Module 2: CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND Initiating Phase • scope, schedule

MANAGEMENT • the project is defined, and the objectives, • resource, communication

goals, and scope of the project are • cost, quality
What is a Project? established. • risk, procurement
• Has a definite BEGINNING and END Planning Phase
EXECUTING PHASE
• the project team develops a detailed
Unique – Produces a unique product, service, or
project plan, including a schedule, budget, • create tasks and priorities
result
and resource requirements. • build project workflow
Temporary – a temporary endeavor and temporary • brief and direct team members on task
Executing Phase
in nature • implement requirements on quality, costs,
• the project plan is put into action, and the
Progressively Elaborated – things are getting actual work of the project begins. schedule, and communication
elaborated as time progresses • implement risk responses
Monitoring and Controlling Phase • conduct procurement
Project Management Primary Constraints • the project team monitors project progress • manage stakeholders’ engagement
and performance and makes adjustments
Cost Constraints
to the project plan as needed MONITORING & CONTROLLING PHASE
• added deliverables Closing Phase 1. Progress – tracking the progress of various
• staffing & recruiting • the project is completed, and the project project tasks
• changes to materials prices team conducts a final review to ensure that
all project objectives have been met. 2. Performance – Measure budget, timeline,
Time Constraints
and quality performance of the project
• delays on resources INITIATING PHASE
3. Feedback – Conduct user reviews, and
• underestimating task duration Step 1 – Develop a project charter collect feedback, and take any corrective
• added deliverables from the client actions needed
Step 2 – Identify scope and deliverables
Scope Constraints 4. Changes – Track all changes to the project
Step 3 – Ballpark the high-level cost
• understaffing scope and report on their impact to project
• miscalculation of cost Step 4 – Conduct a feasibility study goals.
• underestimating work required Step 5 – Create a business case 5. Outcomes – Monitor overall project
performance and ensure all stakeholders
PROJECT LIFE CYCLE (Processes – Phases – Step 6 – Identify stakeholders and team are on the same page.
How)
Step 7 – Develop a statement of work CLOSING PHASE
• The project life cycle is the order of
processes and phases used in delivering PLANNING PHASE 1. Conduct a “End of Project” Review or
projects. It describes the high-level Project Management Plan – a formal approved Retrospective and to analyze project
workflow of delivering a project and the document that defines the overall plan for how the performance and a formal analysis of
steps you take to make things happen. project will be executed, monitored and controlled successes and failures.
 2. Document project closure and provide project lifecycle; use a total quality • Multi-Prime
reports to key stakeholders. management approach (TQM) to help • Integrated Project Delivery
reduce costs in remedial work; minimize Step 3 – RECRUITING PROJECT TEAM
3. Account used/ unused budget and release delays; maintain relationships with clients, • Architects
remaining resources for other projects. contractors, and staff. • Engineers (CE, EE, ME, etc.)
Construction Management Key Benefits to Engineers • Construction Managers
Step 4 – DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
• is a professional service that provides a 1. Improved project outcomes • Detailed Requirements
project owner(s) with effective 2. Career advancement • Conceptual Design
management of the project’s schedule, 3. Increased earning potential • Schematic Drawings
cost, quality, safety, scope and function 4. Diversification of skills • Design Development Plans
• works for all project delivery methods. No 5. Improved communication skills Step 5 – PROCURING CONTRACTOR
matter the setting, a Construction 6. Regulatory compliance SERVICES
Managers (CMs) responsibility is to the • Invitation to Bid
owner and to a successful project. Construction Project Participants • Competitive Bidding or Negotiation
• Consultants – management experts • Estimate Cost and Schedule
Core Responsibilities of Construction
• Quantity Surveyor – manage cost and Step 6 – ASSIGNING CONTRACTOR
Managers
resources • Evaluation of Bid Documents
1. Cost Management – maintain awareness • Client/Owner/Developer – conceives the • Awarding
of all costs associated with a project; construction projects • Issuance of Notice to Proceed
budget management; anticipate any • Construction Managers – management • Signing of Contract Agreement
changes to project scope that could services Step 7 – ESSENTIAL TASKS
impact cost. • Contractor – the builders • Soil Testing
2. Contract Administration – create Primary Stages in Construction • Submission of Plans to
contracts for subcontractors and • Municipalities
Pre- Construction (Initiating, Planning)
suppliers; manage payments to • Permit Acquisitions (LGU,DENR, etc.)
contractors; source materials and • any period of time during which design or Construction (Executing, Monitoring and
suppliers preparatory work is carried out for a project Controlling)
and may continue during the construction
3. Health and Safety Management – ensure • the period of time beginning when the
phase
everyone on site follows health and safety construction work in a project starts and
regulations; prepare health and safety Step 1 – FEASIBILITY STUDY ending when the construction work in the
documentation; implement suitable • Owner’s Need Statement project is completed.
protocols for ongoing practices and regular • Establishment of General Requirements • Issuance for Construction Drawings
monitoring. Step 2 – PROJECT DELIVERY METHODS • Project Start-up and Mobilization
• Design-Build • Design
4. Quality Management – Deliver projects
• General Contracting • Site Execution or Implementation
that meets client specifications; ensure all
• Advisory Construction • Quality Control and Quality Assurance
work complies with quality standards;
facilitate regular checks throughout the • Management • Procurement
 • Safety and Health provide suitable locations for plant Topsoil Excavation – removal of the exposed layer
• Documentation erection, e.g., mobile cranes and piling of the earth’s surface, including vegetation. Since
• Monitoring and Controlling rigs. the topsoil, or mantle soil, supports growth of trees
and other vegetation, this layer contains more
Excavation moisture than that underneath.
Post Construction (Closing)
• It is the process of moving things like earth, Earth Excavation - removal of the layer of soil
• the period of time spanning from when
rock, or other materials with tools, immediately under the topsoil and on top of rock.
physical construction ends until project
equipment, or explosives. Used to construct embankments and foundations,
turnover to the owner takes place
• It includes earthwork, trenching, wall earth usually is easy to move with scrapers or other
Module 3: BUILDING SITEWORKS AND types of earthmoving equipment.
shafts, tunneling, and underground.
SUBSTRUCTURE
• Construction is one of the most common Muck Excavation - removal of material that
Site Temporary Works contains an excessive amount of water and
applications for excavation
undesirable soil. Its consistency is determined by
• Those parts of the works that allow or
• In construction, excavation is used to the percentage of water contained.
enable construction of, protect, support or
create building foundations, reservoirs,
provide access to the permanent works Unclassified Excavation - removal of any
and roads.
and which might or might not remain in combination of topsoil, earth, rock, and muck.
place at the completion of the works. • Several different processes are used in Contracting agencies frequently use this
excavation, including trenching, digging, classification. It means that earthmoving must be
• TW are the temporary parts of
dredging, and site development done without regard to the materials encountered.
the construction process that
are needed before permanent • These processes will require unique Foundation
works can start. Although they techniques, tools, and machinery to get
are removed once the project is complete, the job done right.
they are essential for the smooth and
efficient • The process that you use will depend upon
completion of the build. your project and what you need to build

• Earthworks - trenches, excavations, Types of Excavation

temporary slopes and stockpiles.

• Structures - formwork, falsework,

propping, façade retention, needling,
shoring, edge protection, scaffolding, • In construction, foundations are generally
temporary bridges, site hoarding and known as the structures below a building’s
signage, site fencing, cofferdams columns. They are responsible for ensuring
the stability of their structures by
• Equipment/Plant Foundations - tower transferring its weight to the ground.
crane bases, supports, anchors and ties
for construction hoists and mast climbing • It is the origin point of every construction
work platforms (MCWPs), groundworks to project, where geoscience and engineering
 collide for the purpose of ensuring to the soil should be within the allowable - used to provide a continuous, level (or
structural safety and integrity. bearing capacity of the soil. sometimes stepped) strip of support to a
linear structure such as a wall or closely
Deciding Factors in Foundation Design Requirements of a Good Foundation spaced rows of columns built centrally
• The area, where the construction site is • The design and the construction of the above them
and how much of it will be disturbed during foundation is done such that it can sustain o Combined Footing
construction as well as transmit the dead and the
imposed loads to the soil. - these are constructed for two or more
• The soil, referring to its type and columns when they are close to each other,
properties. This is done through a soil • Differential settlements can be avoided by and their foundations overlap
investigation process. having a rigid base for the foundation.
These issues are more pronounced in o Raft/Mat Footing
• The estimated weight or load of the areas where the superimposed loads are
building to be constructed. - Type of shallow foundation where a concrete
not uniform in nature.
slab is spread over a large area to support the
Purpose of Foundation walls and columns above it.
