Animal Reproduction and Development

December 16, 2024 2:19 PM

- Overview
○ Reproduction: can occur via asexual or sexual means
○ Key processes:
▪ Gametogenesis: Creation of gametes (sperm and egg)
□ Spermatogenesis: Formation of sperm
□ Oogenesis: Formation of eggs
▪ Fertilization: fusion of gametes to form a zygote
▪ Development: The zygote develops into a fully formed organism through specific
stages
- Asexual vs Sexual reproduction
○ Asexual reproduction
▪ Produces genetically identical offspring, no genetic diversity
▪ Common in simpler organisms, like sponges and certain invertebrates
▪ Types:
□ Budding: a new organism grows as an outgrowth of the parent (e.g.
sponges, cnidarians)
□ Fission: One individual splits into two or more (e.g. bacteria)
□ Fragmentation and regeneration: organism breaks into pieces, and each
piece grows into a new individual (e.g. echinoderms)
□ Parthenogenesis: offspring develop from unfertilized eggs (e.g. ants, bees,
lizards)
○ Sexual reproduction
▪ Involves mixing of genetic material, providing genetic diversity
▪ Haploid gametes (n) from two parents unite to form a diploid zygote (2n)
▪ Mechanisms for diversity:
□ Independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis
□ Crossing over during meiosis
□ Random fertilization
- Special reproductive strategies
○ Hermaphroditism: Individuals have both male and female reproductive organs
▪ Simultaneous hermaphroditism: both sexes at same time (e.g. earthworms)
▪ Sequential hermaphroditism: sex changes during lifetime
□ Protogynous: female first, then male
□ Protandrous: Male first, then female
- Gametogenesis
○ Creation of haploid gametes in primary sex organs:
▪ Ovaries (females) produce eggs via oogenesis
▪ Testes (males) produce sperm via spermatogenesis
○ Spermatogenesis
▪ Continuous production of sperm: ~3 million primary spermatocytes daily
▪ Each diploid parent cell forms 4 sperm cells
○ Oogenesis
▪ All primary oocytes are present at birth, held dormant in prophase I until puberty
▪ Only one ovum is produced per ovarian cycle
- Endocrine control of reproduction
○ Spermatogenesis:
▪ GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone): stimulates pituitary to release LH and
FSH
▪ LH (Luteinizing hormone): stimulates testosterone production
▪ FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone): promotes sperm development
○ Oogenesis and ovulation
▪ Estradiol: Stimulates oocyte growth.

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 ▪ Estradiol: Stimulates oocyte growth.
▪ FSH: Stimulates one follicle to develop.
▪ LH: Triggers ovulation.
▪ Progesterone: Prepares the uterus for pregnancy.
- Fertilization
○ Union of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote
○ Types:
▪ External fertilization: gametes released into the environment (e.g. fish,
amphibians)
▪ Internal fertilization: gametes combine inside the body, often requiring special
structures or mating behaviour
○ Gamete structure
▪ Ovum: large, with a zona pellucida (protective, glycoprotein coat)
▪ Sperm: small, with a head (nucleus, acrosome), midsection (mitochondria), and a
tail
- Stages of development
○ Fertilization: formation of a zygote
○ Cleavage: mitotic divisions produce a morula (solid ball of cells) and then a blastula
(hollow ball)
○ Gastrulation: formation of three germ layers:
▪ Ectoderm: forms skin, brain, nervous system
▪ Mesoderm: forms muscles, bones, circulatory system
▪ Endoderm: forms digestive and respiratory systems
○ Organogenesis: organs and tissues develop from germ layers
○ Metamorphosis: in species with indirect development (e.g. frogs), the organism
transitions into its adult form
- Cleavage and blastula formation
○ Cleavage: rapid cell divisions partition the zygote into smaller cells called blastomeres,
forming a hollow structure (blastula)
○ Blastocoel: cavity inside the blastula, which later forms body cavities
- Gastrulation
○ Invagination: cells at the surface fold inward, forming the blastopore and a primitive gut
(archenteron)
○ Establishes three germ layers:
▪ Ectoderm: outer layer
▪ Mesoderm: middle layer
▪ Endoderm: inner layer
- Neurulation
○ Development of the nervous system after gastrulation
▪ Neural plate: forms from ectoderm above the notochord
▪ Neural tube: the plate folds to form a hollow tube, which becomes the brain and
spinal cord
- Organogenesis
○ Germ layers differentiate into specific tissues and organs:
▪ Ectoderm: nervous system, skin, eyes
▪ Mesoderm: muscles, bones, blood vessels
▪ Endoderm: digestive and respiratory linings
○ Key processes:
▪ Cell migration: movement of cells to specific locations
▪ Apoptosis: programmed cell death, shaping organs
- Protostomes vs deuterostomes
○ Protostomes ("first mouth"): mouth develops from the first embryonic opening (e.g.
insects, mollusks)
○ Deuterostomes ("second mouth"): Anus develops first, mouth second (e.g. vertebrates)

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