ORDINARY LEVEL

PHYSICS
PRACTICAL WORK BOOK

BY
The Department of physics @ St.Thomas Aquinas Secondary School,
2024.

NAME:

CLASS: STREAM:

SCHOOL:

©2024 St.Thomas Aquinas Secondary School Physics Department 0

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................................2

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................3

RECORDING OF PRACTICAL RESULTS ..............................................................................4

WORKED OUT EXAMPLES ............................................................................................... 12

MARKING GUIDE ............................................................................................................ 20

CHAPTER ONE: MECHANICS EXPERIMENTS................................................................... 21

CHAPTER TWO: LIGHT EXPERIMENTS ............................................................................ 32

CHAPTER THREE: HEAT EXPERIMENTS ......................................................................... 50

CHAPTER FOUR: ELECTRICITY EXPERIMENTS ............................................................... 53

©2024 St.Thomas Aquinas Secondary School Physics Department 1

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to the Headmaster of St.Thomas Aquinas Secondary school, Fr. Maganga Salvatory for the
encouragement and support he provided to the Physics department in the production of this workbook while
doing a full time Job at his school. I also express my sincere gratitude to all the under listed members of the
Physics Department of St.Thomas Aquinas Secondary School.

1. Mr. Magoha S.{ Head of Physical Sciences department}

2. Mr. Kamata M.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without written
permission from the authors.

Copy right: Department Of Physics

St.Thomas Aquinas Secondary School.

©2024 St.Thomas Aquinas Secondary School Physics Department 2

 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS PRACTICAL
 Read through the experiment , reflect on its objective and
1.1: INTRODUCTION 535/3 PHYSICS title
Physics is sometimes called the science of measurements  Identify the quantities to be actually measured and those
because without observation and measurement it would not to be calculated or derived as well as the given quantities
exist. which control the experiments
 In order to develop and test theories it is important to  Draw a detailed columnar table of results for all the
make measurements that are precise and accurate measurements that are to be repeated and their associate
 This workshop therefore discusses the recording of calculations.
measurements and data manipulation at ordinary level Note
(UCE). All values given to control the extent of performing the
experiment should be filled in the first column of the table
1.2 Ordinary Level Physics Practical course should enable while keeping the order in which they are stated and the units
students to:
 Carry out experiments on fundamental laws and Column headings (Table of results)
principles encountered in the theoretical work e.g.  A closed columnar table of results with only three
Hooke’s law, Snell’s law, Principle of moments etc. horizontal lines should be drawn.
 Carry out measurements in the determination of a wide  Al columnar headings must be labeled and should consist
variety of physical constants e.g. acceleration due to of a quantity and a unit or without a unit as the case may
gravity, refractive index of glass or liquid, mass of a be.
metre rule, density of a substance, internal resistance of a  The unit is separated from the quantity by enclosing it in
cell, focal length of a lens or mirror, resistance per metre brackets .e. g a length l measured in centimetres may be
of a wire. represented as follows – l (cm) but not length l (cm).
 Gain experience of a variety of measuring instruments  Avoid the use of equations in column headings especially
and learn to handle them with skills and also appreciate when the quantity has been defined, e. g when the
their limitations. extension is calculated from e= (P1-P0), the column
heading should be e (cm) but not e= (P 1-P0) (cm).
1.3 Objectives of the practical exam are to test students on;  However, (P1-P0) (cm) is a good column heading when
 The ability to handle apparatus and use measuring the extension e is not defined.
𝑦−𝑥
instruments effectively and safely  Avoid column headings such as l1-l2 (cm) or (cm)
𝑎
 The ability to plan the presentation of practical work 𝑦−𝑥
 The ability to interpret, evaluate and report upon rather use (l1-l2) (cm) and (cm).
𝑎
observations and experimental data  When a quantity has not been assigned a symbol, choose
an appropriate symbol or letter to represent it. e. g.
1.4 To students, each student should possess the following suppose a step in the procedure reads :-
scholastic materials;  Determine the time for 20 0scillations.
 Long transparent rule, Scientific calculator, Geometrical  Choose a letter, say, t, to represent the time for 20
set, Sharp pencil and a rubber, Graph paper oscillations, instead of writing time for 20 oscillations as a
column heading.
The duration of the Practical paper is 2 hours and 15 minutes.  The first letter of the names of the quantity is usually
(15 minutes for reading and planning, 2 hours for working). preferred. t- for time, m- for mass, l-for length, h-for
height, p-for pointer positions.
Question one – always mechanics question and compulsory
Question Two – always light or heat 1.1 Columns of calculated quantities.
Question Three – always-current electricity Some quantities can be calculated from a formula or
given expression and you should not omit steps that lead
Options to the final results of the formula e. g when asked to
Total number of questions to answer is 2, each question is 30 tabulate your results including values of :
marks, and whole paper is marked out of 60 marks.  Cos2𝜃, you must progress from 𝜃 to cos𝜃 and then cos2𝜃
you must therefore have a column for 𝜃, cos𝜃 and then
PLANNING THE EXPERIMENT (15 MINUTES) 𝑥2 𝑥2
cos2𝜃.. For , progress from x to 𝑥 2 then .
1.1 The purpose is to help students to : 𝑦 𝑦

 Think ahead and plan, Set up the apparatus as shown in

the diagram, Avoid making careless mistakes due to panic 1.2 Units of calculated quantities.
 Properly record data with appropriate units  Units of calculated quantities can be derived from the
formulae or equations that relate different quantities
𝑉
1.2 The students therefore should : e.g. Column labeled can have the VA-1 OR Ω as its
𝐼
units.

©2024 St. Thomas Aquinas Secondary School Physics Department 3

 RECORDING PRACTICAL RESULTS
The values recorded during the Physics Experiment Practical, a) A numerical value recorded to the nearest smallest scale
are divided into three. i.e. division.
b) Units.
(a) Given values of varying quantity: These are usually
given in the procedures. They must be recorded the way N.B
they are given in the instructions unless told to record When given an instrument for carrying out measurements one
otherwise. need to study the scale and establish the least Count or What
1 small scale division represents and then Units.
(b) Experimental values (or measured values): These are
values of a varying quantity that are determined using an Recording measurements in an experiment
instrument. They are recorded to the accuracy of the (i) Single measurement (The procedure does not require
instrument used .For example; repeating)
 Examples of single measurement:
Table A:  Width of metre rule;
Instrument Quantity Unit Accuracy  Width of a glass block;
measured (Number of  Rough distance of the image of a distant object in a
decimal concave mirror or convex lens.
places)
Metre-rule & Length (cm) 1 dp.  Take the required measurement at least three times and
Foot ruler then calculate the average of the measured values and
Stop clock Time (s) 1 dp. give its value to the degree of accuracy of the measuring
(last digit instrument.
.0 or .5)  The measured results may be put in table and the average
8.0s, 10.0s, calculated outside the table.
22.5s, 55.0s  If the measurement is required to be recorded in SI units,
Stop watch Time (s) 2 dp. then record all the values in S.I units before finding the
1.20s, 4.07s, average.
50.00s, 54.38s.
Ammeter Current (A) 2 dp.  In some cases a single measurement is taken once. For
0.14A, 0.22A, example, in experiments using a helical spring the initial
0.58A, 0.90A position of the pointer before attaching a mass on it is
Voltmeter Voltage (V) 2 dp. recorded once.
0.35V, 0.80V,
1.25V, 2.95V (ii) Repeated measurement (Certain steps of the procedure
Protractors Angles ( 0) 0dp. are required to be repeated for given values)
Measuring Volume (cm3) e.g.19°,  These measurements are put in the main table of results to
cylinders, or 50°, 87°, 32° the accuracy of the instrument used.
Burettes, (ml)  In any column the number of decimal places in that
Pipettes 7ml,15ml, column must be the same.
49ml.
Thermometer Temperature 0
C The main table of results should have only values of varying
quantities
Constant values of non-repeated quantity should be recorded
Row data consist of readings or measurements taken directly before the main table of results.
from a measuring instrument.

It should be expressed to a fixed number of decimal places (c) Derided quantity values
dictated by the scale of the instrument the units used and the  The values of trigonometric ratios and logarithms are
precision of the instrument. recorded to 3dp

All the raw reading of a particular quantity should be recorded  Calculated values:
to the same number of decimal places and should be consistent These are usually obtained from the experimental values.
with the precision and accuracy of the apparatus
(i) Decimal Places
Each reading recorded from an instrument should consist of The number of decimal places (dp) is the number of digits to
two parts namely:- the right end of a decimal point. E.g. the number 3.6420 is
given to 4dp.Thus 3.6420 ≈ 3.642(3dp), 3.6420 ≈ 3.64(2dp),

©2024 St Thomas Aquinas Secondary School Physics Department 4

3.6420 ≈ 3.6(1dp), 3 .6420 ≈ 4 (0dp).  (i) 4.721 (3dp) + 1.18 (2dp) = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟎 (𝟐𝐝𝐩)

(ii) Significant Figures (ii) 420.03(2dp) + 299.270(3dp) + 99.068(3dp)

The Significant Figures of a number refer to those digits that = 818.368 = 𝟖𝟏𝟖. 𝟑𝟕(𝟐𝐝𝐩).
have meaning in reference to a measured or specified value.
Correctly, accounting for Significant Figures is important  420.03 is the least precise (2 decimal places). So the
while performing arithmetic so that the resulting answers answer 818.368 MUST BE rounded to 2 decimal places
accurately represent numbers that have computational to give 818.37 (2Decimal place)
significance or value.
(iii) 504.009(3dp) + 246.8(1dp) − 119.32(2dp)
There are three rules that are used to determine how many = 𝟔𝟑𝟏. 𝟔(𝟏𝐝𝐩). .
significant figures are in a number. There are also rules for
determining how many digits should be included in numbers 2. Multiplication & division of quantities
computed using addition/subtraction, multiplication/ division, The number of significant figures (s.f) in the answer should
or a combination of these operations. be the same as the least number of s.f in any of the numbers
being multiplied or divided. E.g.
Rules for determining how many Sig Figs are in a number:
Rule #1: Non zero digits (1 – 9). Every non zero digits in a (i) 5.90 x 0.05 = 0.3
recorded measurement is significant 3 s. f x (1s. f ) = (1s. f )
Examples:- 5.39 has three significant figures, 1.892 has four
significant figures, 1.37mm, 5.42cm, 99.8 cm are expressed to
(ii) 7.0 x 0.560 = 3.9
3 s.f.
(2 s. f ) x (3 s. f ) = (2 s. f )
Rule #2: Trapped zeros. Zero between non-Zero digits are 1.80( 3 𝑠.𝑓)
significant. Example; 4023 has four significant figures, 50014 (iii) = 18 (2 s. f )
0.10(2 𝑠.𝑓)
has five significant figures, 10.5cm, 9.06cm, 2.04, 504 have 3
s.f 0.045 2𝑠𝑓 × 0.00465 3𝑠𝑓
(iv) = 0.000050 2𝑠𝑓
4.2 2𝑠𝑓
Rule #3: Trailing zeros.
 Zero at end of a number and to the right of decimal points
is significant. Example: 1.00m, 0.300m, 2.50m, 10.0cm Note:
are expressed to 3 sf. (i) (53.4)2 = 2852 (0dp) and not 2850 (3sf) as the rules could
have predicted, because the value 2850 (3sf) would
 Trailing zeros are not significant in numbers without increase the error seriously.
decimal point. They just sense as place value holders to
show the magnitude of a number. Example: 470000 has (ii) (2400)(3.45)(16.21) = 134218.8 = 134219
2s.f, 400 has 1 sf, 300, 500, 80000, 1000000 are The number 2400 only has 2 Sig Figs (and its the least no. of
expressed to 1sf. sfs), so the answer 134218.8 must be rounded to 2 Sf’s to give
Note. 39.9 rounded to 2sf is 40. [Please note the decimal point 130000. However, this creates a very large error, so we just
at the end of the trailing zero. It makes the zero trapped and round off to a whole number 134219.
hence significant] Thus if the number of significant figures before a decimal
point exceed those predicted by rule, then just round off to a
Rule #4: Leading zeros. Zeros to the left of the first non-Zero whole number (0dp).
digit are NOT significant. Example; 0.000034 has only 2 s.f,
0.001111 has 4 s.f, 0.0075m, 0.000089m, 0.00037m are
3. A float;
expressed to 2 s.f
A float is a whole number or a constant, which has an infinite
number of decimal places e.g. 1, 20, 100, 𝜋 etc. A float is not
Rules for determining the number of decimal an experimental value. It’s only used in calculations and does
places in a column: not affect the number of significant figures. E.g.
The number of decimal places or significant figures to which 29.5 (3 𝑠.𝑓)
these values are to be recorded is obtained using the two basic (i) = 1.48 (3 s. f )
20(𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 )
rules of data manipulation. These are;
𝟏
(iii) = 4.90 (3s.f). Not considering 1 because it’s a
1. Addition and subtraction of quantities. 𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟒(𝟑 𝐬.𝐟)
 The number of decimal places (dp) in the answer should float value.
be the same as the least number of dps in any of the
numbers being added or subtracted. E.g.

