THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

MAT 1110 - Foundation Mathematics and Statistics

for Social Sciences
LECTURE NOTES - 2023
Xavier Mbaale, PhD

1
Contents

1 SETS 9

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.1.1 Set-builder Notations and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.2 Operations on sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.2.1 Venn diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.2.2 Laws of algebra of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Sets Of Numbers 21

2.1 Natural numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.1.1 Whole numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.1.2 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.1.3 Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.1.4 Interval notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.2 Radicals and rational powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.2.1 Square roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.2.2 Rationalizing the denominator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.3 Complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.3.1 Equal complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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 2.3.2 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers . . . . . . . 32

2.3.3 Multiplication of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.3.4 Conjugate complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.3.5 Division of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3 Functions 38

3.1 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.1.1 Classification of Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.1.2 Domain, Range and Co-domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.2.1 Classification of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.2.2 Composite functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.2.3 Odd and even functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.2.4 Inverse of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.2.5 Finding the inverse of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4 Polynomial Functions 51

4.1 Linear function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.1.1 Linear equations and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.1.2 Linear equations in one variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.2 Equations involving fractional expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.2.1 Graphs of linear functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4.3 Quadratic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.4 Quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.4.1 Completing the square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

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Chapter 1

SETS

1.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will review some basic concepts on set theory. After this
chapter, a student is expected to define a set correctly, perform different set op-
erations; intersection, union, complement and subsets, represent sets on Venn
diagrams, shade sets as well as use the De Morgans laws to simplify set oper-
ations.

Definition 1.1.1. A set is a collection of well defined objects. The objects of a

set are called elements or members of that set. Sets are commonly represented
using set braces , {}.

Example 1.1.1. The set conatining the elements 1, 2, 3 and 4 is given by

{1, 2, 3, 4}.

Note 1.1.1. In a set, the order in which elements are listed is not important.

Remark 1.1.1. To show that an element is a member of the set, we use the
symbol ∈. E.g in the preceding example, we can say 4 is in the set {1, 2, 3, 4}
and so we write 4 ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}. When an element is not in a set, we use the
symbol ∈,
/ e.g 7 ∈/ {1, 2, 3, 4}.

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1.1.1 Set-builder Notations and Definitions

Sets are named using capital letters, while we use small letters for elements
of the set. Capital letter such as A, B, C and so on, will be used to represent
a set while lower case letters will be used to represent elements of a set. i.e.
{a, b, c, d} and so on. Numbers may also be used to represent the elements of
a set.

A set can either be represented by writing/ listing down the elements, or by

describing it. i.e. describing its elements. Each element in a set is separated
from the other by a comma.

Definition 1.1.2 (Set-builder Notation). Sets are often written in set builder
notation, which uses a variable such as x to describe the elements of the set.
Example, describe the set A = {3, 4, 5, 6} in set bulider notation.
solution A = {x| x is a natural number between 2 and 7}, which is read “the
set of all elements x such that x is a natural number between 2 and 7 . ” The
symbol | is sometimes replaced by :.

Consider the following examples:

List Description/Set-builder notation

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} A = {x : x is a natural nunber less than 6}.

V = {a, e, i, o, u} V = {x : x is a vowel}.

C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .} C = {x : x is a positive even number}.

E = {dog, plate, Earth, food} E = { impossible}.

We observe that it is possible to list the elements of the set from the given
description.

Example 1.1.2. List down the elements of each of the following sets.

1. A = {x : x is an odd number}.

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 2. B = {k ∈ S : k = 3n + 1, n = 0, 1, 2, 3}.

Solution

1.
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . .}.

2.
B = {1, 4, 7, 10}.

Definition 1.1.3. Finite set

A set is said to be finite if its elements can be listed down. For instance, V =
{x : x is a vowel} is a finite set.

Definition 1.1.4. infinite set

A set is said to be infinite if its elements can not be listed down in a finite
period of time. For instance, C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .} is an infinite set, where the
last three dots (points) show that the set continues according to the established
pattern.

Definition 1.1.5. The Uinversal set usually denoted U/E is the set containing
all the elements included in the discussion of a particular situation or problem.

Definition 1.1.6. The null set or empty set is the set containing no elements
and normally denoted by ∅ or {}

Remark 1.1.2. {∅} is not an empty set. It is a set containing the symbol ∅.