• Based on the soil and area it is
• Foundations are the main reason behind recommended to have a deeper
- Raft Footing - they are well suited for soils
the stability of any structure. The stronger foundation so that it can guard any form of
with low bearing capacity and allow for
is the foundation, more stable is the damage or distress. These are mainly
better load distribution for large structures. It
structure. caused due to the problem of shrinkage
is also the kind of foundation that is used for
and swelling because of temperature
large basements such as underground
• The proper design and construction of changes.
parking lots
foundations provide a proper surface for
the development of the substructure in a • The location of the foundation chosen
• Deep Foundation
proper level and over a firm bed. must be an area that is not affected or
influenced by future works or factors. o Pile Foundations
• Specially designed foundation helps in
avoiding the lateral movements of - use ground-drilled cylinders to support the
structures built on top of it. Piles can either
the supporting material. Types of Foundation
be timber, concrete, or steel. The type of pile
• Shallow Foundation foundation to use will depend on the quality
• A proper foundation distributes load on to
of soil underneath.
the surface of the bed uniformly. This o Isolated Footing
uniform transfer helps in avoiding unequal o Drilled Shaft
settlement of the building. Differential - The most basic type of shallow foundation.
settlement is an undesirable building Basically, the foundation is built for a single - a popular deep foundation type that is used
effect. column, which has its own square pad or for most large-scale projects. It consists of
footing to sit on. The size of the column is drilling cylindrical shafts into the ground and
• The foundation serves the purpose of calculated based on Its load and the soil’s filling them with concrete to help resist the
completely distributing the load from the safe bearing capacity overall load of a building.
structure over a large base area and then to
the soil underneath. This load transferred o Strip Foundation Sheet Piling
 • is an earth retention and excavation Piling hammers are excavator-mounted, • Diaphragm wall construction methods are
support technique that retains soil, using hydraulic impact-type hammers for driving relatively quiet and cause little or no
sheet sections with interlocking edges. load-bearing piles or assisting in sheet pile vibration. Therefore, they are especially
Sheet piles are installed in sequence to driving in even the most difficult soil suitable for civil engineering projects in
design depth along the planned excavation conditions densely populated inner city areas.
perimeter or seawall alignment.
• Helmet Types of Diaphragm Wall
• Sheet pile act as a temporary supportive
Helmet is a cast steel that placed over the Based on use of construction material:
wall that been driven into a slope or
pile to hold the dolly that placed between
excavation to support the soft soils 1. Rigid type – Reinforced cement concrete
the pile and the hammer to avoid pile head
collapse from higher ground to lower
deterioration that may cause by pile driving 2. Flexible type – Plastic concrete, cement
ground.
hammer. bentonite slurry trench, earth backfilled
Pile Driving Equipment slurry trench
• Driving Cap
• Piling Rigs Depending on the function:
It is provided as a protection for steel
It composed of a series of leaders, which bearing piles. It is necessary to place the 1. Structural Diaphragm Walls
are consist of tubular element or hard box, driving cap tightly otherwise the pile cap
placed and fixed on a crane base would suffer deterioration. - Used as retaining walls for the perimeter
walls of deep basements and underground
• Piling Winches • Dolly parking facilities, subways, underpasses, etc
The prime goal of piling winches is to left Dolly is square at the bottom and round at 2. Load Bearing Walls
the hammer and piles in addition to the top, is placed in a square recess at the
support tools that responsible for leader top of the helmet - Used in place of drilled piers in foundation of
raking and rotation. tall buildings, bridge piers, etc
• Packing
3. Cut-off Walls
• Hanging Leader
It is placed between pile top and the
Hanging leaders are specifically designed helmet in order to protect the former from - In hydraulic structures, diaphragm walls are
to be hanged from the jib of a crane. A steel the hammer blow. Different types of used as impermeable cutoffs to prevent
strut, provides a stiff connection from the packing include paper sacking, thin timber seepage below earth dams, weirs, and
leader foot to the machine bed frame sheet, coconut mapping, and sawdust in sleeve
bags. Materials Used for Diaphragm Walls
• Hammer Guides
Diaphragm Wall 1. Ordinary Portland Cement
When it is intended to remove hanging
• Diaphragm walls are concrete or 2. Aggregate
leaders or piling frames completely, rope
reinforced concrete walls constructed in 3. Sand
suspended leaders which are commonly
slurry-supported, open trenches below 4. Water
guided by timber or steel formwork, would
existing ground. 5. Admixtures
be considered
6. Reinforcement
• Piling Hammer 7. Bentonite
 8. Clay • Rebar is short for reinforcing bar. • Traditional formwork is fabricated using
9. Concrete Mix • Known as reinforcement steel or reinforcing timber, but it can also be constructed from
steel. steel, glass fiber reinforced plastics and
Underpinning • The steel bar used in concrete cconstruction other materials.
- is method for repair and strengthening of building • Cylindrical shaped steel bars with uniformly • It must be capable of carrying all dead and
foundations. spaced protrusions called lugs or live weights other than its own weight.
deformations. • Can be classified into wall, beam, column
- Underpinning methods, procedures and their
• They are hot-rolled from semi-finished steel or foundation formwork
applications in strengthening of different types of
foundations is discussed in this article. called billets
Formwork
Methods of Underpinning Rebar Specifications
• It is a temporary structure which is used as
• Mass Concrete Underpinning Method • Grade a mould to pour the concrete.
• Size • It is a vertical or horizontal arrangement
- is the traditional method of underpinning, as
• Type made to keep concrete in position until it
it has been followed by centuries. The
gains strength and shape.
method involves extending the old Deformed Steel Bars
foundation till it reaches a stable stratum Shuttering
• Deformed steel bars have ribs, lugs and
• Underpinning by Cantilever Needle Beam • A temporary vertical arrangement and part
indentation on the surface of the bar,
Method
which reduces the major problem that is of formwork to support the vertical
- an extension of pit method. If the foundation faced by mild steel bar due to slippage and formworks maintain the desired shape.
must be extended only to one side and the good bonding is achieved between
Centering
plan possess a stronger interior column, this concrete and rebar.
method can be used for underpinning • The tensile properties is higher compared • A temporary vertical arrangement and part
• Pier and Beam Underpinning Method to other rebars. These bars are produced in of formwork to support the horizontal
sections from 6mm to 50 mm dia members
It is also termed as base and beam method which
was implemented after the second world war. FORMWORKS Staging
MODULE 4: BUILDING SUPERSTRUCTURE Formwork A temporary member which is used to support
formwork either for centering or shuttering.
Substructure vs. Superstructure • It is the term used for the process of
creating a temporary mould into which It is done by props, jack, H-frames, cup lock
- the substructure is the part of the building that is
concrete is poured and formed. system, wooden ballies, etc.
underneath the ground, while the superstructure is
• A mold such as scaffolding, shuttering,
everything that is above ground Scaffolding
falsework, or open-box containers in which
REBAR WORKS fresh concrete is poured and compacted. • Formwork is arranged to support the
structural members, whereas scaffolding
REBAR
 is provided as a worker’s platforms around Using extremely lightweight and robust CONCRETE WORKS
the building to work at heights. panels, this formwork is particularly
suitable for similar structure projects such Concrete
• Scaffolding is a movable/fixed platform.
as mass housing schemes. • is an artificial stone as a result of mixing
Types of Formworks
• Plastic Formwork cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate
Traditional Timber Formwork - assembled from interlocking panels or and water.
modular systems, made of lightweight and • is a vital element and a vitally important
• This type of formwork is made from timber robust plastic thing that is used in several individual and
and plywood. While it is easy to produce, it - works best in small projects consisting of commercial buildings.
has a short lifespan, and the process is repetitive tasks, such as low-cost housing • It solidifies and hardens after mixing with
time-consuming so it’s not suitable for estates water and placement due to a chemical
large structures - light and can be cleaned with water, while process known as hydration.
• Timber Formwork - well-seasoned, light in being suitable for large sections and multiple • It binds other building materials together.
weight, easily workable with nails without reuses
• The conglomeration of these materials
splitting, free from loose knots - main drawback is having less flexibility than
producing a solid mass is called Plain
• Plywood Formwork - not smooth finished, timber, since many components are
Concrete.
possible to save cost using large-sized prefabricated
• Concrete in which reinforcement is
panels, and can be re-use up to 20 to 25 • Fabric Formwork
embedded in a manner that the two
times - Also known as flexible formwork
materials act together in resisting forces is
- This system uses lightweight and high-
called Reinforcement Concrete.
strength sheets of fabric, designed to adjust
Engineered Formwork System to the fluidity of concrete and create Mixing of Concrete
interesting architectural forms
• This is an evolved type of formwork that is • The process of mixing concrete for
made from prefabricated modules with Permanent Insulated Formwork construction is done in two different ways
metal frames, typically steel or aluminum. – either mixing on the job site or by ready
• This is one of the most advanced formwork
• Steel and Aluminum Formwork - consists mixed concrete.
systems, offering permanent insulation. It
of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates
may also include thermal, acoustic, fire- Methods for Concrete Works
stiffened along the edges by small steel
resistance and rodent-resistance
angles. The panel units can be held • Direct (Or Chute) Discharge
properties
together using suitable clamps or bolts - A concrete chute is a long metal trough with
• Insulating concrete Forms (ICF) are the
and nuts. rounded bottom and open ends used for
most common type of permanent
conveying concrete to a lower elevation.
Re-usable Plastic Formwork insulated formwork, where concrete
- A chute is adapted for transporting concrete
structures are insulated with polystyrene
• This type of formwork uses interlocking from ground level to the lower level. It is used
boards that stay in place after concrete
and modular systems that are used to when the labour can’t reach the place of
has cured.
build highly variable but simple structures. concrete due to the less space like trenches.