©2024 St, Thomas Aquinas Secondary School Physics Department 5

 MANIPULATION OF DATA IN THE TABLE
Finding the number of significant figures for calculated values in the main table of results
Largest value in the column (i.e Largest product, Largest quotient, or Largest reciprocal) to determine significant figures of the
rest of the processed values in that column. Largest value has the largest number of significant figures.

Example 1
𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝑥(𝑚) 𝑦(𝑐𝑚) 𝑦(𝑚) 𝑥𝑦(𝑚2 ) 𝑥 2 𝑚2 𝑥 𝑥𝑙 1 −1 𝑦 2 𝑐𝑚2 log 𝑥𝑦 −10log 𝑥𝑦
𝑦 (𝑚) (𝑚 )
𝑦 𝑦
0.05 26.1 0.261 0.01 0.003 0.19 0.10
0.10 31.0 0.310 0.03 0.010 0.32 0.16
0.15 38.0 0.380 0.06 0.023 0.39 0.20
0.20 45.0 0.450 0.09 0.040 0.44 0.22
0.25 53.2 0.532 0.13 0.063 0.47 0.23
0.30 62.0 0.620 0.19 0.090 0.48 0.24

𝒙𝒍 𝟎.𝟑𝟎(𝟐𝒔𝒇) ×𝟎.𝟓𝟎𝟎(𝟑𝒔𝒇)
 In the column of , using the largest value in this column, we have; = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒(𝟐𝒔𝒇) . Thus, all values in this
𝒚 𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟎(𝟑𝒔𝒇)
column should be recorded to 2dp.

 In the column of 𝑥 2 , using the largest value in the columns of x , we have; 0.30(2𝑠𝑓 ) × 0.30(2𝑠𝑓) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟎(2𝑠𝑓) . Thus, all values in
the column of 𝑥 2 should be recorded to 3dp.

Example 2
𝑬 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝑽 (𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆)
𝑦(𝑚) V(V) I(A) 1 −1 1 −1 𝑉 𝐸 1 −1 IV W
(V ) (A ) Ω (m )
V I 𝐼 𝑉 y
0.200 0.50 0.40 2.0 2.5 1.3 6.0 5.00
0.300 0.60 0.36 1.7 2.8 1.7 5.0 3.33
0.400 0.70 0.32 1.4 3.1 2.2 4.3 2.50
0.500 0.90 0.28 1.1 3.6 3.2 3.3 2.00
0.600 1.00 0.24 1.0 4.2 4.2 3.0 1.07
0.700 1.10 0.20 0.9 5.0 5.5 2.7 1.43

 In the column of 𝑦, the values are given precisely to 3 d.p. In the column of 𝑉, the values of voltage were measured from a
voltmeter to the accuracy of 2dp. Similarly, In the column of 𝐼, the values of current were measured from an ammeter to the
accuracy of 2dp.

1 𝟏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕
 In the column of , using the largest value in this column, we have; = 𝟐. 𝟎(𝟐𝒔𝒇) . Thus, all values in this column
𝑉 𝟎.𝟓𝟎(𝟐𝒔𝒇)
should be recorded to 1 dp.

1 𝟏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕
 In the column of , using the largest value in this column , we have; = 𝟐. 𝟓(𝟐𝒔𝒇) . Thus, all values in this column
I 𝟎.𝟒𝟎(𝟐𝒔𝒇)
should be recorded to 1 dp.

V 𝟏.𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝒔𝒇
 In the column of , using the largest value in this column, we have; = 𝟓. 𝟓(𝟐𝒔𝒇) . Thus, all values in this column
I 𝟎.𝟐𝟎(𝟐𝒔𝒇)
should be recorded to 1 dp.
1
 In the column of , using the largest value in this column (Largest Reciprocal of y, Use Least value in the column of y), Hence,
𝑦
𝟏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕
we have; = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎(𝟑𝒔𝒇) . Thus, all values in this column should be recorded to 2 dp.
𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟎(𝟑𝒔𝒇)

6
 Example 3.

𝑙(𝑚) 𝑙 3 (𝑚3 ) 𝑡(𝑠) T(𝑠) T2 𝑠 2 1 −2

𝑠
T2
𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟎(𝟑𝒔𝒇) 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟗(𝟑𝒔𝒇) 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟓(𝟒𝒔𝒇) 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟕𝟓(𝟒𝒔𝒇) 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟕𝟕(𝟒𝒔𝒇)
These values These values
were given (3 sf) were (4 sf) (4 sf)
precisely to obtained
3d.p from a stop
watch to 2d.p
0.400 0.0640 6.50 0.3250 0.1056

 In the Column of 𝒍𝟑 ; Using the largest value in the column of 𝒍, we have; 0.900(3𝑠𝑓 ) × 0.900(3𝑠𝑓 ) × 0.900(3𝑠𝑓) = 0.729(3𝑠𝑓 ) .
Thus all values in the column of 𝒍𝟑 should be recorded to 3dp.
17.75 (4𝑠𝑓 )
 In the Column of 𝑻; Using the largest value in the column of 𝒕 , we have; = 0.8875(4𝑠𝑓) . Thus, all values in the column
20
of 𝑇 should be recorded to 4dp.

 In the Column of 𝑻𝟐 ; Using the largest value in the column of T , we have; 0.8875(4𝑠𝑓 ) × 0.8875(4𝑠𝑓 ) = 0.7877(4𝑠𝑓) . Thus, all
values in the column of 𝑻𝟐 should be recorded to 4dp.

Example 4.

u(cm) v(cm) (u+v) (cm) uv(cm2) 𝑣 cos 𝑢 log 𝑣 𝑢𝑣 cos 𝑢 𝑐𝑚2 log 𝑢𝑣
𝑢
20.0 66.6 1332 3.33
25.0 41.7 1043 1.67
30.0 32.8 984 1.09
35.0 28.5 998 0.81
40.0 26.5 1060 0.66
45.0 24.2 1089 0.54

 For uv : Using the largest product, Largest value in this column, we have: 20.0(3𝑠𝑓) × 66.6(3𝑠𝑓 ) = 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟐(𝟎𝒅𝒑) . Thus, all
𝑣
values in the column of should be recorded to 0dp.
𝑢

𝑣 66.6 (3𝑠𝑓 ) 𝑣
 For : Using the largest quotient, in this column, we have: = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑(𝟑𝒔𝒇) . Thus, all values in the column of should be
𝑢 20.0 (3𝑠𝑓 ) 𝑢
recorded to 2dp.

𝑖(0 ) 𝑟(0 ) 𝑥(𝑐𝑚) 𝑙(𝑐𝑚) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟(𝑐𝑚) sin2i 1

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖
10 6 0.8 7.0 0.156 0.996 0.8
20 14 1.6 7.2 0.342 0.970 1.6
30 20 2.4 7.4 0.500 0.940 2.3
40 28 3.5 7.8 0.643 0.883 3.1
50 30 4.0 8.1 0.766 0.866 3.5
60 35 4.8 8.5 0.866 0.819 3.9

For 𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 : Using the largest product in this column of 𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓, We have:
𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟗(𝟑𝒔𝒇) × 𝟒. 𝟖(𝟐𝒔𝒇) = 𝟑. 𝟗(𝟐𝒔𝒇) . Hence values in the column of 𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒓 𝒄𝒎 shouldbe recorded to 𝟏 𝒅𝒑.

7
Example 4  In the column for l2, using the largest value we've;
Given that the-values of f0(cm), xl(cm) and x2(cm)are l2=65.0(3s.f) x 65.0(3s.f) = 4225 (3s.f)
experimental values, all measured using a meter rule. Thus, all values in the column should be written to 0dpl.
Complete the table of results for values of l (cm), d (cm),
d2(cm2)and (l2-d2) (cm2);where d = (X2- Xl) and f0= 10.0cm.  In the column for (l2-d2),using the largest value we have;
(l2-d2) = 4225(0dpl) - 1866(0dpl) = 2359(0dpl).
SOLUTION Thus, all values in the column should be written to 0dpl
l(cm) l(cm) xl (cm) x2(cm) d(cm) l2 (cm2) d2 (cm2) (l2-d2) (cm2) Note:
 The above rules only apply to the largest value in a
6.5f0 65 52.0 8.8 -43.2 4225 1866 2359 column or columns under consideration.
 For uniformity, all values in a particular column in the
6.0f0 60 46.6 9.2 -37.4 3600 1399 2201 table must be written to the same number of decimal
places as the largest value in that column.
5.5f0 55 36.2 11.0 -25.2 3025 635 2390
 In case the number of significant figures before a decimal
5.0f0 50 41.1 10.0 -31.1 2500 967 1533 point exceeds those predicted by the rules, then just round
of to the nearest whole number.
4.5f0 45 30.0 11.9 -18.1 2025 328 1697  If the rules give constant values in a column, then
increase the number of significant figures by one.
4.0f0 40 24.9 13.0 -11.9 1600 142 1458
Complete the tables bellow using the rules of data
To determine the number of decimal places for the values in a manipulation above.
given column we first determine the number of decimal places
for the leading value in the column (i.e. by using the rules for Question 1
data manipulation) and then we write the remaining values to
the same number of decimal places. 𝒍 𝐜𝐦 𝐈 𝐀 𝟏 −𝟏
𝐀
𝐈
How the numbers of decimal places for the calculated values
in the above table of results were determined. 10.0 0.32
 Values of x1, and x2 are experimental values obtained 20.0 0.30
using a meter rule. They must be recorded to the accuracy 30.0 0.28
of the meter rule (i.e. 1dpl). 40.0 0.26
50.0 0.22
 In the column for l, using the largest value we've; 60.0 0.20
6.5f0 = 6.5(2s.f) x 10.0(3s.f) = 65(2s.f). Question 2
Since the largest value is to 2sf, all the values in the
column of l (cm) should be written to 2dp. 𝒚 𝐜𝐦 𝐕 𝐕 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
𝐕 𝐜𝐦−𝟏
𝐕 𝐲
 In the column for d, using the largest value (-43.2), we've;
d = x2–x1 30.0 0.90
d = 13.0(ldp)-24.9(ldp)= - 11.9(ldp).. 40.0 0.95
All the values in the column of d (cm) should therefore be
50.0 1.15
written to 1dpl.
60.0 1.35
70.0 1.55
 In the column for d2, using the largest value we've;
d = (-43.2)2=(-43.2) (3s.f's) x (-43.2) (3Sf's) ,
2
Table 1:
d2 = 1866.24 ≈ 1866 (0dp)
x(cm) x2(cm2) l(cm) l2(cm2) (x2-l2) (cm2)
It is important to note that the value 1866.24 is supposed to be 85.0 48.6
written to 3sf's (if we follow the rule for multiplication). 75.0 42.1
However, if the value 1866.24 is written to 3sf's we get 1870. 70.0 33.5
In this case, the error created due to rounding off is quite big.
65.0 29.7
Thus to minimize the rounding off error, we round this
number off but write it as a whole number i.e. round it off to 60.0 18.4
remove the decimal. 55.0 15.8
Thus, we write 1866.24 ≈ 1866(0dpl). Since the leading value
is to 0dpl, all the values in the column should be to 0dpl.

