum green

The maximum green parameter represents the maximum amount of time that a green
signal indication can be displayed in the presence of conflicting demand. Maximum green
is used to limit the delay to any other movement at the intersection and to keep the cycle
length to a maximum amount. It also guards against long green times due to continuous
demand or broken detectors. Ideally, the maximum green will not be reached because the
detection system will find a gap to end the phase, but if there are continuous calls for
service and a call on one or more conflicting phases, the maximum green parameter will
eventually terminate the phase. A maximum green that is too long may result in wasted
time at the intersection. If its value is too short, then the phase capacity may be inadequate
for the traffic demand, and some vehicles will remain un-served at the end of the green
interval. Too long green intervals may also precipitate user ignorance. Drivers that have
to wait for inordinate lengths of time will be tempted to ignore the red signals and proceed
through the intersection on red when they perceive it to be safe. therefore important that
traffic law enforcement officers become sensitised to road user patterns and behaviour.
Drivers that ignore red signals may provide information to the officer that should be
investigated. Long green signals at isolated intersections during off-peak hours are
particularly vulnerable to road user resistance.

19.7.4 Change and clearance intervals

The intent of the vehicle phase change and clearance intervals is to provide a safe
transition between two conflicting phases. It consists of a yellow change interval and,
optionally, a red clearance interval. The intent of the yellow change interval is to warn
drivers of the impending change in right-of-way assignment. The red clearance interval
is used when there is some benefit to providing additional time before conflicting
movements receive a green indication. South African drivers often abuse the all-red
interval especially taxi drivers. They know the all-red interval is present but instead of
complying with the red signals they proceed into the intersection before the signals
display green. Entering an intersection just before the signals display green is an offence
and should attract the intervention of the law enforcement authorities.

The duration of the yellow change interval is typically based upon driver perception-
reaction time, plus the distance needed to safely stop or to travel safely through the
intersection. Due to the varying interpretations of the yellow change use (length), it is
encouraged that traffic engineers refer to the national policies/directives for guidance in
determining the length of the yellow change time

19.7.5 Red clearance times (all-red interval)

The red clearance interval, referred to in some publications as an all-red interval, is an
interval at the end of the yellow change interval during which the phase has a red- signal
display before the display of green for the following phase. The purpose of this interval
is to allow time for vehicles that entered the intersection during the yellow- change
interval to clear the intersection prior to the next phase. Note that the use of the "all-red"
nomenclature is generally incorrect, as the red clearance interval only applies to a single
phase, not to all phases.

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The use of a red clearance interval is optional, and there is no consensus on its application
or duration. Recent research has indicated that the use of a red clearance interval showed
some benefit to the reduction of red-light-running violations. In these studies, there was
a significant reduction in right-angle crashes after implementing a red clearance interval.
A disadvantage of using the red clearance interval is that there is a reduction in available
green time for other phases. (Traffic Signal Timing Manual - Federal Highway
Administration. 2008)

It recommends that the interval durations shall be predetermined based on individual

intersection conditions, such as approach speed and intersection width.

19.7.5 Pedestrian timing intervals

The pedestrian phase consists of three intervals: walk; pedestrian clearance, commonly
referred to as flashing don't walk; and solid don't walk. The walk interval typically begins
at the start of the green interval and is used to allow pedestrians to react to the change to
walk at the start of the phase and move into the crosswalk. This interval corresponds to
the (WALKING PERSON - GREEN WALKING PERSON) green indication on the
pedestrian signal. The pedestrian clearance interval follows the walk interval and informs
pedestrians the phase is ending. During this interval, the (RED PERSON RED
STANDING PERSON) red indication flashes on the pedestrian signal. The solid don't
walk interval follows the pedestrian clearance interval and is indicated by a solid (RED
STANDING PERSON) indication. This interval is an indication to the pedestrian that
they should have cleared the crosswalk and opposing vehicle movements could begin.
The solid don't walk time is not a programmable parameter in the controller. The duration
of the solid don't walk interval is simply the length of the cycle minus the walk and
pedestrian clearance intervals.