 The surface should have some slope not • Stationary Pump • Water Curing
flatter than 1 vertical to 2.5 horizontal. - The application of the water is done to avoid
Concrete may get slightly compact mass Static Concrete Pump, also referred to as a the drying of the concrete surface.
without any separation or segregation. Stationary, Line Pump or Trailer Mounted - very useful in dry environments as it is not
• Crane and Bucket concrete Pump is mounted on a trailer and required to pour the water
- A tower crane bucket and ropeway are the requires a separate pipeline to be attached continuously.
methods for transporting concrete above the reaching to wherever the concrete needs to be • Wet Covering
ground level. Crane is used for transporting placed. - Is a method of maintaining the surface
concrete horizontally as well as vertically moisture level by placing materials like
and also in an inclined way so that it is also • Truck Mounted Static Pump
hessian. Use of gunnery bae is also common
called two- or three dimensional transport. It A static pump can also be mounted onto a - Vertical surfaces in concrete columns, walls,
is a familiar way in medium and large sites in truck chassis but without a boom, resulting in etc. can cure with this method.
high rise construction projects. In this a Schwing Truck Mounted Static Concrete • Formwork Curing
method, transportation of concrete is fast - is the most effective curing agent in the
Pump. These are perfect for the many quick
and the placement of concrete takes place construction. Especially in thick concretes
jobs where a boom might not reach.
at the particular point. Crane consists of where the hydration temperature is high, this
skips or buckets for containing concrete. • Truck Mixer Concrete Pump method is used.
• Concrete Pumps Another aspect of concrete placement is • Membrane Curing
- A concrete pump is a tool for conveying the supply of concrete. Both Mobile and - is formed on the concrete surface to avoid
liquid concrete. Static pumps have a large hopper to the evaporation of the moisture in the
- Commonly used in the construction of large receive concrete from a truck mixer. concrete. Liquid form material is sprayed
high-rise buildings. over the concrete Surface, and it solidifies
However, Schwing Stetter offers a mobile
Types of Concrete Pumps product which also carries a supply of and forms a membrane. These materials can
concrete with it. apply with brushed or roller. There are two
• Mobile Pump types of membranes.
Concrete Curing ▪ Water-based
A Mobile Concrete Pump, also known as a
▪ Oil-based
Truck Mounted Mobile incorporates both a • is one of the most important factors in
• Sheet Curing
concrete pump and a placing boom mounted concrete construction as it is related to
There are two types of the sheet used for
onto a truck chassis. Mobiles come with properties such as characteristic strength,
curing
booms ranging from less than 20 meters to permeability, durability, etc. Further, it is
- Polythene Sheet
ones which can reach heights of over 60 required to do the curing at the right time
- Plastic Sheet
and a sufficient period of curing is very
meters. The advantage of a mobile pump is - Curing Blankets
important to achieve the exact properties
that it can turn up at a job and be pumping Both the type of the sheet are sued to cure
of concrete
concrete very quickly to anywhere within the the flat surfaces usually. Polythene sheets
range of the boom. Different Methods of Concrete Curing are sued to
 cover the concrete slabs and columns. The - This is a type of scaffolding in which the - a modern form of balance crane that consist
sheet can be placed on the slab just after it standards are supported on series of of the same basic parts. Fixed to the ground
gets hardened needles and these needles are taken out on a concrete slab (and sometimes attached
• Natural Curing through holes in the wall. This is called single to the sides of structures), tower cranes
- Concrete is allowed to cure naturally frame type scaffolding. often give the best combination of height and
without covering anything • Suspended Scaffolding lifting capacity and are used in the
- the working platform is suspended from construction of tall buildings.
SCAFFOLDING ERECTION roofs with the help of wire ropes or chains - will perform hundreds of lifts over the course
etc., it can be raised or lowered to our of a construction project, moving
Scaffolding
required level. This type of scaffolding is heavy materials like steel and
• is a temporary structure to support the used for repair works, pointing, paintings etc. concrete into place for
original structure as well as workmen used • Trestle Scaffolding construction workers assembling a
it as a platform to carry on the construction - the working platform is supported on building.
works movable tripods or ladders. This is
generally used for work inside the room, Types of Tower Cranes
Types of Scaffolding
such as paintings, repairs etc., up to a
•Hammerhead Cranes
• Single Scaffolding height of 5m.
- Is used to lift effortlessly heavy loads
- is generally used for brick masonry and is • Steel Scaffolding - Is one of the most common types of cranes
also called as brick layer’s scaffolding. - is constructed by steel tubes which are fixed used around the world. They are especially
Single scaffolding consists of standards, together by steel couplers or fittings. It is very reliable for precise, accurate handling of a
ledgers, putlogs etc., which is parallel to the easy to construct or dismantle. It has greater wide variety of heavy materials
wall at about 1.2 m. Distance between the strength, greater durability and higher fire - Also allows you to “rack” the crane. This is
standards is about 2 to 2.5 m. Ledgers resistance. It is not economical but will give moving the trolley in and out along the job
connect the standards at vertical interval of more safety for workers. with its load suspended but not altering the
1.2 to 1.5 m. Putlogs are taken out from the • Patented Scaffolding level of the load.
hole left in the wall to one end of the ledgers. - are made up of steel, but these are equipped • Luffing Tower Cranes
Putlogs are placed at an interval of 1.2 to 1.5 with special couplings and frames etc.,
- Is ideal for building projects where there’s
m. these are readymade scaffoldings which are not much space on either side of the site and
• Double Scaffolding available in the market. In this type of you need to work safely.
- is generally used for stone masonry so, it is scaffolding working platform is arranged on
- Is able to raise or lower its jib, and that allows
also called as mason’s scaffolding. In stone brackets which can be adjustable to our
it to reduce the slewing radius.
walls, it is hard to make holes in the wall to required level
- Is also a good choice for work sites where
support putlogs. two or more cranes are working at the same
TOWER CRANE ERECTION AND OTHER
- This is also called as independent time. This is because the slewing radius is
HOISTING EQUIPMENT
scaffolding highly reduced in comparison to standard
• Cantilever Scaffolding Tower Crane tower crane types
 - Is also known as a luffing-jib crane. Its design of direction of a cable or belt along its the tower maybe 25 to 30 m and these cranes
is similar to a hammerhead tower crane, with circumference. Pulleys are used in a variety are found to be suitable in the construction
the exception that the jib is latticed and can of ways to lift loads, apply forces, and to of tall buildings in congested areas.
be raised and lowered—a motion called transmit power. • Derrick Crane
“luffing” - A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum The guy derrick consists of a vertical mast.
• Self-erecting Tower Cranes and may have a groove between two flanges This mast is supported by the number of
- (SETC) is a Tower Crane that can be easily around its circumference. guys and can revolve through 360°.
inserted on a site with restricted space in a • Rope and Pulley • Overhead Gantry Crane
short period of time. The Gantry cranes or overhead cranes are
The pulley and sheave block suitable for
- These cranes operate from a fixed position the indispensable machines in factories
lifting rough surfaces and heavy loads. For
and must be safely placed on site by
this purpose, the chains and wire ropes are and workshops.
qualified field engineers familiar with the
mechanisms that they are using. used. WALL CONSTRUCTION

Hoist in Construction • Chain Hoist Wall Construction

• A hoist is a device used for lifting or Are the popular mechanism for lifting loads • A construction wall is a structural element
lowering a load by means of a drum or lift- of up to tones. The system consists of two that divides a space (room) into two
wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It sets of chains, namely the hand and load spaces (rooms) as well as providing safety
may be manually operated, electrically or chain. and shelter. The types are:
pneumatically driven and may use chain, • Outer walls provide a shelter for the
fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium. • Mobile Crane
house, while inner walls help to divide the
Is used in big construction projects for
enclosure into the required number of
Hoisting Equipment lifting heavy loads. It is used for loading
rooms.
and unloading for material in coal mines.
• lifts loads with either link or roller chain or • Inner walls are also referred to as partition
wire rope. Loading and unloading of ships. To take the walls or interior walls, while outer walls are
• It is powered one of three ways and is used load from ground level and place it into the referred to as exterior walls.
with a number of attachments to facilitate trucks.
Building Wall
load lift • Electric Winch
• The travel is directed by an operator, either A winch is a mechanism in the shape of a • The purposes of walls in buildings are to
manually or with a wired pendant station or cylinder or drum, over which rope or chain support roofs, floors and ceilings; to
wireless controls is wound. If a winch is used only for raising enclose a space as part of the building
and lowering, it is sometimes referred to as envelope along with a roof to give buildings
Types of Hoisting Equipment in Construction
hoist. form; and to provide shelter and security.
• Movable Pulley • Tower Crane • In framed walls, the load is transferred to
- A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is - These are the crane of swing job type and are the foundation through posts, columns or
designed to support movement and change mounted on high steel towers. The height of studs.
 • Mass-walls are of a solid material Is an interior non-load bearing wall to base course. It provides additional
including masonry, concrete including divide the larger space into smaller support and helps in drainage.
slipform stonemasonry, log building, spaces. Construction Process of Sub-base
cordwood construction, adobe, rammed 1. Preparation of Subgrade surface
• Panel Wall
earth, cob, earthbag construction, bottles, Before dumping and placing subbase
Is usually made of wood and is an external material, the surface of subgrade should
tin cans, straw-bale construction, and ice. non-load wall in a framed building. It is be prepared, and any unsuitable material
Types of Walls in Construction used for the esthetics of both internal and should be removed.
external structures.
• Load-Bearing Wall • Veneered Walls 2. Placement of Sub-base material
It is carrying loads imposed on it, including Masonry veneer walls are non-structural
its own weight, from above beams and Spread the sub-base material evenly over
masonry walls made of brick, stone, or
slabs, and transferred to the foundation. the prepared subgrade using equipment
manufactured stone. It is known as like bulldozers, graders, or excavators.