8
Table 2: Table 6:
l(m) t(s) T(s) T2(s2) l3(m3) 1 -2 d(cm) d2(cm2) y1(cm) y2(cm) (y2- y1)(cm) (y2- y1)2(cm2)
(s )
T2
0.9 17.75 41.0 15.3 24.6
0.8 15.25 46.0 13.5 31.8
0.7 12.94 51.0 12.5 37.5
0.6 10.62 56.0 11.8 42.7
0.5 8.40 61.0 11.5 48.1
0.4 6.50 66.0 11.0 53.4

Table 3: a) Include values ofd2- (y2- y1)2.

d(cm) 2θ(0) θ(0) 20T(s) T(s) T2(s2) cos 𝜃 b) Plot a graph ofd2- (y2- y1)2 against d.
c) Find the slope, S of your graph.
70 120 24.33
d) Calculate the focal length of the convex lens from; S= 4f.
60 95 26.30
50 76 27.90 Table 7:
40 60 28.62 R(Ω) l(cm) 100 − 𝑙 (𝑐𝑚) (100 − 𝑙)
30 46 29.42 𝑙
1 75.0
20 32 29.70
2 60.9
(a) Plot a graph of T2 against cos 𝜃 3 50.9
(b) Find the slope S of your graph. 4 44.1
Table 4: 5 38.4
t(cm) x(cm) y(cm) x2(cm2) y2(cm2) 6 34.4
1.5 1.7 2.6
100 −𝑙
1.7 2.1 3.2 a) Plot a graph of against R
𝑙
1.9 2.3 3.6 b) Determine the slope S of the graph
2.1 2.5 3.8 c) Find the unknown resistance Rs from the expression
𝟏
2.3 2.8 4.2 𝐑𝐬 =
𝐒
2.5 3.0 4.6
Table 8:
2 2 i(0) r(0) l(cm)
a) Plot a graph ofy against x
b) Find the slope s of your graph.
c) Compute the critical angle C, of the glass from the 10 6 6.5
expression; 20 13 6.6
𝟏 30 20 6.8
𝐂 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 √𝐒
𝟐 40 26 7.1
Table 5:
50 30 7.4
x(m) x2(m2) 20T(s) T(s) T2(s2)
60 36 7.9
0.10 14.5
1
0.15 15.0 a) Plot a graph of 2 against sin2i
𝑙
0.20 16.0 b) Find the slope K of the graph.
1
0.25 17.0 c) Read and record the intercept C on the 2 axis.
𝑙
0.30 18.5 d) Calculate the width w of the glass block from the
expression:
0.35 20.0 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐
𝑾=
a) Plot a graph of T2 against x2 𝑪
b) Determine the intercept, C on the T 2 – axis. e) Determine the refractive index of the glass block from the
c) Find the slope S of your graph. expression;
𝟏
𝑪 𝟐
𝒏=
−𝑲

9
 GRAPH WORK
a. Title of the graph at the top of the graph paper. Note: 4 & 8 are however not convenient digits though they are
 Clearly written in only 1 line e.g. A graph of T 2 Against at times used.
x2 (i.e. T2 plotted along the vertical axis &x2 along the 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞
 If the value of does not fall exactly on one of the
horizontal axis). 𝐍𝐨.𝐬𝐬𝐪

 No units should be included in the title. convenient scales, take the nearest upper value from the
 Must be noted as given in the procedures or instruction set of convenient scales (i.e. the scale should be rounded
requiring you to plot the graph. to the nearest greater (upper) suitable value of one
significant figure.
(ii) Axes
 Must be drawn perpendicularly to each other with an  In case the first nonzero digit is 1, make it 2. If it is 2, 3 or
arrow at the end of each axis. 4, make it 5. If it is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, make it 10.
 Each axis must be clearly and correctly labeled with the
quantity and unit in brackets. 1; 2 2, 3, 4; 5 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; 10
 It must be clearly marked every after 10 small squared
(2cm) starting from the origin. 1.011; 2 0.11344; 0.2 0.015432 0.02
 The starting point of each axis must be clearly shown.
2.021; 5 0.31344; 0.5 0.04;5432 0.05
(iii) Intercepts
 The intercept on a particular axis is the value for the 5.57 10 0.6789 1 0.07432 0.1
quantity plotted along that axis for which, the quantity
plotted along the other axis is zero. 0.00995432 0.01
 Therefore, if the intercept on the vertical (y – axis) is
required, the starting point on the vertical can be  Multiply by 10 to get what 2cm (10small squares)
anywhere (i.e. any value slightly below the smallest value represent.
in the column to be plotted on that axis) but the horizontal  If the interval between zero and the 1st reading is
axis (x-axis) must start from zero. Similarly, if the extremely bigger than the interval between the first
intercept on the horizontal axis is required, then the reading and second reading, then the first reading or
vertical axis must begin from zero. lowest value should be shifted closely to the origin or to
the starting point of that axis.
(iv) Scale
Obtaining the Suitable Convenient Scale Choosing the starting value along each axis
A scale is suitable if it covers at least 50% of the graph paper.  When marking the axes, if the question does not involve
It is convenient if it is easy to plot and follow. It is consistent finding the intercept, the starting value should not
along an axis, if it is uniform (has equal intervals) along that necessarily be zero. Start from a convenient value which
axis. is smaller than and a bit distant from the smallest value
in the column.
Obtain the range on both vertical axis (VA) and horizontal  The starting value on any axis should be a multiple of the
axis (HA). scale on that axis.
𝐆𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
Where; 𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 = – 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞  There are only two cases where the starting value on a
𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐞 𝐩𝐥𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐝
given axis must be zero, 0. These are:
(i) When the smallest value (top or bottom value) in
PROCEDURES HORIZONTAL VERTICAL
a column is very close to zero.
Range on H. A Range on V. A
1∶ 1∶ (ii) When an intercept is required on the other
No. ssq No. ssq (perpendicular) axis.
𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞
𝟏∶
𝐍𝐨. 𝐬𝐬𝐪 Rang eon H. A Range on V. A  In order to plot a point accurately on a particular axis, get
1∶ 1∶
80 100 the value to be plotted from the main table of results
(without rounding off), subtract the nearest value on that
(This gives what one smallest square represents on each axis from the value to be plotted, and then divide the
axis of the graph) result by the scale of that axis. This gives the number of
smallest squares to be counted from the chosen nearest
 For convenience use digits 1, 2, 2.5 and 5 then value when plotting that value.
submultiples e.g. 0.1, 0.2, 0.25 and 0.5; 0.01, 0.02, 0.025,
and 0.05 etc. and the multiples e.g. 10, 20, 25 and 50, e. Line of best fit or best curve
100, 200, 250 and 500, etc. Either the plotted points lead to a curve or best straight lines.
In the case of a straight, then it should be a line through most
of the points leaving almost equal no. of points on either side

10
if the points are scattered. This line should be produced long should be recorded in minutes only when required in
enough to cut the axis. minutes.

f. Slope
When finding the slope, a large triangle covering all the
plotted points is drawn. The points to be used to find the slope
should be correctly read and written on the graph.

𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬(𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬)

𝐒𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞, 𝐒 =
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐇𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐳𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬(𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬)

ΔVertical
Slope 
ΔHorizontal
The slope should have the appropriate units obtained from the Before using the stopwatch, reset it such that its initial reading
quantities of the labeled axes, except when it is a ratio of is zero as in the figure above.
quantities of the same unit.
Examples
Convert the time t, in the figures below to seconds
 Calculation
Before substituting any quantity in the formula or expression,
it must be converted to S.I units first. The values should be
correctly substituted in the given expression.

 The accuracy of the final answer should be that of the

least accurate measurement involved in the calculation.
(i.e. put into account the rules of data manipulation).
Put the units of the quantity under investigation if any.

MEASUREMENT OF TIME
The instruments commonly used for measuring time in the
laboratory are the stop clock and stop watch. Before using
these instruments, ensure that the initial reading is zero. (i) The reading is 34.56 seconds
(ii) The reading is 59.23 seconds
Stop clock (iii) The reading is 6.40 seconds
 It measures time in seconds. 1 small division on the scale (iv) The reading is 77.38 seconds i.e
of stop clock=1s OR 1 small division = 0.5s 1 × 60 + 17.38 = 77.38
 It is possible to estimate time to 1 d.p with both Stop (ii) Stop Clock
Clocks. A reading on a stop clock is to one decimal place. i.e ; .0 or .5
 Both Clocks record time to 1 d.p and the last digits in any
values should be a 0 or 5. Typical Values are 8.0s, 10.0s,
22.5s, 55.0s

(i) Stop watch

The stop watch measures time in seconds(s) to two decimal
places. All values of time obtained using a stop watch must be
recorded to two decimal places e.g. 7.23, 25.56, 48.89 etc.

 The Stop Watch records time to the nearest 0.01s (2 d.p)

 Every reading recorded with this Stop watch must
therefore be recorded to 2 d.p. Typical readings 1.20s,
4.07s, 50.00s, 54.38s. Wrong readings 7.321s, 20s, 41.6s, In the figure, the reading of the stop clock is 60.5s or 0.5s
48.0s (to 1 decimal place).
Note : The stop watch may give values of time in In the 2nd figure above, the stop clock reading for the pointer
minutes, seconds and microseconds. These values should in position A, B, C, D and E is as follows;
be converted and recorded in seconds. Values of time In position A, stop clock reading = 50.5s
In position B, stop clock reading = 52.0s

11
In position C, stop clock reading = 53.0s not 52.8s the smallest division is 1s,of time are recorded to 0dp (as
In position D, stop clock reading = 54.0s not 54.4s whole numbers)
In position E, stop clock reading = 55.0s
It is important to note that values recorded to a wrong number
If the smallest division on the stop clock is 0.5s, like the one of decimal places are marked wrong even if they lie in the
above, then values of time are recorded to 1dp. However, if range for the correct values.

Example 1:

In this experiment, you will investigate the relationship between the depression of a loaded beam and the distance
between the supports.

Procedure.

a) Attach a pointer at the 50cm mark of the meter rule, use cello tape.
b) Place the meter rule so that it lies horizontally on the two knife edges provided.
c) Clamp a scale vertically and place it near the 50cm mark of the meter rule as shown in the figure below.

d) Adjust the knife-edges such that the distance x between them is equal to 90cm and they are equidistant from 50cm
mark of the metre rule.
e) Read and record the position of the pointer on the scale.
f) Suspend a mass, m of 500g at the 50cm mark of the metre rule
g) Read and record the position of the pointer on scale. Hence find the depression, D, of the metre rule at its midpoint
h) Remove the mass from the metre rule.
i) Repeat the procedures (d) to (h) for values of x = 80cm, 70cm, 60cm, 50cm, and 40cm.
j) Enter your results in a suitable table including values of log10 D and log10 𝑋
k) Plot a graph of log10 D ( along the vertical axis) against log10 D (along the horizontal axis)
l) Find the slop, N, of the graph.

Apparatus: A meter ruler, Half meter rule, 2 knife edges, a 500g mass and retort stand with a clamp, pointer,
Cellotape.

12
 SOLUTION

Recording single readings:

e) Let Po be the initial position and pointer and P be the new position of the pointer
Po= 80.0cm.Then D = P - Po
g) P = 84.8cm; D = P - Po
= 84.8cm - 80.0cm
= 𝟒. 𝟖 𝐜𝐦

Recording repeated readings:

j) The table of results
X(cm) P(cm) D(cm) log10 X log10 D
90 84.8 4.8 1.954 0.681
80 82.8 2.8 1.903 0.447
70 81.7 1.7 1.845 0.230
60 81.2 1.2 1.778 0.079
50 80.6 0.6 1.699 - 0.222
40 80.3 0.3 1.602 - 0.523

i) From the graph,

0.74  (0.50)
Slope; N 
2.00  1.605
1.24

0.395
𝐍 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒

NOTE: Calculation for the scale should be done as side work and should not be included on the answer
sheet because no marks are awarded for the working.
SIDE WORK
Horizontal scale (log10x - axis) Vertical scale (log10D –axis)
RHA RVA
1: 1:
80 100

1.954  1.602 0.681  (0.523)

1: 1:
80 100

0.352 1.204
1: 1:
80 100

1: 0.044 1: 0.01204
1: 005 1: 0.02

1 small square = 0.005 1 small square = 0.02

10 small squares = 0.05 10 small squares = 0.2

©2024 Martin A.B 13

 (k)

𝐀 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐃 𝐚𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐗

1.0

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐃
Scale: V. A: 1: 0.02

H. A: 1: 0.005 B(0.975, 0.680)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6
A(1.600, − 0.560)

−0.80
1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐗

©2024 Martin A.B 14

Example 2

In this experiment, you will be required to determine the acceleration due to gravity using a pendulum bob.

Apparatus

Thread (130cm long), pendulum bob, retort stand with clamp and a stop clock

Procedure

(a) Suspend the pendulum bob from a retort stand such that it is at a distance h = 0.10 m from the floor.

(b) Adjust the length of the pendulum to 1.20 m.

Table Top
θ
Thread

Floor
Pendulum bob
h = 0.10
Fig. 2 m

(c) Displace the bob through a small angle θ as shown in Fig. 2 above. Release it to oscillate in a vertical plane.

(d) Determine the time for 20 oscillations.

(e) Find the time, T, for one oscillation.

(f) Raise the pendulum bob (by reducing the length of the pendulum) by a distance h = 0.20, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50
and 0.60 m and in each case repeat procedures (c) to (e).

(g) Record your results in a suitable table including values of T2.

(h) Plot a graph of T2 against h.

(i) Find the slope, s, of the graph.

(j) Calculate the acceleration due to gravity, g, from the expression

−𝟒𝝅𝟐
𝑺=
𝒈

©2024 Martin A.B 15

 SOLUTION

Recording single readings:

Let t be the time for twenty oscillation

a) For h = 0.10 ,
𝑡 44.5
d) t = 20T = 44.5s; 𝑇 = 20 = 20 = 2.23 𝑠

Recording repeated readings:

e) The table of results
h(m) t(s) T(s) T2(s2)

0.10 44.5 2.23 4.97

0.20 43.0 2.15 4.62
0.30 41.0 2.05 4.20
0.40 39.0 1.95 3.80
0.50 36.5 1.83 3.35
0.60 34.5 1.73 2.99
i) From the graph,
g) Slope S from A to B; h) From;
5.10 − 2.90 −4𝜋 2
𝑆= 𝑔=
0.05 − 0.63 𝑆
2.20 22 2
𝑆= −4
−0.58 𝑔= 7
−3.8
2 −1
𝑆 = −3.8 𝑠 𝑚
𝑔 = 10.4 𝑚𝑠 −2

NOTE: Calculation for the scale should be done as side work and should not be included on the answer
sheet because no marks are awarded for the working.
SIDE WORK

Horizontal scale (h-axis) Vertical scale (T2 –axis)

RHA
1: RVA
80 1:
100
0.6  0
1: 4.97  2.99
80 1:
100
1 : 0.0075 1 : 0.0198
1 : 0.01 1 : 0.02
1 small square = 0.01 m 1 small square = 0.02 s2
10 small squares = 0.1 m 10 small squares = 0.2 s2

©2024 Martin A.B 16

Example 3:

In this experiment, you will determine the refraction index ‘n’ of a glass block provided.