Definition 1.1.7. Subset

A set S is a subset of T if every element of S is also an element of the set T,
and we write, S ⊆ T, where the symbol ⊆ denotes subset. If T has elements
that are not elements of S, then we say that S is a proper subset of T and write
S ⊂ T.

Example 1.1.3. 1. If A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, c, b, d}, then A ⊂ B. More-

over, A is a proper subset of B.

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 2. Let A = {2, 5, 9} and

B = {2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10}. Then A ⊂ B.

Definition 1.1.8. Equal sets

Two sets A and B are said to be equal (A = B) if set A has the same members
as set B regardless of the order of listing. In other words, two sets A and B
are said to be equal if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Example 1.1.4. If A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, c, b}, then A = B.

Remark 1.1.3. 1. If a set A is not a subset of a set B, we write A 6⊂ B, where

the symbol 6⊂ means not a subset.

2. Every set is a subset of itself i.e, A ⊆ A. Where A is any set.

3. Empty set ∅ is a subset of every set, i.e ∅ ⊆ A where A is any set.

4. If a set A is of size or cardinality (the number of elements in a given set)

n, then the total number of subsets of A is given by 2n . The set consisting
of all the subsets of the set A, denoted by P(A), is called the power set of
A.

Example 1.1.5. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, then A has cardinality 3 and so the total
number of subsets of A is 23 = 8. These subsets of A are
{}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}.

1.2 Operations on sets

Definition 1.2.1. Complement of a set

The complement of a set A, denoted by Ac or A0 , with respect to the given
universal set U is the set of all elements of U that do not belong to A. That is

Ac = {x : x ∈/ A, x ∈ U}.

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Example 1.2.1. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. List
down the elements of Ac .

Solution From definition 1.2.1,

Ac = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.

Definition 1.2.2. Union of sets

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all elements that
belong to A or B or both. That is

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Note that definition 1.2.2 can be extended to more than two sets.

Example 1.2.2. Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}. Find A ∪ B.

Solution Clearly, by definition 1.2.2

A ∪ B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Recall that repetition of elements in a set is not allowed.

Definition 1.2.3. Intersection of sets

The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A∩B, is the set of all elements
that belong to both A and B. That is

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

Note that definition 1.2.3 can be extended to more than two sets.

If for any two sets A and B, A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be disjoint.

Example 1.2.3. Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}. Find A ∩ B.

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Solution From definition 1.2.3, we get

A ∩ B = {4}.

If A and B are sets, we write A − B, read as A minus B to mean the set of all
elements which belong to A but do not belong to B. That is;

A − B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈/ B}.

Thus, A − B = A ∩ Bc .

Example 1.2.4. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, A = {2, 3, 4, 5} and B =

{1, 3, 4, 6}. List down the elements of A − B.

Solution

A − B = A ∩ Bc = {2, 5}.

1.2.1 Venn diagram

A venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets.

Union and intersection of sets may be described by using a Venn diagram. All
the elements of a set are enclosed in a circle. For any three sets A, B and
C, the union of the sets is the total area bounded by the circles in the Venn
diagram, while the intersection is the overlapping cross-hatched area as shown
below.

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 B A

Example 1.2.5. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}, A = {a, c, g}, B = {b, c, f, g},

C = {b, d, e, f, g}.

1. Illustrate this information on a Venn diagram.

2. Find B ∪ C

3. Find Ac

4. Find Ac ∩ (B ∪ C).

Solution

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 A B

c
a
g b
f

d
e

h C
1. U

2. From the Venn diagram, it is easy to see that

B ∪ C = {b, c, d, e, f, g}.

3. Clearly,
Ac = {b, d, e, f, h}

4. It follows from (2) and (3) that

Ac ∩ (B ∪ C) = {b, d, e, f}.

Example 1.2.6. A fast food restaurant conducted a survey on its 185 cus-
tomers. The results came out as follows; 70 liked pizza, 60 liked fries, and
50 liked shawarma. In addition, 30 liked pizza and fries, 20 liked pizza and
shawarma, 35 liked fries and shawarma. 17 liked all the three meals.

1. Illustrate this information on a Venn diagram.

2. Find the number of customers who did not like any of these available
meals?

3. Find the number of customers who liked exactly one meal?

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Solution

Pizza Fries

13
37 12
17
3 18

12

73 Shawarma
1. U

2. 73 customers did not like any of the three meals.

3. 37 + 12 + 12 = 61 customers liked exactly one of the three meals.