These walls support structural elements anchored veneer because it has an air
such as beams, columns, and walls above. space behind it. Compaction of Sub-base Material
It can be an exterior wall or an interior wall. a. Initial Rolling
• Tiled Walls
Begin compaction immediately after
• Non-load Bearing Wall Another type of wall design is the use of spreading the material. This process helps
Only carry their own weight and do not tiles on the walls. Although this type of wall in settling the material and removing air
finish is typically found in bathrooms or voids.
support any structural members,such as
kitchens, it can also be found in bedrooms. b. Moisture Control
beams and slabs. These walls only are
Control the moisture content of the sub-
used for partition walls or to separate MODULE 11: ROAD CONSTRUCTION base material. Moisture content is
rooms from the outside. METHODS typically controlled to a specified range
• Cavity Walls based on material type and conditions.
11.1 SUBBASE CONSTRUCTION
Is one of the external wall construction c. Layer-by-Layer Compaction
types. It is a wall made of 2 leaves/skins, Subbase Construction Depending on the thickness of the sub-
with space/cavity between them. • a critical component of road base layer, it may be compacted in several
• Shear Walls construction, providing support and layers. Each layer is typically compacted
- are a framed walls to resist lateral forces. The stability to the base course & pavement to a specified density using the
horizontal force resistance system is a layers. compaction equipment.
vertical element. It is used to resist the load • This layer helps distribute the load of
d. Overlap
of construction by the wind and earthquake. traffic and prevent premature failure of
Ensure that each pass of the compactor
the road surface.
- A rigid vertical diaphragm is capable of overlaps the previous pass by at least half
transmitting lateral forces from the exterior the width of the roller to achieve uniform
Subbase
walls, floors, and roofs to the ground floor in compaction.
• is the layer of material placed on the
a direction parallel to their planes. compacted subgrade and beneath the e. Number of Passes
• Partition Wall
 The number of passes required for and/or manufactured aggregates with measured 4. Curb and Gutter Grading - focuses on shaping
compaction depends on factors such as amounts of portland cement and water that and leveling the areas adjacent to the road for the
material type, thickness, and moisture hardens after compaction and curing. installation of curbs and gutters. This process
content. Generally, a minimum of 6 ensures proper drainage and alignment of these
passes are required to achieve the desired 2. Equipments Needed critical components.
density. • Motorized Road Grader - A motor grader,
sometimes called a grader or road grader, Methods and Technique
f. Testing 1. Surveying and Layout - Before grading begins,
is a narrow multipurpose construction
Compaction tests are performed on each accurate surveying and layout are essential to
machine used to flatten a surface during
15 cm layer to ensure that the subbase define the road alignment, elevations, and cross-
grading projects.
layers meet the required specifications. sections.
Min Compaction (Field Density) 98% of
• Vibratory Roller - Vibratory rollers are
MDD determined as per ASTM -D 1557. 2. Excavation and Earthmoving - Excavation and
specialized construction machines
11.2 BASE PREPARATION designed to enhance soil and asphalt earthmoving involve removing excess soil and
compaction. material to achieve the required road profile.
1. Base Course - Road base refers to the material
used when constructing roads, driveways, parking 3. Placement of Base Materials 3. Soil compaction- Soil compaction is a critical
areas, paving substrates or anything paved. aspect of grading that involves compacting the
11. 3 GRADING soil to increase its density and stability.
a. Untreated Base Course - a base course
composed of natural gravel, crushed rock, or Grading - It refers to the process of levelling and 4. Shaping and Sloping - Shaping and sloping
crushed slag placed on a prepared subbase or shaping the soil or subgrade to create a stable ensure that the roadbed has the correct cross-
subgrade. foundation for road construction. sectional profile, including side slopes and
drainage ditches.
b. Treated Base Course Types of Grading
- Lime 1. Rough Grading - involves the initial clearing and 5. Quality Control - measures are implemented
Quicklime and hydrated lime are often used in leveling of the construction site. Removing large throughout the grading process to verify that the
construction applications to chemically modify obstacles such as rocks and vegetation and work meets design specifications and standards.
and stabilize fine grained soils and for drying wet achieving a general level surface.
soils. Importance of Proper Grading
2. Fine Grading - follows rough grading and 1. Structural Integrity - Accurate grading ensures
- Asphalt involves more precise shaping and leveling of the that the road’s structural integrity is maintained.
Asphalt treated base (ATB) is a dense-graded (but subgrade. This stage is critical for achieving the
more permeable) Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) with a exact specifications. 2.Drainage Efficiency - Effective grading
wide gradation band and lower asphalt content promotes proper drainage by directing water away
intended for use as a stabilising base course. 3. Subgrade Grading - specifically addresses the from the road surface and preventing water
preparation of the soil or subgrade layer that will accumulation.
- Portland Cement support the road structure. This process involves
Cement-treated base (CTB) is a general term that compacting and stabilizing the soil.
applies to an intimate mixture of native soils
3. Pavement Quality - The quality of the finished “asphaltos,” meaning “secure.” The 2. Tampers - Essential for compacting edges and
pavement is directly influenced by the grading Romans employed it to cover their baths, corners where larger rollers can't reach, tampers
process. reservoirs and aqueducts. eliminate air pockets and ensure a solid asphalt
edge.
Asphalt Concrete
4. Cost Efficiency - Proper grading minimizes the
• also known as hot mix asphalt, plant mix,
need for costly repairs and maintenance by 3. Asphalt Rakes - Designed for uniform
bituminous mix, and bituminous
addressing potential issues before they arise. spreading of the asphalt mix, asphalt rakes have
concrete, among other terms. The key
long handles and heavy-duty teeth that break up
components are aggregates and asphalt
Challenges in Grading clumps and level the material.
cement.
1. Soil Variability - Soil variability can affect the
• Aggregates make up about 90-95% of the
grading process, as different soil types may 4. Measuring Wheel - crucial for ensuring
overall mixture by weight. Asphalt
require different compaction and stabilization accurate project dimensions and asphalt
Concrete is formed by mixing them with 5-
methods. application.
10% asphalt cement.
5. Crack Squeegees - are designed for sealing
2. Weather Conditions - Weather conditions cracks in asphalt surfaces, featuring flexible, heat-
Asphalt cement - the basic kind of asphalt used
such as heavy rainfall or extreme temperatures resistant rubber blades that ensure precise
in pavement building. It is a mixture of
can impact grading operations. application of crack filler.
hydrocarbons with different molecular weights.
3.Equipment Limitations - Equipment limitations 6. Asphalt Shovels - are used for scooping and
Types of Asphalt Mixtures
may affect the efficiency and accuracy of grading. spreading hot asphalt. Made from heat-tolerant
1. Hot Mix Asphalt - often known as bitumen or
steel, they have flat or slightly curved blades and
blacktop, is the most commonly utilized form of
4.Environmental Considerations - high sides to contain the sticky material.
asphalt in significant paving operations.
Environmental considerations such as erosion
control and protection of natural resources must 7. Hand Trowels - are essential for fine finishing
2. Warm Mix Asphalt - A typical WMA is created
be addressed during grading. touches on asphalt surfaces, allowing for
at a temperature 20-40°C lower than a
smoothing imperfections and accessing tight
comparable Hot Mix Asphalt. Less energy is used,
11.4 ASPHALT FINISH areas.
and the temperature in the mix drops during the
paving operations.
Asphalt 8. Work Gloves - protect asphalt workers from
• a black cementing material, has been burns, blisters, and abrasions. Made from durable
3. Cold Mix Asphalt - also known as cold poured
widely utilised in road construction for materials, they provide grip and thermal
mixed, is often formed from emulsified or cutback
millennia. protection while ensuring dexterity.
asphalt. Emulsified asphalts can be anionic or
• known as a bituminous substance
cationic, in MS or SS grades.
because it includes bitumen, a Equipment:
hydrocarbon soluble in carbon disulfide. 1. Motor Grader - also known as a road grader is
Asphalt Materials
• 625 B.C. - The first reported usage of used to surplus or flatten the surface.
Tools:
asphalt as a road-building material 1. Lute - having the right-hand tools is crucial for
occurred in Babylon. The ancient Greeks 2. Road Roller Machine - utilised shortly after
successful asphalt paving, whether for
were also aware of asphalt. The name asphalt has been put down on the road. The
commercial projects or DIY tasks.
asphalt originates from the Greek device is rolled to compress the asphalt.
 achieve the desired properties of the asphalt
3. Forklift Truck - was originally designed for 4. Asphalt Binder Course - The binder course is mixture, using methods like Marshall or
factories but has evolved over time. With an the intermediate layer of asphalt, providing Superpave.
extended platform attachment, it can lift objects structural strength to the road.
from the ground and transport them. - Apply Tack Coat 2. Compaction Testing
- Lay Binder Course Compaction tests verify that asphalt is
4. Crawler Excavator - designed to excavate - Compact and Smooth compacted to the required density and strength.
paved rocks and clay and load them onto dump Proper compaction is vital for the longevity and
trucks. 5. Asphalt Surface Course - The surface course performance of the surface, typically assessed
is the top layer of the road, providing a smooth, using nuclear density tests or sand cone methods.