Procedure

a) using the drawing pins provided, fix the plain white sheet of paper on a soft board

b) place the glass block in the middle of the sheet and using a pencil, mark the outline PQRS of the glass block

c) Remove the glass block. Draw perpendicular to PQ at point B, 1.5 cm from P

A P1 i
P2
B
P Q

S y R
C
P3
D P4
d) Draw a line AB such that angle i = 100

e) Replace the glass block on white sheet of paper on its outline.

f) Stick two pins P1and P2along AB and looking through the glass block the opposite face SR, stick other pins P3 and
P4 in line with the images of P1 and P2. Remove the glass block

g) Join C and D. Measure and record the distance x and y

h) Repeat procedures (d) to (h) for values for i = 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 0
𝑥
i) Enter your results in a suitable table including values of sin 𝑖 and
𝑦

𝒙
j) Plot a graph of sin 𝒊 against 𝒚

k) Find the slope, n, of your graph

Apparatus
Glass block, white sheet of paper,4 optical pins, 4 drawing pins, soft board and a complete geometry set

©2024 Martin A.B 17

 SOLUTION

Recording single readings:

h) For i =100 ,x = 1.0 cm, y = 6.6 cm

Recording repeated readings:

j) The table of results

i(0) x(cm) y(cm) 𝑥 sin 𝑖

𝑦
10 1.0 6.6 0.15 0.174
20 1.5 6.7 0.22 0.342
30 2.4 7.0 0.34 0.500
40 3.2 7.4 0.43 0.643
50 3.8 7.6 0.50 0.766
60 4.6 8.0 0.58 0.866

l) From the graph,

1.00 − 0.10
Slope, n =
0.70 − 0.04
0.90
Slope, n =
0.66
𝑛 = 1.4

NOTE: Calculation for the scale should be done as side work and should not be included on the answer
sheet because no marks are awarded for the working.

SIDE WORK
𝒙
Horizontal scale (𝒚- axis) Vertical scale ( sini –axis)
RHA RVA
1: 1:
80 100
0.58  0.15 0.866  0.174
1: 1:
80 100
1: 0.00692
1: 0.005375
1: 0.01
1: 0.01
1 small square = 0.01
1 small square = 0.01
10 small squares = 0.1
10 small squares = 0.1

©2024 Martin A.B 18

 A Graph of Sin i against x
(j) y

Sin i
Scale: V.A: 1 : 0.01
H.A: 1 : 0.01

B(0.70, 1.03)

A(0.07, 0.1)

x
y

©2024 Martin A.B 19

 SAMPLE MARKING GUIDE FOR THE ABOVE QUESTION

CODE DESCRIPTION MARKS

D1 Tracing the outline PQRS of the glass block = ½mrk
D2 Drawing a perpendicular at point B1 =1.5cm from P = ½mrk
o
D3 Drawing a line AB such that angle i=10 and sticking pins P1 and P2 along AB = ½mrk
D4 Sticking pins P3 and P4 in line with the images of P1 and P2 = ½mrk
D5 Drawing a line through pin marks P3 and P4 to meet SR at C and joining C and B = ½mrks
Sub-total 2½marks
R1 Recording the values of x to 1dp wheni=10o and unit: range (0.8 – 4.8) (cm) value = ½ =1mrks
;unit: (cm) = ½ mrk
R2 Recording the values of y to 1dp wheni = 10o and unit range (6.4 – 8.6) (cm) value = ½ =1mrks
mrk; unit (cm) = ½ mrk
T1 Design of the table of results with 5 columns, i– column labeled with unit i(o) and all values =½mrk
entered
T2 Label of the rest of the values of x increasing to 1dp (1.3 – 1.7), (2.2-2.6), (3.0-3.4), (3.6- =2½mrks
4.0) and ( 4.4 - 4.8) (cm) (@½ mrk)
T3 Recording 6 values of sini and x/y correctly calculated (any 3 correct) (@½ mrk) =3mrks
Sub-total 08 marks
G1 Title of the graph; A graph of sini against x/y =½mrk
G2 The label of the axes with units; sini and x/y (@½ mrk) =1mrk
G3 Suitable and convenient scales for the axes covering at least 50% of graph paper =1mrk
(@½ mrk)
G4 6 correctly plotted points (@½ mrk) =3 mrks
G5 The best straight line to fit the plotted points =½ mrk
G6 The method of finding the slope. Big triangle covering all plotted points =½ mrk
Sub-total 6½ marks
C1 Calculation of the slope, n =1½mrk
C2 Correct substitution =½ mrk
C3 Arithmetic =½ mrk
C4 Accuracy =½ mrk
Sub-total 03marks
TOTAL 20 marks

©2024 Martin A.B 20

 1.00 MECHANICS EXPERIMENTS
1.01 Experiment 01
In this experiment, you will determine the mass, m of a metre rule.
(a) Balance the metre rule provided on a knife-edge with the graduated side facing upwards.
(b) Note the balance point P and record its distance, lo, from end B.
(c) Place a mass m of 10 g on top of the metre rule at the 10 cm mark and balance the arrangement as
shown in Fig. 1 below.

m lo
A P
Metre rule B
Knife edge
10 cm l1 l2
Fig. 1

(d) Read and record the distances l1 and l2.

(e) Repeat the procedures (c) and (d) for values of m = 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 g.
𝑙 2 −𝑙 o
(f) Record your results in a suitable table including the values of (l2 – lo) and .
𝑙1

𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝐨
(g) Plot a graph of m against .
𝒍𝟏

(h) Find the slope, m of your graph.

Apparatus: Knife edge; Metre rule; One mass of 10 g, Two masses of 20 g, One mass of 50 g [or you
may use six 10 g masses]

©2024 Martin A.B 21

1.02 Experiment 02
In this experiment, you will determine the mass, m of a metre rule provided
(a) Suspend the metre rule provided from a clamp using a piece of thread.
(b) Adjust the metre rule until it balances horizontally.
(c) Read and record the balance point C.
(d) Place the thread at a distance of y = 10 cm from C as shown in Fig.2 below.

Stand support
Thread
y x
C

Fig. 2 m

(e) Starting with m = 40 g adjust the position of the mass m until the metre rule balances horizontally
again.
(f) Measure and record the distance x.
(g) Repeat procedures (d) to (e) for values of m = 50, 60, 70, 80 and 100 g.

1
(h) Record your results in a suitable table including values of .
x

1
(i) Plot a graph of m against .
x
(j) Find the slope, S.
(k) Calculate the mass of the metre rule from the expression;

M = 0.10S.

Apparatus
One 10 g mass, two 20 g masses, one 50g mass and one 100g mass (slotted on a mass hanger); a
metre rule; two pieces of thread, 30 cm each, Retort stand with clamp

©2024 Martin A.B 22

1.03 Experiment 03

In this experiment you will determine the density, , of the rubber bug provided.
(a) Record the mass, M of the metre rule provided.

d1 d2

W Wooden block
Fig. 3

(b) Suspend the rubber bung, W, at a distance d = 5 cm from the zero end of the metre rule.
(c) Balance the metre rule with its graduated face upwards on the knife edge as shown in Fig.3 above.
(d) Measure and record the distances, d1 and d2, of the knife edge from the zero and 100 cm marks of the
metre rule respectively.
(e) Repeat procedures, (b) to (d) for values of d equal to 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 cm.
(f) Tabulate your results, including values of (d2 – d1) and (d1 – d).
(g) Plot a graph of (d2 – d1) against (d1 – d).
(h) Find the slope, S, of your graph.

(i) Determine the density, , of rubber from the expression;

 = 0.5 S.

Apparatus: Rubber bung; a metre rule labelled with its mass M; knife edge; wooden block, 20 cm × 15
cm × 15 cm and a piece of thread, 20 cm.

©2024 Martin A.B 23

1.04 Experiment 04
In this experiment you will determine the density of water.
(a) Record the radius, r, of the small beaker (or can) provided

Small beaker

Scale

h Bottle top
Sand
Fig. 4 Water Large beaker

(b) Place the small beaker (or can) into the large beaker containing water.
(c) Add small quantities of sand gradually into the small beaker until the beaker floats upright in the
water as shown in Fig. 4 above. Make sure the small beaker does not touch the sides of the large
beaker.
(d) Place three bottle tops into the small beaker.
(e) Read and record the depth, h, by which the small beaker sinks.
(f) Repeat procedures (d) and (e) for 6, 9, 12 and 15 bottle tops.
(g) Record your results in a suitable table.
(h) Plot a graph of number of bottle tops against h.
(i) Find the slope, S, of the graph.

(j) Calculate the density of water, , from the expression

2.5 S = r2.

Apparatus
A small beaker with its radiusr indicated and linear scale using a graph paper strip attached; a large
beaker; 15 soda bottle tops; small amount of sand and water.

©2024 Martin A.B 24

1.05 Experiment 05
In this experiment, you will determine the relative density of a liquid, Ɩ provided.

Fig.5

Procedure
a) Clamp the spring provided vertically and suspend the empty beaker as show in Fig.5
b) Record the initial position of the pointer on the metre rule.
c) Pour volume, V= 50 cm3 of water into a beaker and record the new position of the pointer.
d) Find the extension, x produced.
e) Repeat the procedures (c) to (d) for V= 100, 150, 200 and 250 cm3.
f) Pour out water and dry the beaker.
g) Repeat the procedures (a) to (e) using the liquid Ɩ and find its extension, y produced.
h) Record results in a suitable table.
i) Plot a graph of y against x
j) Determine the slope, S of the graph.

Apparatus:
Liquid, Ɩ (paraffin or Cooking oil or Petrol), water, Retort stand with 2 clamps, Metre rule, pointer,
spiral spring, thread, measuring cylinder and a beaker.

©2024 Martin A.B 25

1.06 Experiment 06
In this experiment, you will determine the acceleration due to gravity, g using a spiral spring.
Apparatus:
A retort stand with 2 clamp, 5 masses of 50 grams on a hanger, 1 spring, stop watch or clock, metre rule,
pointer.

Fig. 6

PART ONE
a) Suspend the spiral spring provided from a clamp as shown in Fig. 6.
b) Read and record the position of the pointer on the metrerule.
c) Suspend the mass, M = 50 g from the free end of the spiral spring.
d) Read and record the new position of the pointer, find the extension, e of the spring.
e) Repeat the procedure in (c) and (d) for values of M = 100, 150, 200, and 250 g.
f) Tabulate your results in a suitable table.
g) Plot a graph of e against M.
h) Find the slope, S1 of the graph.

PART TWO
a) Remove the metre rule.
b) Displace the mass, M =50 g suspended from the spring through a small vertical distance and
release it.
c) Determine the time, t for 20 oscillations.
d) Find the periodic time, T for an oscillation
e) Repeat the procedures (b) to (d) for values of M =100,150, 200, and 250 g.
f) Enter your results in a suitable table including values of T and T2.
g) Plot a graph of T2 against M
h) Determine the slope, S2 of the graph.
i) Find the value of acceleration due to gravity, 𝐠.From;

𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐒𝟏
𝐠 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐒𝟐

©2024 Martin A.B 26

1.07 Experiment 07
In this experiment, you will determine the acceleration due to gravity.
(a) Suspend the pendulum bob from a retort stand as shown in Fig. 10 below.

Thread Bench Top

θ
l

Fig. 7 Pendulum bob

(b) Adjust the length of the pendulum, l, so that it is equal to 1.00m.

(c) Displace the bob through a small angle θ as shown in Fig. 7 above. Release it to oscillate in a vertical
plane.
(d) Determine the time, t, for 20 oscillations.
(e) Find the time, T, for one oscillation.
(f) Repeat procedures (b) to (e) for values of l = 0.90, 0.80, 0.70, 0.60, 0.50 and 0.40 m.
(g) Record your results in a suitable table including values of T 2.
(h) Plot a graph of T2 against l.
(i) Find the slope, s, of the graph.
(j) Calculate the acceleration due to gravity, g, from the expression;

𝟒𝝅𝟐
𝒔= .
𝒈

Apparatus
A pendulum bob, a string about 120 cm, a stop clock, metre rule and retort stand with a clamp.

