Locomotion and Movement
The cells of human body exhibit amoeboid, ciliary, and muscular types of movements.
o Amoeboid movement – Example: leucocytes present in the blood
o Ciliary movement – Example: passage of ova through fallopian tube
o Muscular movement – Example: movement of limbs, jaws, and tongue
Muscle
Based on location, muscles are of three types;
o Skeletal muscles/striated muscles – Voluntary in nature
o Visceral muscles/smooth muscles – Involuntary in nature
o Cardiac muscles – Involuntary in nature
Myofibril is one of the several contractile filaments that make up a striated muscle fibre.
Sarcomere is a part of myofibril.
Sarcomere composed of two contractile proteins:
o Actin – Thin filament and called I band
o Myosin – Thick filament and called A band
Z line bisects the centre of each I band.
The functional unit of contraction between two successive Z lines is known as sarcomere.
Troponin and tropomyosin are complex regulatory proteins that form a part of an actin
filament.
Troponin is attached to protein tropomyosin and masks the active binding sites for myosin
on resting actin filament.
Each myosin filament is made up of many monomeric protein called meromyosins.
Meromyosin is made up of light meromyosin and heavy meromyosin. They help in cross
bridge formation.
Based on myoglobin, two types of muscle fibres are present:
(i) Red muscle fibres contain an abundance of myoglobin. Lots of mitochondria are
present in red muscle fibres.
(ii) White muscle fibres contain less amount of myoglobin. Less number of mitochondria
is present in white muscle fibres.Sliding filament theory
It states that during the process of muscle contraction, the thin filaments slide over the
thick filaments.
During muscle contraction:
o The distance between adjacent Z-lines decreases.
o I band gets reduced while A band retains its original length.
o H-zone gets reduced.
o The size of sarcomere decreases.
Steps of muscle contraction and relaxation:
Release of acetylcholine
Generation of action potential
Release of Ca2+ ions into sarcoplasm
Binding of Ca2+ with troponin
Unmasking of binding active site for myosin
Cross bridge formation
Muscle contraction
Breaking of cross bridge
Concentration of Ca2+ decreases
Masking of actin filament by troponin
Muscle relaxation
Skeletal system
Human skeletal system is made up of 206 bones.
A typical bone consists of osteocytes or bone cells that are embedded in a ground matrix
made up of collagen fibres and calcium and phosphorus salts.
Vertebral column forms the axis of skeleton.
It comprises a series of 26 vertebrae.
Vertebral formula - Bones of vertebral column starting from skull is C7T12L5S1Co1.
Atlas (articulate with occipital condyles) and Axis are the 1st and 2nd vertebrae respectively.
Sternum is a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax.
Ribs (12 pairs) are flat bones attached dorsally to vertebral column and ventrally to
sternum.
True ribs – Upper seven pairs
False ribs – 8th, 9th, and 10th pair; as they are not attached to the sternum directly
Floating ribs – 11th and 12th (last two pairs); as they are not attached ventrally
Bones of forelimbs (in both for limbs) Bones of hind limbs (in both for limbs)
Humerus -2 Femur – 2
Radius and ulna -4 Tibia and fibula – 4
Carpals (wrist bone) - 16 Tarsals (ankle bones) - 14
Metacarpals (palm bones) - 10 Metatarsals - 10
Phalanges (Digits) - 28 Phalanges - 28
Patella (knee cap) - 2
Pectoral and pelvic girdle helps in articulation of forelimbs and hind limbs with axial
skeleton.
Joints
Fibrous – Do not allow any movement
Example: between cranial bones
Cartilaginous joints – Bones joint together with the help of cartilage
Example: joint between adjacent vertebrae
Synovial joint – Have fluid-filled synovial cavity
It is of five types:
Ball and socket joint – Example: between humerus and pectoral girdle, femur and
acetabulum
Hinge joint – Example: knee joint
Pivot joint – Example: between atlas and axis
Gliding joint – Example: between carpals
Saddle joint – Example: between carpal and metacarpal of thumb
Disorders
Myasthenia gravis – Autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction
Muscular dystrophy – Genetic disorder that leads to weakening of skeletal muscles
Tetany – Associated with painful and involuntary contraction due to low calcium ions in
body fluids
Arthritis – Degenerative joint disease that occurs due to inflammation of joints
Osteoporosis – Abnormal loss of bony tissue resulting into fragile porous bone
Gout – Accumulation of uric acid crystal that leads to inflammation of joints
Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal system
Myasthenia gravis – Autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction
Muscular dystrophy – Genetic disorder that leads to weakening of skeletal muscles
Tetany – Associated with painful and involuntary contraction due to low calcium ions in
body fluids
Arthritis – Degenerative joint disease that occurs due to inflammation of joints
Osteoporosis – Abnormal loss of bony tissue resulting into fragile porous bone occurs due
to decreased estrogen levels
Gout – Accumulation of uric acid crystal that leads to inflammation of joints