5. Truck Crane - performs various tasks, including durable, and skid-resistant surface for vehicles.
loading and unloading heavy industrial materials - Apply Tack Coat 3. Segregation Testing
and lifting substantial products. - Install Surface Course This test checks for the uniform distribution of
6. Wheel Loader - essential equipment at most - Compact and Roll asphalt binder and aggregate within the mixture.
construction sites. Often referred to as a front Uneven distribution can lead to weak spots and
loader, skip loader, or bucket loader, it is 6. Compaction and Finishing Touches - This step increased likelihood of failure.
commonly used in road construction. finalizes the road construction and ensures that
the road is ready for use. 4. Thickness Testing
Asphalt Road Construction Procedure - Compact Entire Surface Thickness testing ensures the asphalt layer is
1. Planning and Design - This phase is crucial to - Apply Sealcoat applied at the specified depth, using core
ensure that the road meets both functional and - Butt Joints and Transitions sampling or non-destructive testing methods to
safety requirements while considering - Markings and signs verify compliance with project specifications.
environmental and budgetary constraints.
- Analyze Site 7. Quality Control and Maintenance - Proper 5. Durability Testing
- Determine Materials quality control and regular maintenance are Durability tests evaluate the asphalt's resistance
- Plan Drainage critical to ensuring the longevity of the asphalt to cracking, rutting, and wear. Tests like the
2. Site Preparation and Excavation - In this stage, road. Hamburg Wheel-Tracking Test and Indirect Tensile
the construction team prepares the site, clearing - Regular Inspection Strength Test simulate real-world conditions to
away any old materials and setting the stage for - Repair and Resurface predict long-term performance.
new layers. - Maintenance Schedule
- Demolish Existing Surface 11. 5 CONCRETE PAVEMENT FINISH
- Excavate Subgrade Asphalt Tests - crucial for evaluating the quality
- Grade and Compact and performance of paving materials. Various Concrete Pavement
tests are conducted to ensure that asphalt meets • subjected to various water-related
3. Layering the Base Layer - The base layer forms the necessary specifications for durability and problems that usually require specific
the structural foundation of the road, supporting effectiveness: consideration of waterproofing issues.
the asphalt layers and distributing the weight of • structure consisting of a concrete layer
traffic. 1. Asphalt Mix Design made from typical concrete materials,
- Install Geotextile Fabric This test determines the optimal proportions of oftentimes, with the addition of secondary
- Spread Aggregate Base aggregate, asphalt binder, and additives to
 cementitious materials to enhance wood, metal, or plastic and holds the concrete in Consolidation - is crucial for improving the
concrete properties. the desired shape, preventing it from spilling density and strength of the concrete.
Types of Concrete Pavement outside the boundaries.
1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)/ Vibration - after placing the concrete, it must be
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP) - Reinforcement - such as steel bars (rebar), may vibrated to remove any trapped air and ensure the
most common type of concrete pavement be added depending on the specific design mix fills all voids.
generally consists of slabs which are 20 to 30cm requirements to enhance the tensile strength of
thick, with joints spaced 5 to 10m apart. the pavement. 4. Initial Concrete Finishing - involves
eliminating excess concrete and creating a
2. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Steel bars or wire mesh - commonly used a uniform surface. It prepares the concrete for more
Pavement (CRCP) - Instead of inserting horizontal reinforcement in concrete pavements, especially detailed nishing stages.
joints, vertically arranged rebar is used to in areas with heavy traffic loads or where the
distribute shrinkage and cracking, providing ground may shift over time. • Strike-off or Screeding - (also called
pavement continuity. screeding) is the process of leveling the
3. Concrete Mixing and Pouring - a critical surface of freshly poured concrete.
3. Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement process in construction that involves combining
(RCCP) - RCCP is one of JPCP. Low slump raw materials (cement, water, sand, aggregates) in • Bull Floating - After screeding, bull oating
concrete is spread evenly with an asphalt the correct proportions, transporting the mix to is performed to smooth and level the
pavement finisher and compressed and the site, and properly pouring it to form a solid and surface.
compacted with a vibratory roller. durable structure.
• Edging and Jointing
Steps in Concrete Pavement Finish Batching - measuring the components of - Edging refers to nishing the edges of
1. Subgrade Preparation - The subgrade is the concrete (cement, water, aggregates, and the concrete slab with a special tool to
foundation of the concrete pavement. It involves admixtures) by weight or volume. There are two round them off, which helps prevent
clearing, excavating, and grading the soil to create types of batching: chipping.
a level surface. - Jointing is the process of cutting
1. Volume Batching: Components are measured control joints in the concrete to create
• Levelling and Compaction - After by volume. weak points where cracking is likely to
preparing the subgrade, leveling is occur. This technique helps direct any
performed to make the surface even and 2. Weight Batching: Components are measured cracks that may form to specic areas,
flat. by weight, which is more accurate and preferred minimizing structural damage.
for high-quality concrete.
• Subbase Layer - A subbase layer is Types of Concrete Pavement Finishes
typically added between the subgrade Transportation methods - vary depending on the 1. Smooth Finishes - These finishes are typically
and the concrete slab to improve load scale of the project and distance, including applied to surfaces that require a clean, sleek
distribution and drainage. wheelbarrows, transit mixers, and pumps. look, often for indoor areas or places where
aesthetics is crucial.
2. Formwork and Reinforcement Placement - carefully pouring or positioning the
Formwork - used to shape and contain the concrete into the designated area, ensuring even
concrete while it cures. It is generally made from distribution and no segregation of aggregates.
 • Broomed Finish: A broom is dragged 3. Specialized Finishes - These finishes are Sawing Joints - involves using a saw to cut narrow
across the surface of freshly poured designed to provide additional safety, durability, or grooves in the concrete slab, creating contraction
concrete to create a slip-resistant texture. functional advantages in specific contexts. joints.
• Troweled Finish: A trowel (either hand or
power trowel) is used to smooth the • Skid-resistant Finishes: These finishes Expansion Joints - installed to allow for
surface of the concrete. use special techniques or additives to movement due to thermal expansion and
increase the surface’s friction, making it contraction.
• Float Finish: After screeding, a float ideal for areas prone to being slippery,
(either wood or magnesium) is used to such as pool decks, ramps, and roadways. Sealing Joints - involves filling the joints with a
level the surface of the concrete. flexible material, such as silicone or polyurethane
• Reflective Finishes: Reflective coatings sealants, to prevent water, debris, or chemicals
• Laser Screed Finish: A laser-guided or materials are added to the surface to from entering the joints.
screed machine is used for large-scale improve visibility, especially in nighttime
projects requiring a perfectly level surface. or low-light conditions. Joint Sealing - protects against freeze-thaw
cycles, which can lead to cracking or spalling
2. Textured Finishes - These finishes are used to • Joint Sealing and Filling: Joints are cut (surface damage).
add more visual interest or for functional into concrete to control cracking, and then
purposes, such as adding traction or defining sealants or fillers are used to protect the MODULE 12: BRIDGES CONSTRUCTION
patterns. joints from water, chemicals, and debris. METHODS

Curing of concrete - a critical process that BRIDGE

• Grooved Finish: This finish involves
cutting shallow grooves into the surface of ensures the strength, durability, and overall - a structure designed to cross a physical
the concrete. performance of concrete structures. barrier, such as a body of water, valley, road, or
railway, without obstructing access beneath it.
• Brushed Finish: Similar to a broomed Moisture retention - the key objective during Its primary purpose is to provide a passage
finish, but finer brushes are used to create curing, as concrete needs adequate water to over obstacles that might otherwise be
subtle texture. continue the chemical reaction (hydration) challenging or impossible to traverse.
between cement and water.
SUB-BASE STRUCTURE
• Stamped Finish: Concrete is stamped
with patterns, such as stone, brick, or tile, Water curing - involves keeping the surface of the 1. a foundational layer that lies between the
while still wet. concrete constantly wet during the curing period. natural ground or subgrade and the base of a
structure, such as a road or bridge. It plays a
• Exposed Aggregate Finish: The top layer Membrane curing - a liquid curing compound is critical role in construction by providing
of concrete is removed to reveal the sprayed or applied over the surface of the stability, support, and distributing loads to
underlying aggregate, creating a textured concrete, creating a thin film that seals in prevent settlement or failure of the structure
surface with a more rugged appearance. moisture. built on top of it.
• Colored Finish: Pigments or dyes are
added to the concrete mix, or color can be Joint Cutting - As concrete hardens, it naturally
applied after the surface is poured. shrinks, which can lead to cracks.