©2024 Martin A.B 27

1.08 Experiment 8
In this experiment you are required to determine the acceleration due to gravity, g.
(a) Clamp the spring provided with a pointer attached and a metre rule as shown in Fig. 8 below.

Clamp

Spring

Pointer

Retort stand

Metre rule
Fig. 8

(b) Read and record the initial position Po of the pointer on the metre rule.
(c) Attach a mass, m, equal to 0.100 kg on the spring and record the new position P 1 of the pointer. Hence,
find the extension, x, in metres.
(d) Pull the mass downwards through a small distance and release it.
(e) Measure and record the time for 20 oscillations.
(f) Calculate the time, T, for one oscillation.
(g) Repeat the procedures (d) to (f) for values of m equal to 0.200, 0.300, 0.400 and 0.500 kg
(h) Record your results in a suitable table including values of T 2.
(i) Plot a graph of T 2 against m.
(j) Find the slope, s of the graph.
(k) Calculate g from the expression;

40π 2 x
g
s

Apparatus
A spring with a pointer, five 100 g masses on a mass hanger, stop clock, and a metre rule (or half metre
rule); and retort stand with a clamp.

©2024 Martin A.B 28

1.09 Experiment 9

In this experiment, you will determine the relative density, of the material of solid X provided.

Metre rule

A B
P Q
z
d y

100 g
X Water
Fig. 9 Beaker

(a) Record the mass, M, of the solid X provided.

(b) Suspend a metre rule from a clamp using a piece of thread and adjust it until it balances horizontally.
(c) Read and record the distance of the balance point, P, of the rule from end A.
(d) Suspend the solid, X at a distance d = 10 cm from end A of the metre rule and immerse it completely in
water in the beaker.
(e) Suspend a 100 g mass from a point, Q, between P and B and then adjust the position of Q until the
metre rule balances horizontally, with X completely immersed and not touching the beaker as shown in
Fig. 9 above.
(f) Measure and record distances z and y.
(g) Repeat procedure (d) to (i) for values of d = 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 cm.
(h) Enter your results in a suitable table.
(i) Plot a graph of z against y.
(j) Find the slope, s, of the graph.

(k) Calculate the relative density,, of the material from the expression;

M
=
M  100S

Apparatus: Plastic Beaker, Metre rule, 100 g mass, 3 pieces of thread of 30 cm each, solid x, with its
mass M indicated, water.

©2024 Martin A.B 29

1.10 Experiment 10
In this experiment, you will determine Young’s modulus for wood.

Desk-top
80 cm
M

G – Clamp Rubber band

Fig. 10 Metre ruler

(a) Record the thickness, d, of the metre rule.

(b) Clamp the metre rule provided with the graduated face upwards such that the free length equals 80 cm as
shown in Fig. 10 above.
(c) Attach a mass, M equal to 0.05 kg at the end of the metre rule using a rubber band or thread.
(d) Depress the mass through a small vertical distance and release it to oscillate.
(e) Measure and record the time for 20 oscillations. Find the period, T.
(f) Repeat the procedures (c) to (e) for M equal to 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25 and 0.30 kg
(g) Record your results in a suitable table including values of T2.
(h) Plot a graph of T2 (along the vertical axis) against M (along the horizontal axis).
(i) Find the slope, S, of the graph.
(j) Calculate Young’s modulus, Y, for wood from;
𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟎
𝐘=
𝐬𝐝𝟑

Apparatus: G-Clamp; Wooden metre rule with its thickness, d indicated; one 50 g mass; Three 100 g
masses; Rubber band; Stop clock

©2024 Martin A.B 30

1.11 Experiment 11
In this experiment, you will determine the spring constant of the spiral spring provided.
(a) Clamp the spring using the two pieces of wood provided and make sure that the spring is vertical as
shown in Fig. 11(a) below.
(b) Attach a pointer to the free end of the spring. Read and record the pointer position xo on a vertical
metre rule.

Clamp Clamp

Spring Spring
Pointer
Pointer
Retort stand Retort stand

Metre rule m

Fig.11 (a) Fig.11 (b)

(c) Suspend a mass, m = 0.100 kg from the lower end of the spring as shown in Fig.11 (b) above.
(d) Read and record the new position of the pointer x1.
(e) Repeat procedures (c) and (d) above for the values of m = 0.200, 0.300, 0.400, 0.500 and 0.600 kg.
(f) Record your results in a suitable table including values of the extension, e in metres.
(g) Plot a graph of e against m.
(h) Find the slope, S, of the graph.

1
(i) Determine the elastic constant, k from k =
S

Apparatus
A spring with a pointer; Six 100 g masses on a mass hanger; and a metre rule; and retort stand with a
clamp.

©2024 Martin A.B 31

 2.00 LIGHT EXPERIMENTS
Glass blocks: Glass blocks of any dimensions can be used. However, that of 100mm × 60mm × 18mm is
preferred.

Glass Prisms: Equilateral triangular prisms should be used unless stated otherwise.
Mirrors and Lenses: The suitable focal length of a mirror or lens should be smaller than the smallest value of
the object distance.
Eg in experiment 22, the smallest object distance d=15cm, the suitable mirror is that of f=10, or 5 cm. In
experiment 32, the smallest object distance u = 30 cm, the suitable lens is that of f= 25, 20, 15, 10 or 5 cm.

A PROTRACTOR
 A Protractor measures angles in degrees (°)
 A small division on a protractor is an angle of 1° (0 d.p)
 Since 1° has no decimal place angles measured with a
protractor should be recorded without a decimal place e.g.
19°, 50°, 87°𝑎𝑛𝑑 32°.

A protractor measures angles between two intersecting lines in

degrees (°) to zero decimal places. All values of angles
obtained using a protractor must be recorded to zero decimal
places (as whole numbers) e.g. 10°, 9°, 23°, 64° etc. Protractors usually have two sets of numbers going
in opposite directions. Be careful which one you use!
When in doubt think "should this angle be bigger or smaller
than 90° "
RULERS (eg. Metre – Rule)
The different types of rulers are 15cm ruler, 30 cm rulers, half-
metre rule and a metre-rule. They are all used in the same
way.
 The metre rule measures lengths in Centimetres (cm)
 1 Small division on the scale is equal to a length of 0.1cm
 This Value has one decimal place and it means that all
measurements with a metre rule should be recorded to 1
decimal place in cm
How to Measure an Angle with a Protractor?  In metres 0.1cm = 0.001m, so when measurements on a
Angles are measured in degrees. metre rule are converted into metres, they should be
Step 1. The zero line of the protractor needs to be lined up recorded to 3 decimal places following the fact that ; 1
with one side of the angle. Small division= 0.1cm = 0.001m(3d.p)
Step 2. You read the set of numbers from your zero line to the
line where the angle stops..

How to draw angles using a protractor

Step 1. To draw an angle of 50 degrees first draw a line
segment that is to be the one side of the angle.
Step 2. Then put the protractor so that its zero line matches
with your line segment and that the vertex is in place. From; 0 to 1, 1 to 2, 2 to 3, etc, there are 10 equal divisions.
Step 3. Now put a mark at the 50 degree point. ⇒ 𝟏𝟎𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 = 𝟏𝐜𝐦
Step 4. Then take the protractor off and draw a line through 1 cm
1 division = = 0.1 cm
your mark. 10
Therefore any reading from rulers is accurate 1 decimal
place. Hence, such readings should be recorded to 1dp.
Length AB = 1.0 cm + 6 × 0.1 cm
Length AB = 1.6 cm
Or Length AB = 16 × 0.1 = 1.6 cm

©2024 Martin A.B 32

2.01: Experiment 12:
In this experiment, you will investigate the relationship between the number of images n formed by two plane
mirrors inclined to each other and the angle between the mirrors.
(a) Draw two lines such that they make an angle θ = 900 at the point of intersection as shown in the figure
12 below.

Plane mirror B

Optical pin

Plane mirror A
Fig. 12

(b) Place mirrors A and B as shown above on the lines drawn

(c) Place an optical pin at a distance of about 6cm in front of the point of intersection of the two mirrors
such that it is equidistant from the two mirrors.
(d) Count and record the number of images, n observed. (place the eye at a distance of more than half a
metre away from the mirrors)
(e) Keeping mirror A on the line, repeat procedures (c) and (d) adjusting the position of B such that it
makes the angle θ =700, 600, 400and 300.
𝟏
(f) Enter your results in a suitable table including values of 𝛉
𝟏
(g) Plot a graph of n against 𝛉
(h) Find the intercept, C, on the n-axis
(i) Find the slope of the graph.

Note: Hand in your working sheet.

Apparatus: 2 mounted plane mirrors, 4 drawing pins, 1 optical pin, and Complete Mathematical set.

©2024 Martin A.B 33

2.02 Experiment 13
In this experiment, you will be required to verify that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.
(a) Fix a white sheet of paper, provided on the soft board and place the plane mirror vertically on it.
(b) Put the plane mirror on the white sheet of paper and trace the mirror line with a sharp pointed pencil as
shown in Fig.13 below.

Fig. 13
(c) Remove the mirror from the paper. Label the traced line as AB.
(d) Draw a normal MN bisecting the mirror line AB
(e) Draw a line PN at angle i = 10o to MN.
(f) Fix pins P1 and P2 along the line PN.
(g) Place the mirror back on the paper so that it’s reflecting surface coincides exactly with the mirror lining AB
you have drawn.
(h) View the images of P1 and P2 in the mirror.
(i) Fix pins P3 and P4 such that they are in line with images of P1 and P2.
(j) Remove the pins P1, P2, P3 and P4 and the mirror from the white sheet of paper.
(k) Draw a line NS passing through the marks of pins P3 and P4.
(l) Measure and record the angle r, between MN and NS.
(m) Repeat procedures (e) to (l) for angles i = 20o, 30o, 40o, 50o, 60o and 70o.
(n) Record your values of i and r in a suitable table.
(o) Draw a graph of i against r and find its slope.

©2024 Martin A.B 34

2.03 Experiment 14
In this experiment, you will verify that the angle of incidence, reflected ray and the normal line at the point
of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
Procedures
a) Fix the plain sheet of paper on the soft board provided
b) Draw a line RS in the middle of the white sheet of paper provided.
c) Draw a normal ANM on RS as shown in Fig. 14.

y Plane mirror

𝐍 𝐂
𝐑 𝐒

x 𝐏𝟏

Fig. 14 𝐏𝟐
𝐌
𝐁
d) Measure the distance NM, x = 1.5cm and fix a pin at M
e) Place the mirror along the mirror line RS as shown in Fig. 14 above
f) View the image of the pin at M from the right hand side of the normal ANM and fix pin P1, and P2 such
that they are in the line with the image of the pin at M
g) Remove the pins P1 and P2 and the mirror from the white sheet of paper
h) Draw a line BCA passing through the marks of pin P1 and P2 to meet the normal at A.
i) Measure and record the distance y between the points N and A
j) Repeat procedures (d) to (i) for x = 2.0cm, 3.0cm, 4.0cm, 5.0cm 6.0cm 7.0cm and 8.0cm
k) Record your results in suitable table
l) Plot a graph of x (along the vertical axis) against y (along the horizontal axis)
m) Find the slope S of your graph.

N.B: Staple your working sheet inside the work book.

Apparatus: A place mirror, soft board, white sheet of paper, 3 optical pins, 4 drawing pins and complete
geometry set.
paper
©2024 Martin A.B 35
2.04 Experiment 15:
In this experiment, you will determine focal length, fof a concave mirror.

Fig. 15

Procedure
a) Set up the apparatus as shown in fig. 15 above.

b) Adjust the distance, 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟓 𝐜𝐦 and close the switch.

c) Adjust the position of the screen to and fro until a sharp image of the filament of the bulb is seen on
the screen.
d) Open switch.
e) Measure and record the distance, V from the mirror to the screen.

f) Repeat the procedures (b) to (e) for values of, 𝒅 = 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟓, 𝟑𝟎, 𝟑𝟓 and𝟒𝟎 𝐜𝐦.
𝑽
g) Enter your results in a suitable table including values of 𝒅

𝑽
h) Plot a graph of against V.
𝒅

i) Find the slope, S of the graph.

j) Calculate the focal length, f from the expression;
𝟏
𝒇 =
𝑺

Apparatus:
2 cells, Torch bulb (lamp), Concave mirror, White screen, Switch, Mirror holder, Metre rule, paper

©2024 Martin A.B 36

2.06 Experiment 16
In this experiment, you will determine the focal length of a concave mirror.
(a)Align the torch bulb, the concave mirror and the screen as shown in Fig. 16 below.

Concave
mirror
White Torch
screen bulb

K Mirror
holder
Dry cells

d
Fig. 16
v

(b) Adjust the distance, d to 15 cm.