The walk interval should provide pedestrians adequate time to perceive the WALK
indication and depart the curb before the pedestrian clearance interval begins. It should
be long enough to allow a pedestrian that has pushed the pedestrian push button to enter
the crosswalk. In many cases, the pedestrian phase will be set to rest in the walk interval
to maximise the walk display during a vehicle green. Some controllers have a mechanism
to specify that the walk interval begins before, or even after, the onset of the green
interval. The walk interval may be extended in some controllers during coordination. In
South Africa, the majority of drivers ignore the indications of pedestrian signals and the
latter often have to take evasive action to escape injury. It is an offence in terms of the
National Road Traffic Act for a driver to fail to give way to pedestrians that enter an
intersection, irrespective whether there are separate pedestrian signals or no pedestrian
signals at all. This should also attract strict law enforcement action as it creates a false
perception that vehicle drivers have an absolute right on the roadway. Pedestrian activity
at signalised intersections should receive priority. Keep in mind that almost 50 percent of
all road fatalities in South Africa are pedestrian related. See crash data in Chapter 1. It is
very doubtful that the law enforcement agencies involved in traffic enforcement will
focus any attention towards drivers who fail to give way to pedestrians at signalised
intersections. This apparent neglect to enforce the prescriptions related to pedestrian
safety has been continuing for decades with the effect that many road users now accept
the false view that vehicles get preference at signalised intersections although legislation
prescribes to the contrary.

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19.7.6 Walk intervals
The walk interval should provide pedestrians adequate time to observe the 'WALK'
indication and depart the curb before the pedestrian clearance interval begins. It should
be long enough to allow a pedestrian that has pushed the pedestrian push button to enter
the crosswalk. In many cases, the pedestrian phase will be set to rest in the walk interval
to maximise the walk display during a vehicle green. Some controllers have a mechanism
to specify that the walk interval begins before, or even after, the onset of the green
interval. The walk interval may be extended in some controllers during coordination. A
pedestrian recall mode, as discussed in a later section, can be used to eliminate the need
for a pedestrian to push buttons and ensures that the pedestrian phase is presented each
cycle. The length of the walk interval is usually established in national policy directives.
Minimum walk duration should be at least 7 seconds Consideration should be given to
walk durations longer than 7 seconds in school zones and areas with large numbers of
elderly pedestrians. In cases where the pedestrian push button is a considerable distance
from the curb, additional WALK time is desirable. The setting of the walk interval and
pedestrian clearance intervals will depend on a study of various factors at the intersection.

19.7.7 Pedestrian clearance

The pedestrian clearance interval follows the walk interval. When the pedestrian
clearance interval begins, pedestrians should either complete their crossing if already in
the intersection or refrain from entering the intersection until the next pedestrian walk
interval is displayed. Pedestrian clearance interval must be calculated assuming the
distance from the curb to the far side of the opposing travel way, or to a median of
sufficient width for pedestrians to wait. Pedestrian clearance time is computed as the
crossing distance divided by the walking speed. The speed of pedestrians is a critical
assumption in determining this parameter.

19.8 Display of traffic signals

The manner in which traffic signals have to be displayed is governed by the National
Road Traffic, Act 1996 (Act No 93 of 1996) and the Road Traffic Regulations.
Government Notice, No. R 1341 dated 25th September 2003 brought final clarity to the
prescriptions dealing with the manner in which traffic signals have to be displayed.
Regulation 287 A prescribes these requirements as follows:-

"287A (1) (a) A traffic signal shall-

(i) comprise of light signals arranged vertically so that the topmost signal is
red, the central signal is yellow and the lower signal is green: Provided
that-
(aa) the topmost signal may include more than one red light signal arranged
horizontally;
(bb) the central light signal may include more than one yellow light signal
arranged horizontally;
(cc) the lower signal may include more than one green light signal arranged
vertically or horizontally;
(dd) a special supplementary traffic signal S10L and S10R may be used with
only a yellow and green arrow;
(ee) a pedestrian signal S11 shall comprise two light signals

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