2. FOUNDATION driven into the ground to provide stable c. Geometric Variations – can be shaped
support for structures above into different shape depending on
1.1 TYPES OF FOOTING aesthetic preferences and functional
i. END BEARING PILES - lower end rests needs.
a. STRIP FOOTING - transfers the load from on a layer of strong soil or rock,
a building to a broad area of soil through a effectively acting like a column. 3. FRAMING CONFIGURATION
continuous strip of concrete
ii. FRICTION PILES - transfer the load of a. Single Column Bent - provides
b. COMBINED FOOTING - supports two or the structure to the soil along the entire straightforward support.
more columns that are aligned in a straight height of the pile through friction.
line, distributing their loads across a single b. Multiple Column Bent - improve load
spread footing. iii. CAISSON FOUNDATION - watertight distribution and stability.
structures used in the construction of
c. SOLATED SPREAD FOOTING - as an bridges, piers, abutments, and various c. Hammerhead Piers - often used for
individual footing, is designed to transfer shore protection applications.
the load from a single column directly to wider spans.
the underlying soil. 3. PIER
d. Pier Wall Type - offering both vertical
d. STRAP FOOTING - connects an - a vertical support structure used in bridge support and resistance against lateral
eccentrically loaded column to another construction to support the bridge spans forces.
column's footing. between abutments or at intervals along the
2.2 PIER CLASSIFICATION
length of the bridge.
e. GRILLAGE FOOTING - consists of one or
a. Solid Piers - feature a robust and
more tiers of beams placed over a o Load Transmission to the Foundation
impermeable structure, typically
concrete layer to distribute the load over a
o Resistance to Horizontal Forces constructed from materials like bricks,
larger area of soft or loose soil.
stone masonry, mass concrete, or
2.1 TYPES OF PIERS reinforced concrete
f. INVERTED ARCH FOOTING - used as
foundations for multistory buildings. This 1. STRUCTURAL CONNECTIVITY b. Open Piers - allow water to flow through
type is beneficial in situations where the
a. Monolithic Piers - provides enhanced the structure, minimizing obstruction in
soil’s load-bearing capacity is low, as it
strength and stability. waterways.
allows the weight of the structure to be
transmitted through the walls to the b. Cantilevered Piers - manage loads c. Masonry Piers - consist of stone or
footing. through bending, allowing for greater brick masonry and are generally
flexibility in design. substantial, which can obstruct linear
g. MATT/RAFT FOUNDATION - consists of a
waterways and increase loads on
thick reinforced concrete slab that spreads 2. SHAPE foundations.
across a large area of soil, supporting
multiple columns and load-bearing walls. a. Solid Piers - continuous solid mass, d. Mass Concrete Piers - large and
offering substantial support. can obstruct linear waterways while
h. ON PILE FOUNDATION- composed of long
increasing foundation loads.
cylindrical elements, typically made of b. Hollow Piers - lighter and can be more
strong materials like concrete, that are material-efficient.
 e. Fixed Piers - provide support for a fixed b. U-Shaped Gravity Abutment - act as 5. BEARING
bearing and are subjected to both counterforts, enhancing durability.
- critical structural components placed between
transverse and longitudinal forces.
c. Stub Abutment - relatively short the bridge substructure and superstructure to
f. Free Piers - support free bearings and structures built after the completion of facilitate the transfer of various applied loads,
transfer only axial forces from the embankments. including those from earthquakes, wind, traffic,
bearings to the foundations. and the self-weight of the superstructure.
d. Semi-stub Abutment - larger than stub
4. ABUTMENT types but shorter than full-height 4.1 TYPES OF BRIDGE BEARINGS
options.
- a structural element located at the ends of a a. Slide Bearings - consist of two stainless-
bridge. It serves as a crucial support component, e. Cantilever Wall Abutments - function steel plates that slide against each other,
as both soil retainers and supports for allowing for translational movement.
connecting the bridge to the ground and helping to
bear and distribute the loads from the bridge deck. the bridge superstructure.
b. Rocker and Pin Bearings - features a
3.1 PART OF ABUTMENT f. Full Height Abutments - designed to be curved bottom surface that enables
tall, effectively supporting low-level translational movement, while a pin at the
a. Wingwall - provide lateral support to roadways and accommodating various top allows for rotational movement.
the abutment, preventing soil erosion traffic needs.
on either side of the bridge, and help c. Roller Bearings - Suitable for both
direct water flow away from the g. Counterfort Abutment - Serving as reinforced concrete and steel bridge
retaining walls, counter-fort abutments structures, roller bearings come in two
structure.
include a slender main counterfort that configurations: single roller bearings,
b. Backwall and Backfill - provides connects the wall to the footing. which consist of a single roller between
additional lateral support and stability two plates, and multiple roller bearings,
h. Mechanically Stabilized Abutment -
to the abutment, aiding in the which incorporate several rollers to
distribution of loads from the supports bridge abutments by placing enhance load distribution.
superstructure to the ground. the bridge seat and footing directly on
reinforced backfill. d. Elastomeric Bearings - accommodate
c. Bridge Seat - designed to support and both translational and rotational
i. Spill-Through Abutment - are
facilitate controlled movement of the movements through the deformation of the
superstructure, including beams or supported by pedestals or columns that elastomer.
girders. reach down to natural ground.
e. Curved Bearings - allow only rotational
d. Footing - serves as the base of the j. Pile Bent Abutment - replaces movement, while spherical curved
traditional wall-like support with a
abutment, providing foundational bearings can handle both rotational and
support and stability. series of piles or columns, offering translational movements.
structural support while allowing for
3.2 TYPES OF BRIDGE ABUTMENT greater flexibility in design and f. Pot Bearings - Comprising an elastomeric
construction. disk confined within a pot and a steel
a. Gravity Abutment - relies on its piston integrated into the pot wall, pot
substantial weight to resist water and bearings effectively support significant
earth pressure, effectively resting vertical loads.
directly on the ground.
 g. Disc Bearings - accommodate rotational b. Advantages and Disadvantages b. Foundation Construction - Builders
movement through elastomer select a stable location and drive
a. Trusses are an effective approach to
deformation, while translational supporting piles into the ground or
movement is managed with the span large distances while using the construct solid piers made of concrete.
application of PTFE sliders, ensuring least amount of material. This is
smooth functionality under various loads. because the members' internal loads c. Erection of Substructure - With the
are induced axially by compression or piers in place, crews build upward to
SUPER STRUCTURE tension. reach the desired height.
- The key element of any bridge is its b. Truss structures require a lot of area d. Truss Fabrication - truss sections are
superstructure, which is responsible for because the connecting triangular prefabricated in a workshop or factory.
supporting the load as it moves across the bridge. components must be large enough to
e. Transporting Truss Sections - Once the
This superstructure typically includes vital bear and distribute huge loads.
components such as the deck slab, girders, and truss sections are completed, they are
trusses, though the specific elements may differ c. High maintenance costs transported to the construction site.
depending on the bridge’s design and the materials c. Kinds of Truss f. Assembling the Truss - truss sections
used, such as steel or concrete. are then assembled on-site.
a. Pratt Truss - features diagonals under
1. TRUSS TYPE tension and verticals under g. Installation of Decking - After the truss
- a stiff engineering structure composed of long, compression, reducing the amount of framework is assembled, the bridge
steel needed and making it lighter and deck, which could be made of concrete,
narrow elements joined at their ends. It is a
structure made up of linked parts that form a solid more efficient for horizontal spans. steel, or wood, is installed.
framework. It is primarily used to sustain loads and b. Warren Truss - characterized by its h. Finishing Touches - final steps involve
resist external pressures. equal-sized members and diagonals adding additional components such as
a. Components of Truss that can handle both tension and guardrails, lighting, and road markings
compression. to enhance safety and functionality for
a. Top Chord - the beam of a truss users.
spanning the length of the truss. c. Howe truss - designed to support loads
over long spans, making it ideal for 2. GIRDER
b. Bottom Chord - the bottom beam bridges that carry both traffic and dead
spanning the length of the truss. loads. - a type of bridge that uses large beams, called
girders, to support the weight of the bridge deck
c. Web - these are the internal members of d. K Truss - a more intricate variant of the and any loads that pass over it.
a truss. Pratt Truss, with shorter vertical
2.1 IMPORTANCE OF GIRDER BRIDGES IN
members that enhance resistance to
d. Pitching Point - the point where the bending. INFRASTRUCTURE
sloping members connect with the
bottom chord. d. Construction Methods 1. Strong Load Support: are designed to
carry heavy loads, including vehicles and
e. Apex/Peak - highest point of a truss. a. Site Preparation - site must be cleared trains.
of vegetation, and the soil needs to be
tested to ensure stability.
 2. Long Spans: can stretch over long 7. Composite Girder Bridge: structures • Cap - depends on the type of support
distances without needing too many where steel girders and concrete deck structure used for the bearing pads.
supports. slabs work together to support loads.
• Stem or Stub - acts as the central part
3. Versatile Design: allows engineers to 8. Truss Girder Bridge: use a triangular of the foundation, helping to carry the
create bridges that fit the specific needs of framework to provide strong support and weight from the upper structure through
a project. stiffness. the cap and down to the base.
4. Cost-Effective Construction: Using 9. Cable-Stayed Bridge: use cables • Footer - responsible for transferring
prefabricated parts can also save time and connected to tall towers to support the loads to the ground and operates using
reduce construction costs. bridge deck. two main systems.
5. Safety and Durability: built to withstand 10. Suspension Bridge: a type of bridge that 2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF GIRDER BRIDGES
tough conditions, like strong winds and uses a series of cables to support the main
heavy traffic. girder, which carries the load. 1. BASED ON MATERIALS

2.2 TYPES OF DIRFERS BRIDGES 2.3 COMPONENTS OF GIRDER BRIDGE a. Steel Girder Bridge: uses steel girders,
which are known for their high strength and
1. I-Beam Girder Bridge - made up of several - A girder bridge mainly consists of two parts: the ability to support heavy loads.
I-shaped beams arranged parallel to one superstructure and the substructure. The
another and connected by horizontal superstructure is the visible portion of the bridge b. Concrete Girder Bridge: used in this type
members. that supports the loads, while the substructure of bridge, providing excellent durability and
includes the foundation that carries these loads low maintenance.
2. Box Girder Bridge: type of bridge where down to the ground below.
the main support beams are shaped like c. Composite Girder Bridges: combine
hollow boxes. 1. Superstructure Components materials like steel and concrete to take
advantage of the strengths of both.