(c)Close switch K.
(d) Adjust the position of the screen to obtain a sharp image of the filament of the bulb on the screen.
(e)Open the switch K.
(f) Measure the distance, v, of the screen from the mirror.
(g) Repeat the procedures (b) to (f) for values of d = 20, 25, 30 35 and 40 cm.

v
(h) Record your results in a suitable table including values of .
d

v
(i) Plot a graph of against v.
d
(j) Find the slope, S, of the graph.
(k) Calculate the focal length, f, from the expression ;
1
f 
S

Apparatus: Switch, 2 dry cells, torch bulb on its holder, connecting wires, mirror or lens holder,
concave mirror focal length = 10 cm and a white screen.

©2024 Martin A.B 37

2.07 Experiment 17
In this experiment, you will determine the focal length, f, of concave mirror provided.
(a) Fix the mirror in the holder.

Concave mirror
Illuminated object

White screen Switch

Mirror
holder

Fig. 17 v

(b) Focus light from a window onto the screen.

(c) Measure and record the distance, x, between the screen and the mirror.
(d) Arrange the mirror, the mounted bulb and the screen as shown in Fig. 17 above.
(e) Adjust the object distance u = 2.4x
(f) Close the switch and move the screen until a sharp image of the object is formed on it.
(g) Measure and record the image distance, v.
(h) Repeat the procedures (e) to (g) for values of u = 3.2x, 4.0x, 4.8x, 5.6x and 6.4x.
(i) Enter your values in a suitable table including values of (u + v) and uv.
(j) Plot a graph of uv against (u + v).
(k) Find the slope, f, of the graph.
(l) Calculate the difference between f and x.

Apparatus: Switch, 2 dry cells, torch bulb on its holder, connecting wires, mirror or lens holder,
concave mirror focal length = 10 cm and a white screen.

©2024 Martin A.B 38

2.08 Experiment 18
In this experiment, you will determine the refractive index of, n, of a glass block.
(a) Using the drawing pins provided, fix the white sheet of paper on a soft board.
(b) Place the glass in the middle of the sheet of paper and using pencil, mark the outline PQRS, of the
glass block.

A P1

P2 i
P Q
B

S C R
x P3

Fig. 18 P4 D

(c) Remove the glass block and draw a perpendicular to PQ at B.

(d) Draw a line AB such that angle, 𝑖 = 10o and replace the glass block.
(e) Stick two pins P1 and P2 along AB.
(f) Looking through the glass block from the opposite face SR, stick two other pins P3 and P4 in line
with the images of pins P1 and P2.
(g) Remove the glass block and draw a line through P3 and P4 to meet SR at C.
(h) Join C to B, measure and record distances x and y.
(i) Repeat procedures (f) to (g) for values of i equal to 20o, 30o, 40o, 50o and 70o.

x
(j) Enter your results in a table, including values of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 .
y

x
(k) Plot a graph of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 against .
y

(l) Find the slope, n, of the graph.

NOTE: Hand in the tracing Paper

Apparatus: Glass block; Soft board; 2 Thumb pins; 4 Optical pins; Plain sheet of paper

©2024 Martin A.B 39

2.09 Experiment 19
In this experiment, you will determine the refractive index, n, of the material of the glass block
provided.
(a) Fix the plane sheet of paper on a soft board using drawing pins.

Q
P1

ί P2
A B
O


D R P C
P3
Fig. 19 P4
S

(b) Place the glass block on the sheet of paper so that it rests on its broader face and trace its outline
ABCD.
(c) Remove the glass block.
(d) Measure angle i equal to 20o and draw line QO.
(e) Fix pins P1 and P2 on line QO and then replace the glass block onto its outline.
(f) Looking through the opposite face of the block fix pins P3 and P4 along RS such that they appear to
be in line with the images of pins P1and P2.
(g) Remove the pins and the glass block and draw a line through P3 and P4 to meet the glass block at R.
(h) Join R to O and measure angle θ.
(i) Repeat procedures (d) to (h) for values of i = 30o, 40o, 50o and 60o.
(j) Record your results in a suitable table including values of sin i and cos θ.
(k) Plot a graph of sin i against cos θ.
(l) Find the slope, n, of the graph.

HAND IN THE WHITE TRACING PAPER

Apparatus: Glass block; Soft board; 2 Thumb pins; 4 Optical pins; Plain sheet of paper.

©2024 Martin A.B

2.10 Experiment 20
In this experiment, you will determine the refractive index, n, of the material of glass block given.

R P1

P2

A  B
O
r

D P C
P3

Fig. 20 Q
P4

(a) Fix the plane sheet of paper on a soft board using drawing pins.
(b) Place the glass block on the sheet of paper so that it rests on its broader face and trace its outline ABCD.
(c) Remove the glass block.
(d) At point O about 2 cm from A, draw a line RO at an angle θ = 80o to AB.
(e) Fix pins P1 and P2 along RO and then replace the glass block onto its outline.
(f) Looking through side DC, fix pins P3 and P4 such that they appear to be in a straight line with the images of
P1 and P2 as shown in Fig. 20 above.
(g) Remove the pins and the glass block and draw a line through P3 and P4 to meet DC at P.
(h) Join P to O.
(i) Measure angle r.
(j) Repeat procedures (d) to(i) for θ = 70, 60, 50, 40 and 30o.
(k) Record your results in a suitable table including values of cos θ and cos r.
(l) Plot a graph of cos θ against cos r.
(m) Find the slope, n, of the graph.

HAND IN THE TRACING PAPER

Apparatus: Glass block; Soft board; 2 Thumb pins; 4 Optical pins; Plain sheet of paper.

©2024 Martin A.B 41

2.11 Experiment 21.

In this experiment you will determine the refractive index, 𝒏, of a glass block.

R P1 M

P2 𝛂

A B
N

𝜃
D S C
P3

Fig. 21 T
P4

Procedures
a) Fix the plain sheet of paper on the soft board using drawing pins.
b) Place the glass block provided in the middle of the paper. Make sure that the glass block rests on its
broad face as shown in figure 21.
c) Trace the outline ABCD of the glass block.
d) Remove the glass block.
e) Mark a point N on AB such that AN is a quarter of AB.
f) Draw a line MN perpendicular to AB.
g) Draw a line RN at an angle 𝜶 = 𝟏𝟎𝒐 to MN.
h) Fix two pins P1 and P2 on line RN.
i) Place the glass block on its outline.
j) Looking through the glass block from side CD, fix two pins, P3 and P4 so that they appear to be in line
with the images of P1 and P2.
k) Remove the glass block and the pins and draw lines TS and SN.
l) Measure and record angle θ
m) Repeat procedures (g) to (l) for values of 𝜶 = 𝟐𝟎𝒐 , 𝟑𝟎𝒐 , 𝟒𝟎𝒐 , 𝟓𝟎𝒐 and𝟔𝟎𝒐 .
n) Record your results in a suitable table including values of sin α and cosθ.
o) Plot a graph of sin α against cosθ
p) Find the slope 𝒏 of the graph.

Note: Hand in you tracing paper

Apparatus: Plain sheet of paper, rectangular glass block, soft board, 2 optical pins, 4 drawing pins,
complete mathematical set.

©2024 Martin A.B 42

2.12 Experiment 22
In this experiment, you are required to determine the refractive index n, of the glass using glass prism.
Procedure:
(a) Place the glass prism on a plain sheet of paper on a soft board and draw its outline. Label the vertices
PQR as seen in fig. 22 below.
𝐐

𝐀
𝒊 𝐁
𝐫
𝐏𝟐 𝐏𝟑

𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟒

Fig. 22 𝐏 𝐑

(b) At point A, 2cm from vertex Q, draw a normal to the line PQ.
(c) Draw a line DA at an angle of incidence, i =300with the normal.
(d) Stick pins P1 and P2 about 4cm apart on the line DA.
(e) Replace the glass prism on its outline such that its vertices exactly match those on the outline.
(f) Stick pins, P3 and P4 such that they are collinear with the image of P1 and P2.
(g) Remove the prism and the pins. Draw a line through the position of the pins P3 and P4 to meet RQ at B.
(h) Join B to A measure and record angle r.
(i) Repeat procedure (c) to (h) for values of i = 400,500,600and 700.
(j) Enter your results in a suitable table including values of sin i and sin r.

(k) Plot graph of sin𝑖 (along the vertical axis) against sin𝑟 (a long the horizontal).
(l) Find the slope, n, of your graph.

Note: Hand in your tracing paper

Apparatus: Plain sheet of paper, rectangular glass block, soft board, 2 optical pins, 4 drawing pins,
complete mathematical set.

©2024 Martin A.B 43

2.13 Experiment 23.
In this experiment, you will determine the focal length, f, of the lens, L, provided.
(a) Arrange the cross wires, the lens, L and the screen in a straight line as shown in Fig. 23 below.

Cross wires Lens holder White screen

gauze Lens, L
Torch bulb
gauze

Fig. 23 Dry cells u v

gauze
(b) Adjust the distance, u between the cross wires and the lens to 30 cm.
(c) Close the switch, K so that the bulb lights.
(d) Move the screen to and fro until a sharp image of the cross wires is formed on the screen.
(e) Read and record the image distance, v, between the lens and the screen.
(f) Repeat procedures (b) to (e) for values of u equal to 40, 50, 60 and 70 cm.

v
(g) Record your results in a suitable table including values of .
u

v
(h) Plot a graph of against v.
u
(i) Find the intercept, f1, on the v – axis.
(j) Find the slope, S, of the graph.

1
(k) Calculate, f2, from, f2 = .
S

f1  f 2
(l) Find f from the expression; f  .
2

Apparatus: Switch, 2 dry cells, torch bulb in its holder, connecting wires, cross wires, lens holder,
convex lens focal length = 10 cm and a white screen.

©2024 Martin A.B 44

2.14 Experiment 24.
In this experiment, you will determine the focal length of a converging lens.
(a)Mount the lens provided and place it facing the window.
(b) Place the screen behind the lens and adjust it until a clear image of the distant object is obtained.
(c)Measure and record the distance, d, between the lens and the screen.

Wire Lens
Gauze
White screen

x
Fig. 24 y

(d) Arrange the bulb, wire gauze, lens and screen as shown in Fig. 24 above.
(e)Adjust the lens so that the distance, x between the wire gauze and the lens is equal to 2.5d.
(f) Close the switch and move the screen until a clear image of the wire gauze is obtained on the screen.
(g) Measure and record the distance, y, between the wire gauze and the screen.
(h) Repeat procedures (e) to (g) for values of x = 3.0d, 3.5d, 4.0d and 4.5d.
(i) Record your results in a suitable table including values of (y – x) and x(y – x).
(j) Plot a graph of (y – x) against x(y – x).
(k) Determine the slope, S, of your graph.
(l) Calculate f from the relation:

1
S .
f

Apparatus: Switch, 2 dry cells, torch bulb on its holder, connecting wires, cross wires, lens holder,
convex lens of focal length = 10 cm and a white screen.

©2024 Martin A.B 45

2.15 Experiment 25
In this experiment, you will determine the focal length, f, of the lens provided.
(a)Focus the image of a distant object onto the screen provided.
(b) Measure and record the length, fo, between the screen and the lens.
(c)Connect the bulb, the dry cells and switch, K, in series as shown in figure 34 below.

White screen
Wooden Lens
block

x y

Fig. 25

(d) Arrange the bulb, lens and the screen as shown in Fig. 25 above.
(e)Adjust distance, x, between the bulb and the lens to 1.5fo
(f) Close the switch, K.
(g) Adjust the position of the screen to obtain a clear image on it.
(h) Measure the distance, y, between the lens and the screen.
(i) Repeat procedures (e) to (h) for x = 2.0F, 2.5F, 3.0F and 4.0F.
(j) Tabulate your results including values of xy and x + y.
(k) Plot a graph of xy against x + y.
(l) Find the slope, f, of the graph.

Apparatus: Switch, 2 dry cells, torch bulb in its holder,a wooden small piece of block, connecting wires,
cross wires, lens holder, convex lens of focal length = 15 cm or 20 cm and a white screen.

©2024 Martin A.B 46

3.16: Experiment 26.
In this experiment, you will determine the focal length of the converging lens provided.
(a) Mount the lens in the holder provided and place it facing a window.
(b) Place a white screen behind the lens.
(c) Adjust the position of the white screen until a clear image of a distant object is obtained on it.
(d) Measure and record the distance, f, between the lens and the white screen.
(e) Connect the bulb, dry cells and the switch, K in series.
(f) Arrange the bulb, wire gauze, lens and the white screen as shown in figure 26 below.

Wire gauze White screen

Lens

x y

Fig. 26

(g) Adjust the lens so that the distance, x, between the wire gauze and the lens is equal to 2.0f.
(h) Close switch, K, and move the white screen until a clear image of the wire gauze is obtained on the
white screen.
(i) Measure and record the distance, y, between the lens and the white screen.
(j) Open switch, K.
(k) Repeat procedures (g) to (j) for values of x = 2.4f, 2.8f, 3.2f and 3.6f.
(l) Record your results in a suitable table including values of xy and (x + y).
(m) Plot a graph of xy against (x + y).
(n) Determine the slope, F, of the graph, where Fis the focal length of the lens.

F f
(o) Find the value of : .
f

Apparatus: Switch, 2 dry cells, torch bulb on its holder, a wooden small piece of block, connecting
wires, lens holder, convex lens of focal length = 15 cm and a white screen.

©2024 Martin A.B 47

3.17 Experiment 27
In this experiment, you will determine the power, P of a cylindrical water lens using two methods.
Procedure
METHOD I
a) Measure and record the external diameter, D, of the 250ml glass beaker provided.
b) Draw using a pen, a vertical line along the strip of the paper provided.
c) Stick the strip of paper vertically on the side of the glass beaker using the pieces of cello tape provided.
d) Place the beaker containing water between the screen and the illuminated object such that the vertical
line on the beaker faces you as shown in the figure 27 (a) below.

White screen
Beaker

Water
Vertical line
K

x
y
Fig. 27 (a)

e) Pour water into the beaker up to the 250 ml mark.

f) Adjust the distance, x, to 20.0 cm.
g) Adjust the position of the screen until a sharp vertical line image of the bulb is formed on it.
h) Measure and record the distance, y, of the screen from the bulb.
i) Calculate the value of, P, from the expression;
𝒚
𝑷=
𝒙(𝒚 − 𝒙)
j) Repeat the procedure (f) to (i) for x = 30.0 cm.
k) Calculate the average value of P.

DO NOT DISMANTLE THE SET UP

©2024 Martin A.B 48

 METHOD II

White screen
Beaker

b
u
Fig. 27(b) 𝜸

a) Adjust the distance between the bulb and the screen to ,𝜸 = 5Dcm as shown in the fig.37(b) above.
b) Starting with the beaker near the screen, move the beaker towards the bulb until a sharp diminished
vertical line image of the bulb is formed on the screen.
c) Measure and record the distance, u, of the beaker from the bulb.

d) Keeping 𝜸, constant, move the beaker further towards the bulb until another sharp magnified image is
formed on the screen.
e) Measure and record the new distance, b, of the beaker from the bulb.

f) Repeat procedure (a) to (e) for values of 𝜸 = 6D, 7D, 8D, 9 D and 10D cm.

g) Tabulate your results including values of 𝛾 2 , 𝑤 = 𝑢 − 𝑏 , 𝑤 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝛾 2 − 𝑤 2 .

h) Plot a graph of 𝑧 against 𝛾.

i) Find the slope, S of the graph.
j) Calculate the value of, P, from the expression;
𝟒
𝑷=
𝑺

Apparatus: 2 dry cells, 1 double cell holder, 1 torch bulb, a bulb holder, 1 switch, 1 250ml glass beaker,
water, 1 screen, connecting wires, 1 meter rule, wooden block, 1 piece of paper 2cm X 4cm and 2 pieces
of transparent cello tape, vernier calipers.

©2024 Martin A.B 49

 3.00 HEAT EXPERIMENTS
1 small division on a thermometer is 1℃ (0 d.p). The thermometer therefore measures temperature in degrees
Celsius (°C) to zero or one decimal place. If the temperature is recorded to one decimal place, the last digit
should be 0 or 5 e.g. 26.0°C, 32.5°C, 23.0°C etc

The reading of the thermometer above is 430C or 43.00C 0r 43.50C

When measuring the room temperature or temperature of the surrounding, hold the glass tube (and not the bulb)
until a steady value of temperature is reached. The steady value of the temperature obtained is the room
temperature.

3.01 Experiment 28
In this experiment, you will determine the cooling constant of water.
(a) Record the room temperature, To.
(b) Heat 100 cm3 of water to about 90o C.
(c) Transfer the hot water quickly into the calorimeter.
(d) Place a thermometer in the hot water and start the stop clock when the temperature of water is 65o C.
(e) Record the temperature, T, of the water every two minutes for 14 minutes.
(f) Record your results in a suitable table including values of (T - To) and log10 (T - To)
(g) Plot a graph of log10 (T - To) against time.
(h) Find the slope, s, of the graph.
(i) Calculate the cooling constant, k, from the expression;

S = 26.06 k

Apparatus: Thermometer; Glass beaker 100 cm3; Stop clock or stop watch; Source of heat, Calorimeter
with its mass markedon it and Water.

©2024 Martin A.B 50

3.02 Experiment 29

In this experiment, you will determine the room temperature, R.

(a) Measure the room temperature o.

(b) Heat 100 cm3 of water in a beaker to a temperature of about 90oC.
(c) Transfer the hot water quickly into a calorimeter.
(d) Place the thermometer in the hot water and start the stop clock when the temperature of the water is
65oC.
(e) Record the temperature, , of the water after every two minutes for 14 minutes.
(f) Record your results in a suitable including values of ( - 0) and𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝜃 − 𝜃0 .
(g) Plot a graph of 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝜃 − 𝜃0 against time, t.
(h) Find the value, I, of 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝜃 − 𝜃0 when t = 0.
(i) Find the antilog of I.
(j) Calculate the temperature of the surroundings, R, using the expression;
Antilog of I = 65 R.

Apparatus: Thermometer; Glass beaker 100 cm3; Stop clock or stop watch; Source of heat, Water,
Calorimeter.

©2024 Martin A.B 51

3.03 Experiment 30
In this experiment, you will determine the specific heat capacity of water.
(a) Record the mass, M, of the calorimeter.
(b) Measure out 100 ml of the hot water provided (temperature more than 80oC ) and pour it in the
calorimeter.
(c) Place the thermometer in the hot water and start the stop clock /watch when the temperature of the water
is 70oC.
(d) Record the temperature, θ, of the hot water after every time interval, t of two minutes as the water cools
from 70oC to 40oC.

Thermometer Stirrer

Hot water
Calorimeter

Fig. 30

(e) Tabulate your results in a suitable table.

(f) Plot a graph of θ against t.
(g) Obtain the time, t for the water to cool from 60oC to 50oC.
(h) Calculate the specific heat capacity of water, S, from the expression;

(3.81 X 102)M + 0.1S = t

Apparatus: Thermometer; Glass beaker 100 cm3; Stop clock or stop watch; Source of heat, Water,
calorimeter

©2024 Martin A.B 52

 4. ELECTRICITY EXPERIMENTS
Constantine wire SWG 28 and SWG 30: For experiments that have only the ammeter, SWG 30 is preferred because it has a smaller
resistance leading to bigger values of current, I that are easier to read.

Similarly, for experiments that have only the Voltmeter, SWG 28 is preferred because it has a higher resistance leading to bigger
values of potential difference, V that are easier to read.

Bulbs, 2.5V. A 2.5V bulb in a circuit will give light only if the P.d across it 2.5V or more. This therefore means that a bulb in a circuit
may light or may not. As long as the connected Ammeters and Voltmeters deflect, the student should continue with the experiment
regardless of whether the bulb lights or not.

In some experiments, the bulb may not give light at first but as the experiment progress, it gives light. This means that initially, the pd
across the bulb was far below 2.5V. In other experiments, the bulb may give light at first but as the experiment progress, it goes off.
This means that the P.d across the bulb has fallen below 2.5V.

The connections should be firm enough and the circuits should be connected from the positive of the battery to the negative of the
battery.

To make the connections easily, first place the instruments as they appear in the circuit diagram. The terminals must correspond i.e,
 The positive (RED) knobs (terminals) of the ammeters or voltmeters must be connected to the positive side of the cell(s) in the
circuit.
 The negative (BLACK) knobs (terminals) of the ammeters or voltmeters must be connected to the negative side of the cell(s) in
the circuit.
In this way, the meters may be facing away from you, but after connecting, you can turn the meters to face you for easy reading.
 If the terminals are interchanged, (i.e when Positive is connected to negative), the meters will deflect in the opposite direction.
The pointer will move to the left of the zero (0) mark. You may be tempted to think that the meter is not working because it
deflects by a small amount to the left of zero. When it deflects this way, the student should inter change the terminal connections.
 All the connections should be firm. If not the meters may not deflect or if they do, the deflections will not be steady! This makes
taking the reading hard.
 After taking the reading the student should remember to switch off the circuit to avoid un necessary drop in the e.m.f of the cell(s)
during the experiment.
Voltmeters are calibrated differently e.g 0-3V, 0-5V. Some voltmeters have two scales; e.g 0-3V and 0-5V, 0-3V and 0-6V.
To use the scale of range 0-3V, the knob (terminal) marked 3V is used with the terminal marked COM.

Position P:
Position P:
In the figure above, taking the 0- 3V scale,
In the figure above, taking the 0- 1A scale,
10 divisions = 0.5 V
10 divisions = 0.2A
1 division = 0.05 V
1 division = 0.02A
Ammeter reading = 0.5 + (0.05 x 3)
Ammeter reading = 0 + (0.02 x 8)
= 0.5 + 0.15 V
= 0.16A
= 0.65 V

©2024 Martin A.B 53

4.01: Experiment 31.
In this experiment, you will determine a constant of the wire provided.
(a) Connect the circuit shown in the figure 31 below starting with a length of the wire, y, equal to 30 cm.

Dry cells
Wire
Cello tape

y K

V
Fig. 31 Cello tape

(b) Close switch K.

(c) Read and record the reading, V , of the voltmeter
(d) Open switch K.
(e) Repeat procedures (c) to (e) for the values of y = 40, 50, 60 and 70 cm.

1 1
(f) Record your results in a suitable table including values of and .
V y

1 1
(g) Plot a graph of against .
V y

(h) Find the slope, s, of the graph.

1
(i) Determine the intercept, c, on the axis.
V
(j) Calculate the constant of the wire,  , from the expression;

100c

s

Apparatus: Voltmeter (0-3 V); 2 Dry cells; Jockey; Cello tape; 5 pieces of connecting wires; Metre rule;
Switch; Nichrome (28SWG).

©2024 Martin A.B 54

4.02 Experiment 32
In this experiment, you will determine the resistivity, ρ, of the bare wire, W.
(a) Connect the ammeter A, switch K, dry cell E and wire W as shown in figure 42 below.

Bare wire K E
W
Cello tape
A

Fig. 32 Cello tape

a
(b) Adjust distance, d, of the wire to 20 cm.
(c) Close the switch, K, and record the reading, I, of the ammeter.
(d) Repeat the procedures (b) and (c) for values of d equal to 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 cm.

1
(e) Record your results in a suitable table including values of against d.
I
(f) Determine the slope, S, of the graph.
(g) Calculate the resistivity, ρ, of the wire from; ρ = 1.6 x 10-5 S.

Apparatus: Ammeter (0 – 1 A); 1 Dry cell (Size D); Jockey; Cello tape; 5 pieces of connecting wires;
Metre rule; Switch; Constantan (28 SWG) .

©2024 Martin A.B 55

4.03: Experiment 33.

In this experiment, you will determine the resistivity, , of the material of the material of the wire
provided.

Bare wire K

Cellotape A Jockey
ι

Fig. 43
V Cellotape

(a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure 43 above.

(b) With the switch, K, open, adjust the position of the jockey along the bare wire such that l = 0.2 m.
(c) Close the switch K.
(d) Note the ammeter reading, I and voltmeter reading V.
(e) Open the switch K.
(f) Repeat procedures (b) to (e) for values of l = 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60 and 0.70m.

V
(g) Enter your results in a suitable table including values of .
I

V
(h) Plot a graph of against l
I
(i) Find the slope, S, of the graph.

(j) Calculate the resistivity, , of the material of the bare wire from the expression,

 = 2.04 X 10-7 S.

Apparatus: Voltmeter (0-3 V); Ammeter (0 – 1 A); 1 Dry cell; Jockey; Cello tape; 5 pieces of connecting
wires; Metre rule; Switch; Nichrome (28SWG)

©2024 Martin A.B 56

4.04 Experiment 34
In this experiment, you will determine the internal resistance of a dry cell provided.
(a) Stretch and fix wire P on a metre rule with a cellotape.

(b) Connect the dry cell, 2 resistor and a voltmeter as shown in figure 34 below.

Dry cell

Voltmeter V 2Ω
Jockey

Cellotape Cellotape

Fig.34 y
Bare wire, P

(c) Place the jockey on wire P such that y is equal to 30 cm. Record the voltmeter reading v.
(d) Repeat procedure (c) above for values of y equal to 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 cm

y
(e) Record your results in a suitable table including values of .
V

y
(f) Plot a graph of (on vertical axis) against y( on horizontal axis)
V
(g) Find the slope, s, of the graph.

y
(h) Find the value n of when y = 0 cm.
V
(i) Calculate the e.m.f, E of the dry cell from;

3  10 2
E
S
(j) Calculate the internal resistance, r of the dry cell from;
r = 2nE – 1.

Apparatus: Voltmeter (0-3 V); Resistor 2 ; Dry cell; Jockey; Cello tape; 5 pieces of connecting wires;
Metre rule; Nichrome (28 SWG).