3. Tied Arch Girder Bridge: combine arches • Deck - the surface that serves as the
and girders to create a strong and visually roadway or walkway. 2. BASED ON USE
appealing structure. a. Highway Bridge: designed to carry
• Supporting Structure - made of steel or
4. Plate Arch Girder Bridge: combine both concrete that hold up the bridge deck. vehicular traffic and are built to
arches and girders in their design, using accommodate the weight of cars, trucks,
steel plate arches for horizontal support. • Bearing Pads - allow for movement and buses.
between the upper part of the bridge
5. Reinforced Concrete Girder Bridge: use (the superstructure) and the lower part b. Railway Bridge: specifically designed to
strong concrete girders to hold up the (the substructure). support the weight of trains, which can be
bridge deck. significantly heavier than other vehicles.
2. Substructure Components
6. T-Beam Girder Bridge: type of bridge c. Pedestrian Bridge: enhance accessibility
where the main load-bearing structure • Abutment - functions as a foundation by connecting pathways and parks while
consists of T-shaped beams. by transferring the weight of the bridge ensuring safety for pedestrians.
to the solid ground, which helps
maintain its stability.
 d. Utility Bridge: support infrastructure like 6. Steel Girder Erection: involves lifting and 3.3 CONSTRUCTION METHJODS OF ARCH
pipelines, cables, and utilities, allowing for placing steel girders into position on the BRIDGES
safe passage over obstacles. bridge's supports using cranes or other
lifting equipment. 1. Cast-in-place Method: the arch is built in
3. BASED ON CONFIGURATION its final location. Temporary supports,
3. ARCH called falsework or centering, are used to
1. Single-Span Bridge: consists of one hold the arch segments in place as they are
continuous girder that spans from one - a curved structure that spans an opening and cast or assembled.
support to another. supports the weight above it.
2. Precast Segmental Method: involves
2. Multi-Span Bridge: distributes loads 3.1 TYPES OF ARCHES manufacturing arch segments off-site,
across several supports, making it suitable usually in a controlled environment, and
for varying terrain. 1. Deck arch bridge: a type of bridge where
the deck, which supports the traffic load, is then transporting them to the construction
3. Parallel Bridge: distributes loads evenly positioned above the highest point of the site.
and enhances stability for heavy use. arch. 3. Cantilever Construction Method: This
2.5 CONSTRUCTION METHODS OF GIRDER 2. Through arch bridge: a design where the method builds the arch from both ends
BRIDGE upper deck is located at the level of the towards the middle, without the need for
arch's spring line. full falsework.
1. Cable Cranes and Aerial Trams involves
using cable cranes or aerial trams to 3. Half-through arch bridge: Girders or 4. Scaffolding Construction Method: a
transport materials and girders to the trusses are positioned on either side, with traditional construction technique for arch
construction site, especially in hard-to- a deck beneath, but the girders are not tall bridges that has been extensively utilized
reach areas. enough to reach the top of the traffic in building historical structures,
clearance, so no bracing can be added to particularly ancient stone bridges made
2. In situ Concrete Method: involves pouring from stone blocks.
the top flanges or chords.
concrete directly at the bridge site to
create the girder and other structural 3.2 DESIGN OF ARCHES 4. GENERAL SAFETY MEASURES IN BRIDGE
components. CONSTRUCTION
1. Masonry Arches: primarily built with
3. Incremental Launching Method: sections stones and bricks, were commonly used as Safety and health are the most crucial aspect that
of the bridge are built and then pushed (or permanent structures in ancient times. needs to take seriously by all stakeholders. It is
"launched") into place from one end to the important to make sure all working places are in
other. 2. Concrete Arches: preferred material for safe condition to start a job.
modern arches due to its high compressive
4. Overhead Traveling Crane: used to lift and strength and low cost. 4.1 The worker’s level of awareness on safety
move girders and other materials during and health in bridge construction.
the construction process. 3. Steel Arches: typically comprises solid or
truss ribs with bracings. The lack of awareness of contractors on
5. Precast Concrete Method: involves Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)
4. CFST (Concrete Filled Steel Tubular) management systems in construction can
manufacturing concrete elements, such
as girders, in a factory setting before Arches: a highly effective type of steel- contribute to the accident at a construction site.
transporting them to the construction site. reinforced concrete composite bridge.
4.2 The barriers faced implementing safety and d. Soil Conditions - investigate the bearing 6.2 Sustainability Practices
health in bridge construction. capacity and soil composition to determine
1. The Use of Recycled Materials:
the most suitable foundation design and
1. Cost barriers mitigate risks associated with unstable soil. 2. Practicing Energy-Efficient Construction:
• lack of expertise or resources 5.2 Environmental Concerns 3. Green Bridges and Wildlife Crossings:
• lack of financial benefit in OHS investment a. Habitat Preservation - essential for 6.3 Smart Technologies
• lack of bargaining power maintaining biodiversity and ecological
balance 1. Bridge Information Modeling (BIM) - a
2. Time Barriers digital tool used in construction to create
b. Impact on Water Bodies - can increase detailed 3D models of buildings.
• long training and education time erosion and sedimentation, adversely
affecting aquatic ecosystems. 2. Embedded Sensors and IoT (Internet of
• tight project deadlines Things) - involve small devices that gather
5.3 Financial Constraints information about their surroundings, like
3. Lack of Safety Awareness and Concern
a. Budget Overruns - Unexpected costs can temperature and motion, and send it over the
• The fragmented nature of constructed internet.
arise from various unforeseen challenges,
industry such as site conditions that differ from initial 3. 3D Printing - a modern technique that uses
• Wrong perception or underestimation of assessments, fluctuating material prices, 3D printing technology to create parts or
risk and delays due to adverse weather. even entire bridges.
5.4 Project Management - crucial for the MODULE 13: TRENDS IN CONSTRUCTION
• Onerousness and variability of legislation
successful completion of bridge construction, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
5. CHALLENGES IN BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION as it encompasses planning, coordination, and
oversight of all project activities.
5.1 Site Selection Factors 3D Printing and its role in construction
5.5 Labor Availability - a critical factor in project - 3D printing in construction, also known as
a. Topography - assess elevation changes that management. A shortage of qualified workers additive manufacturing, refers to the
may affect structural design and consider can lead to delays, increased labor costs, and process of creating three-dimensional
access routes for construction equipment a decline in the overall quality of construction. building components or entire structures
and materials. layer by layer using specialized 3D printers.
6. LATEST TRENDS IN BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION - The process involves the use of large-scale
b. Geology - involves analyzing rock and soil
types to determine load-bearing capabilities 6.1 Advanced Materials 3D printers equipped with specialized
and assessing potential seismic activity that nozzles or extrusion systems.
1. Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) -
could impact the bridge's integrity.
- a strong and durable material used in Advantages of 3D Printing
c. Hydrology - evaluate water flow patterns to construction. a. Flexible Design: Allows more complex designs.
anticipate how the bridge will interact with b. Rapid Prototyping: Parts can be manufactured
2. Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRP) - are
local water bodies and assess water quality within hours.
materials made by mixing strong fibers like
to ensure that construction does not degrade c. Print on Demand: Saves space and costs as no
glass or carbon with plastic.
aquatic environments. need for large stock inventories.
d. Strong and Lightweight Parts: Important for 3. Selective Cement Activation (SCA) b. Lifecycle Management
industries like automotive and aerospace. - Similar to binder jetting, this process selectively - BIM supports the entire lifecycle of a building or
e. Fast Design and Production: Objects can be activates layers of dry material using a liquid infrastructure project:
printed quickly depending on complexity. binding agent to harden it into the desired shape. • Design Phase: Comprehensive modeling
f. Minimizing Waste: Only the material needed for of design elements.
the part is used, reducing wastage. Future Trends and Innovations for 3D Printing • Construction Phase: Coordination of
g. Environmentally Friendly: Reduces material 1. Development of New Materials construction activities and management
wastage and can improve fuel efficiency with 2. Large-Scale 3D Printing (Mega-Structures) of resources.
lightweight parts 3. Automation and Integration with Robotics • Operation and Maintenance: Post-
Disadvantages of 3D Printing 4. Integration with Smart Technology construction data management for facility
a. Limited Materials: Selection of plastics and maintenance and operations.
metals is not exhaustive. BIM for construction
b. Restricted Build Size: Print chambers have - BIM, or Building Information Modeling, describes c. Data Rich Models
small sizes; larger parts need to be joined after a digital process that aims to improve the various - The BIM model is more than just a visual
printing. stages of design and construction. BIM for representation:
c. Post Processing: Most parts require cleaning up construction integrates several different tools and • Integrated Data: Includes specifications,
and other post processing methods. methods to drive efficiency, reduce risk and save performance data, and maintenance
d. Part Structure: Layers can delaminate under costs. information.
stress due to the layer-by-layer production • Real-Time Updates: Changes are reflected
process. Benefits of BIM instantly across all related documents and
e. Reduction in Manufacturing Jobs: Automation a. Improve onsite collaboration and models.
could lead to job losses in manufacturing sectors. communication
f. Design Inaccuracies: Some printers have lower b. More opportunities for prefabrication and DRONES
tolerances, requiring post processing to meet modular construction - equipped with sensors, cameras, and GPS
design specifications. c. Mitigate risk and reduce cost technology, offer unmatched capabilities in
d. Safer construction site capturing real-time data, generating 3D models,
Types of 3D printing technologies used in the and performing remote inspections.
construction industry How Civil Engineers use BIM in Construction Types of Drones:
1. Contour Crafting (CC) Management? 1. Fixed-wing Drones
- This method uses a robotic arm or gantry system - aids in better communication and coordination - Fixed-wing drones resemble traditional airplanes,
to extrude construction materials (e.g., concrete, between all stakeholders involved in the with a set of rigid wings that generate lift as they
composites) layer by layer to form walls and construction process, enabling them to track and move forward.
structures. manage it efficiently.