©2024 Martin A.B 57

4.05 Experiment 35:
In this experiment, you will determine the internal resistance, r of a pair of dry cells.

Fig.35
Procedure
(a) Connect your apparatus as shown in the figure 35 above.

(b) Adjust the distance l= 20 𝑐𝑚

(c) Read and record the voltmeter reading, Vo.
(d) Close Switch K
(e) Read and record the reading of the voltmeter, V1
(f) Open switch K

(g) Repeat procedures (d) to (e) with values of l= 𝟑𝟎, 𝟒𝟎, 𝟓𝟎, 𝟔𝟎 and 𝟕𝟎 𝒄𝒎.
𝐕𝟏
(h) Record your values in a suitable table, including values of 𝐕 = 𝐕𝐎 − 𝐕𝟏 and 𝒍

𝐕𝟏
(i) Plot a graph of V against 𝒍

(j) Find the slope, S of your graph

(k) Calculate the resistance per metre, r, from the expression;

𝒓 = 420𝑺

Apparatus: 2 cells, 2 single cell holders, switch, K, bare wire 110 m long (Constantine wire SWG
28),Voltmeter (0 – 3) V, Cello – tape, metre rule, 2 crocodile clips, 6 Pieces of connecting wires of about
30 cm each.

©2024 Martin A.B 58

4.06 Experiment 36:

In this experiment, you will determine the diameter, 𝑫 of the bare wire given.

Fig.36
Procedure
a) Fix the bare wire on the metre rule using the cello – tape.
b) Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 36 above.
c) Adjust the position of the length, 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 𝒎.
d) Close the switch, K.

e) Read and record the ammeter reading, 𝑰and voltmeter reading, 𝑽.

f) Open the switch, K.

g) Repeat the procedures c) to f) for values of 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 𝒄𝒎.

h) Record your results in a suitable table including values of 𝑰𝒙.

i) Plot a graph of 𝑽 against 𝑰𝒙.

j) Find the slope, 𝑺 of the graph.

k) Calculate the diameter, D in metres of the bare wire from the expression.

𝟖. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝑫 = 𝟏
𝑺𝟐

Apparatus: 2 cells, 2 single cell holders, switch, K, bare wire 110 m long (SWG28) , Ammeter (0 – 1)
A, Voltmeter(0 – 3) V, Cello – tape, metre rule, 2 crocodile clips, 5 Pieces of connecting wires of about
30 cm each.

©2024 Martin A.B 59

4.07 Experiment 37:
In this experiment, you will determine the internal resistance, 𝒓 and the electromotive force, 𝑬 of the cell.

Fig.37

Procedure:
a) Fix the resistance wire on the metre rule using the cello – tape.
b) Connect the circuit as shown in the fig. 37 above such that AB = 15 cm.
c) Adjust the rheostat until the ammeter reading, 𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝑨.

d) Connect the voltmeter across the cells and record its reading, 𝑽𝟏 .

e) Disconnect the voltmeter and connect it across AB. Read and record its reading, 𝑽𝟐

f) Repeat procedures c) to e) for values of 𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 𝑨.

g) Enter your result in a suitable table.
h) On the same axes,

i. Plot a graph of 𝑽𝟏 against. 𝑰

ii. Plot a graph of 𝑽𝟐 against. 𝑰

i) Read and record the value of current, 𝑰𝟎 and voltmeter, 𝑽𝟎 where the two graphs intercept.
j) Calculate the value of resistance, r from the expression;
𝐕𝟎
𝐫 =
𝐈𝟎

Apparatus: 2 cells, 2 single cell holders, switch, K, bare wire 110 m long (SWG28) , Ammeter (0 – 1)
A, Voltmeter (0 – 3) V, Rheostat (0 - 50Ω), Cello – tape, metre rule, 2 crocodile clips, 5 Pieces of
connecting wires of about 30 cm each.

©2024 Martin A.B 60

4.08 Experiment 38:

In this experiment, you will determine a constant, Ω of the resistor, 𝐑

Fig.38

Procedure
a) Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.38 above.

b) Beginning with length, 𝐲 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐦, close the switch, 𝐊.

c) Read and record the voltmeter reading, 𝐕 and the ammeter reading, 𝐈.

d) Open the switch, 𝐊.

e) Repeat the procedures (b) to (d) for the values of𝐲 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝐦.
𝟏 𝟏
f) Record your values in a suitable table including the values of 𝐕 and 𝐈 .
𝟏 𝟏
g) Plot a graph of against
𝐈 𝐕

h) Determine the slope, Ω of the graph.

Apparatus: 2 cells, 2 single cell holders, switch, K, bare wire 110 m long SWG28 , Ammeter (0 – 1) A,
Voltmeter (0 – 3) V, Resistor R, Cello – tape, metre rule, 2 crocodile clips, 5 Pieces of connecting wires
of about 30 cm each.

©2024 Martin A.B 61

4.09 Experiment 39:
In this experiment, you will determine resistance of the filament of the torch bulb provided.

Fig.39

Procedure
a) Connect the circuit as shown on the diagram above.

b) Starting with𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 cm and 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 cm, close the switch, K.

c) Read and record the voltmeter reading,𝐕and the ammeter reading, 𝐈.

d) Open the switch, K.

e) Repeat the procedures (b) to (d) for values of;𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟎, 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟎 and 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟎 m.
f) Enter your results in a suitable table.

g) Plot a graph of 𝐕against I.

h) Determine the slope, S of the graph.

Apparatus: 2 cells, 2 single cell holders, switch, K, bare wire 110 m(SWG28) , Ammeter (0 – 1) A,
Voltmeter (0 – 3) V, Cello – tape, metre rule, Torch bulb, 2 crocodile clips, 5 Pieces of connecting
wires of about 30 cm each.

©2024 Martin A.B 62

4. 10: Experiment 40.
In this experiment, you will determine the ratio, p, of the internal resistance of a pair of dry cells to the
resistance per centimetre of the wire labelled, W.
(a)Fix the bare wire labelled, W, on the bench using cello tape.
(b) Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 40 below.

Dry cells
K
Bare
wire
V
l

Cellotape Crocodile clips Cellotape

Fig. 40

(c)Starting with a length, l = 20 cm, read and record the voltmeter reading, V0.
(d) Close the switch, K.
(e)Read and record the voltmeter reading, V1.
(f) Open the switch, K.
(g) Repeat the procedures (c) to (f) for values of l= 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 cm.
(h) Record your values in a suitable table including values of V = V0 – V1 and Plot a graph of V against l.
(i) Determine the slope, p of the graph.

Apparatus: Voltmeter (0-3 V); 2 Dry cells; Jockey; Cello tape; 5 pieces of connecting wires; Metre rule;
Switch, Constantan wire(28 SWG) labelled W.

©2024 Martin A.B 63

4.11 Experiment 41
In this experiment, you will determine the constant, Lo, of the bicycle spoke

Bicycle spoke
K
Bare wire

Fig. 41 Crocodile clips Cellotape

Cellotape

(a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure 41.

(b) Starting with a length, x = 0.800 m, close the switch, K.
(c) Record the ammeter reading, I.
(d) Open the switch K.
(e) Repeat procedures (b) to (d) for values of x = 0.700, 0.600, 0.500, 0.400 and 0.300m.

1
(f) Record your results in a suitable table including values of .
I
1
(g) Plot a graph of against x.
I
(h) Find the slope, S, of the graph.

1
(i) Read the intercept, C, on the axis.
I
𝟐𝐂
(j) Calculate the value of Lo from the expression: 𝐒 = 𝐋𝐨

Apparatus: Ammeter (0 – 1 A); 1 Dry cell; Jockey; Cello tape; 5 pieces of connecting wires; Metre rule;
Switch; nichrome (28SWG); Bicycle spoke.

©2024 Martin A.B 64

4.12 Experiment 42
In this experiment, you will determine the resistance of a resistor.
(a) Connect the dry cells, resistance wire, resistor R, voltmeter V and ammeter A as shown in the
figure 42 below.

100 cm
y

A
V Resistance wire

Fig. 42
R

(b) Adjust the length, y, of the resistance wire to 20 cm.

(c) Close switch K and record the reading V of the voltmeter and I of the ammeter.
(d) Open switch K.
(e) Repeat procedures (b) to (c) for values of y equal to 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 cm.
(f) Record your results in a suitable table.
(g) Plot a graph of V against I.
(h) Find the slope, S of the graph.

Apparatus: Voltmeter (0-3 V); Ammeter (0 – 1A); Resistor 5; 2 Dry cells; Jockey; Cello tape; 5 pieces
of connecting wires; Metre rule; Switch; Nichrome (28SWG).

©2024 Martin A.B 65

4.13 Experiment 43
In this experiment, you will determine the resistance of a resistance wire.
(a) Fix the resistance wire provided firmly on the bench.
(b) Connect the circuit as shown in figure 43 below with the length PQ = 20 cm.

V1

Resistance wire A

P Q

Fig. 43 V2

(c) Adjust the rheostat so that the ammeter reading I = 0.6 A.

(d) Connect a voltmeter across the cells and record its reading V1.
(e) Disconnect the voltmeter and connect it across PQ. Record its reading V2.
(f) Repeat procedures (c), (d) and (e) for values of I = 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 and 0.1 A.
(g) Record your results in a suitable table.
(h) On the same axes, plot a graph of
(i) V1 against I.
(ii) V2 against I.
(i) Read the values of current Io and voltage Vo where the two graphs meet.
Vo
(j) Calculate the value of .
Io

Apparatus: Voltmeter (0-3 V); ammeter (0 – 1 A); Rheostat (0 - 50); 2 Dry cells; Jockey; Cello tape; 8
pieces of connecting wires; Metre rule; Switch; Nichrome (28SWG).

©2024 Martin A.B 66

4.15 Experiment 45.
In this experiment, you will determine the resistance, R, of the filament of the torch bulb provided.
(a) Fix the bare wire, P, on the bench using pieces of cellotape.

Dry cells Cellotape

K

xo
x

Bulb A
Bare wire, P

Crocodile clip
Fig. 45 V

(b) Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 45 above.

(c) Starting with length, xo = 1.00 and x = 0.20 m, close the switch, K.
(d) Read and record the voltmeter reading, V, and the ammeter reading, I.
(e) Open switch, K.
(f) Repeat procedures (c) to (e) for values of x = 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60 and 0.70 m.
(g) Record your results in a suitable table.
(h) Plot a graph of V against I.
(i) Determine the slope, S, of the graph.

Apparatus: 1Voltmeter (0-3 V);1 Ammeter (0 -1); 2 Dry cells; Jockey; 2 pieces of Cello tape; 10 pieces
of connecting wire about 30cm long;1 Metre rule; Constantan (28 SWG); 1 bulb in a holder,1 switch.

©2024 Martin A.B 67

4.16 Experiment 46.
In this experiment, you will determine the constant, β of the bare wire labeled W. (20 marks)
(a) Connect the circuit shown in figure below

Cellotape
A
x

Rheostat
Bare wire, W
Crocodile clip V

(b) Adjust the crocodile clip so that x = 0.300m.

(c) Close switch K, and adjust the rheostat until the ammeter reading, I= 0.40 A.
(d) Record the voltmeter reading, V.
(e) Open switch, K.
(f) Repeat procedures (b) to (e) for values of x = 0.400, 0.500, 0.600, 0.700 & 0.800 m.
𝐕
(g) Tabulate your results including values of 𝐈

𝐕
(h) Plot a graph of 𝐈 against x

(i) Determine the slope, S, of your graph.

(j) Calculate the constant, β of the bare wire W from the expression,

β = 1.13x10-7S

Apparatus: 1Voltmeter (0-3 V);1 Ammeter (0 -1); 2 Dry cells; Jockey; 2 pieces of Cello tape; 10 pieces
of connecting wire about 30cm long;1 Metre rule; 1 Switch; Constantan bare wire (28 SWG); 1Rheostat
(0 - 50Ω).

©2024 Martin A.B 68

4.17: Experiment 47.
In this experiment, you will determine the constant, R of the resistor provided.

Procedure
a) Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.
b) Starting with length, 𝐋 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦, close the switch, K.

c) Record the voltmeter reading, 𝐕 and the ammeter readings, 𝐈.

d) Repeat the procedures b) and c) for values of 𝐋 = 𝟗𝟎, 𝟖𝟎, 𝟕𝟎, 𝟔𝟎and𝟓𝟎 𝐜𝐦.
𝟏 𝟏
e) Enter your result in the suitable table including values of 𝐕 and 𝐈

𝟏 𝟏
f) Plot a graph of against .
𝐈 𝐕

g) Determine the gradient, S of the graph.

Apparatus: Two cells, Nichrome wire SWG28 (about 110 cm), 8 pieces of connecting wires, a Carbon
resistor, i.e. 5 Ω, ammeter (0 – 1)A, Voltmeter (0 – 3)V, Switch, K, 2 single cell holders.

©2024 Martin A.B 69