2. Rotary-wing Drones
2. Binder Jetting Key Features of BIM - Rotary-wing drones are distinguished by their use
- A powder material (e.g., sand, concrete) is spread a. Class Detection and Resolution of multiple rotors (propellers) to generate lift. They
layer by layer. A binder solution is applied to bond - This process identifies potential conflicts can take off and land vertically, which is a major
the powder, creating solid layers to form the between different building systems, such as advantage in tight or confined spaces.
desired shape. plumbing and electrical components, before
construction begins. Types:
 • Quadcopter: The most common and volume calculations, height difference • Cost Saving
widely recognized type of rotary-wing assessments, and comprehensive site monitoring • Protected Area
drone, quadcopters have four rotors, through 2D/3D visualizations.
providing a balance between stability, Drone Outputs of Construction Drones
agility, and cost-effectiveness. Quality Control and Progress Monitoring • Orthophotos and Orthomosaic
• Hexacopter: With six rotors, hexacopters - Drones are essential for quality control, as they • Digital Surface Model (DSMs) and Digital
offer more power and stability compared to capture detailed imagery that facilitates thorough Terrain Model (DTMs)
quadcopters. inspections and defect detection. • 3D Textured Models
• Octocopter: Equipped with eight rotors, - Drones also allow for efficient progress • 3D Point Clouds
octocopters offer the most power, stability, monitoring throughout the project lifecycle by • Digital Elevation Model
and redundancy in the rotary-wing regularly capturing images and conducting
• Raw Images
category. surveys, enabling project managers to track
• Thermal Imaging
timelines, address delays, and enhance
• Video Footages
3. Hybrid Drones communication among stakeholders.
- Hybrid drones are a blend of fixed-wing and Potential Problems with Drones in Construction
rotary-wing technology, combining the strengths Safety Monitoring
- Utilizing drones for safety monitoring enhances • Knowledge and Skills: Capturing
of both designs.
construction site safety by identifying hazards accurate, high-quality data with drones is
such as unstable structures and equipment based on the pilot’s superior flying skills.
Drones Application during the Designing Phase
malfunctions through high-resolution imagery. • Manual Flights: Automated drone flights
of the Construction
work best since manual flights can induce
1. Site Selection
Material Tracking and Delivery errors.
2. Land Surveying and Mapping
- Drones streamline material tracking and delivery • Airspace Regulations: Places near
in construction by enabling quick and efficient airports or other restricted airspace,
Drone Application during the Construction
transportation of supplies. cannot legally fly a drone, therefore it is
Phase
important to conduct research about the
Challenges and Opportunities restrictions on the job site.
- Significant limitation across the design, • Weather Dependent: Drones cannot be
construction, and maintenance phases is the flown in windy conditions because there is
restricted flight time and range, primarily due to a possibility that it may be blown off
battery life constraints. course, preventing it from being
- Environmental factors like strong winds, rain, and maneuvered properly.
fog pose challenges for drone operations, • Vulnerable to Wild Animals: When
potentially delaying projects. drones fly in areas where there is a
significant amount of wildlife, they can
Benefits of Drones in Construction Industry clash with an animal or crash into a tree.
Earthwork and Grading Monitoring • Fast Data Collection • Software Issues or Malfunction: Drones
- Drones have transformed earthwork and grading • Improved Timeliness can suffer from malfunctions and software
monitoring by providing high-resolution imagery • Increased Safety failure. Drones’ signals are often
and advanced sensor data. They enable automatic
• Improved Communication
 scrambled by radio frequencies, which can Wearable Robotics and Exoskeletons • Capsule-based systems - healing agents
lead to loss of control - Construction workers may opt to use certain are encapsulated within the concrete,
wearable technology and exoskeletons that enable activating when a crack forms and
Robotics them to perform tasks more efficiently. releasing the agent to seal the opening.
Historical Perspective: Early Use of Robotics in • Vascular systems - utilize a network of
Construction Benefits of Robotics in Construction vessels containing healing agents that flow
1980’s and 1990’s - Japanese manufacturers uses • Increased Productivity and Efficiency to the site of a crack, ensuring immediate
robotics in construction that assist with the • Improved Safety and Risk Reduction repair.
automation of certain construction task. • Enhanced Precision and Quality
• Challenges and Limitations Key benefits of self-healing concrete:
Present Trends: Robotic Applications in • Integration with Existing Construction 1. Increased Durability
Construction Processes 2. Reduced Maintenance Costs
• Skilled Labor and Workforce Impact 3. Sustainability and Environmental Impact
Layout Robots 4. Enhanced Structural Integrity
- Many sites use layout robots to help increase the Other Present and Future Trends 5. Innovation in Construction Practices
efficiency and accuracy of construction projects. A. Green Building and Sustainability
These systems, including HP SitePrint, use - sustainability is a cornerstone of the construction C. Self-Compacting Concrete
robotics to develop highly accurate on-site layouts industry. Companies are adopting eco-friendly -is a highly fluid concrete that does not require,
and print text for enriched information. practices by using green building materials and and should not undergo, vibration during
integrating energy-efficient technologies. placement. The use of superplasticizers and
Robotic Automation in Repetitive Tasks Key benefits of green building: stabilizers greatly enhances its flowability,
- Many of the most commonly used robotics in • Energy Efficiency allowing it to fill moulds or formwork entirely under
construction assist with completing repetitive its own weight.
• Water Conservation
tasks. For instance, robotics systems developed in
• Health and Safety
the 1980s by Japanese company Shimizu perform Self-Compacting Concrete Materials:
various tasks, from plastering and tiling to • Portland Cement
B. Self-Healing Concrete
fireproofing steelwork and facade cleaning. • Aggregates
- Self-healing concrete refers to a type of concrete
that can autonomously repair cracks that develop • Water
Drones and Autonomous Vehicles in • Mineral Admixtures
over time. Self-healing concrete employs
Construction Common mineral admixtures:
advanced technologies that enable it to restore its
-Construction sites also often use drones and − Fly Ash: Enhances the filling of the
structural integrity without human intervention.
autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicles to concrete matrix, reducing pore size and
perform multiple tasks. For instance, drones can thereby decreasing permeability, which
Self-Healing Mechanisms:
assist with remote inspection of construction site improves structural quality.
• Bacterial self-healing concrete -
work, while autonomous vehicles perform tasks
incorporates bacteria, such as Bacillus − Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
such as paving and compacting.
subtilis, which can produce calcium (GGBS): Enhances the rheological
carbonate when exposed to moisture. This properties of concrete.
process fills cracks and prevents further − Stone Powder: Increases the powder
damage. content within the mix.
 − Silica Fumes: Improves the mechanical • Cost
strength of the concrete. 5. Asbestos Fibers - asbestos are naturally • Weight
− Chemical Admixtures inexpensive mineral fiber. They offer thermal
mechanical and chemical resistance making them
Type of concrete is particularly well-suited for suitable for sheet product pipes, tiles, and
use of SCC corrugated roofing elements.
• Drilled shafts
• Columns 6. Carbon Fibers - carbon fibers come under the
• Earth retaining systems very high modulus of elasticity and flexural
• Areas with a high concentration of rebar strength. Their strength and stiffness
and pipes/conduits characteristics have been found to be superior
even to those of steel, however, they are more
D. Fiber-Reinforced Concrete vulnerable to damage than glass fiber.
- Fiber-reinforced concrete is a type of concrete
mix containing fibrous materials either synthetic or 7. Organic Fibers - these fibers are chemically
natural fibers, or glass fibers. It is usually a mix of more inert than either steel or glass fibers
Portland Cement Concrete with either metallic or and they are also inexpensive. The problem of
polymer fibers. mixing and uniform dispersion may be solved by
adding a superplasticizer.
Types of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
1. Steel Fiber - it is often used for road pavement Factors Affecting Properties of Fiber Reinforced
overlays, bridge decks, and airfield pavement. Concrete
1. Relative Fiber Matrix Stiffness
2. Glass Fibers - it can be used for more modern 2. Volume of Fibers
and aesthetically pleasing finishes, lower-weight 3. Aspect Ratio of the Fiber
structure, like furniture or architectural claddings 4. Orientation of Fibers
on buildings. 5. Workability and Compaction of Concrete
6. Size of Coarse Aggregate
3. Synthetic Fiber - it can be microfibers or 7. Mixing
macrofibers. Microfibers can be used in concrete
to reduce shrinkage cracks and are commonly Advantages of Using Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
made of acrylic, polyester, nylon or polypropylene, • Early Crack Prevention
amongst others. • Durability and Strength
• Improved Ductility
4. Polypropylene Fiber - polypropylene is one of • An Alternative to Rebar
the cheapest and abundantly available polymers.
These fibers are resistant to most chemicals and
its melting point is high, therefore a working Disadvantages of Using Fiber-Reinforced
temperature as high as 100 degrees centigrade will Concrete
not detriment the properties of the fiber. • Must be Mixed Carefully