Example 1.2.7. In each of the following Venn diagrams, shade

1. B − C.

2. A ∩ (B ∩ C c ).

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 B A B C A

U U

The following results will be very useful in performing certain set operations.

Theorem 1.2.1. De Morgan’s Laws of intersection (∩) and union (∪)

Let A and B be any two sets. We have that

1.
(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ Bc .

2.
(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ Bc .

Example 1.2.8. Consider the universal set

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10},

and the subsets A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6} of U. Confirm the above

laws; the right hand side and left hand side are equal.

1.2.2 Laws of algebra of sets

Let A, B and C be any subsets of the universal set.

1. The identity law:

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 (a) A ∪ A = A (c) A ∩ ∅ = ∅ (e) A ∪ ∅ = A

(b) A ∩ A = A (d) A ∩ U = A (f) A ∪ U = U.

2. Commutative law:

(a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A. (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

3. Associative law:

(a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C). (b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).

4. Distributive law:

(a) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). (b) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

5. Complement law:

(a) A ∪ Ac = U (b) A ∩ Ac = ∅.

6. Complement law:

(a) (Ac )c = A. (c) ∅c = U. (e) A ∩ Ac = ∅.

(b) U c = ∅. (d) A ∪ Ac = U

Example 1.2.9. Given that A ⊂ B, simplify each of the following:

1.
[Ac ∪ (A ∩ Bc )]c

2.
Bc ∩ (A ∪ B).

3.
A ∩ (A ∪ B).

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Solution 1.2.1.

20
Chapter 2

Sets Of Numbers

2.1 Natural numbers

The first numbers we ever encounter in life are what are known as counting
number, i.e, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . This set of numbers is called the Natural numbers
denoted by N and given by N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }.

2.1.1 Whole numbers

If we include 0 to the set of natural numbers we have the set of whole numbers
denoted by W and given by W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }.

2.1.2 Integers

Including the negatives of natural numbers to set of whole numbers gives the
set of intengers denoted Z and given by Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.
Integers can be represented on a number line as shown in the figure below;

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Note It is important so far to note that N ⊂ W ⊂ Z.

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If one divides two integers with a non-zero divisor, one obtains a fraction also
known as a rational number.

Definition 2.1.1. A rational number is an element of the set defined as follows:

 
p
Q= | p and q are integers and q 6= 0 (2.1.1)
q

Remark 2.1.1. The set of rational numbers Q includes the natural numbers, the
whole numbers and integers. E.g -3 is a rational number since it can be written
−3
as 1
. Rational numbers are numbers that can be written as,

3
1. Terminating decimals e.g 4
= 0.75

2. Repeating decimals e.g 23

11
= 2.090909 · · · = 2.09 where the bar indicates
the block of repeating digits.

Again, we note so far that N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q.

Example 2.1.1. Show that each of the following numbers are rational.

1. 25.12 2. 0.359.

Solutions

1.

Let x = 25.12. Multiplying by 100 both sides yields.

100x = 2512.12.Thus subtracting equation 2 from equation 1 yields,

100x − x = 2512.12 − 25.12.

Ñ 99x = 2487,
2487 829
Ñx= =
99 33

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 2.

Let x = 0.359. Multiplying by 10 both sides yields.

10x = 3.59.Multiplying both sides by 100 yields,

1000x = 359.59.Thus subtracting equation 3 from equation 2 yields,

1000x − 10x = 359.59 − 3.59.

Ñ 990x = 356,
356 178
Ñx= = .
990 495

2.1.3 Real Numbers

The set of all numbers that correspond to any point on the number line is the
set of real numbers. This set is denoted by R. Real numbers are numbers that
can be expressed as terminating decimals or non-terminating decimals. These
numbers includes

−3 1 √
4.00 · · · , = −0.7500 · · · , = 0.3333 · · · , and 2 = 1.4142 · · · .
4 3

The dots (· · · ) in each case indicate that the sequence of decimal digits goes
on forever. Real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a
(straight) number line called the real line as shown below.

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Remark 2.1.2. 1. We note that some real numbers can be represented by

1
terminating decimals, e.g 4
= 0.25 is a real number, hence real numbers
include rational numbers.

2. Some real numbers cannot be represented by quotients / fractions of

integers. These numbers are called Irrational numbers denoted by Irr.
√ √ √ √
The set of irrational numbers include π, 2, 5, 2 + 3. Thus irrational
numbers are real numbers that are not rational.

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 Irr N⊂W⊂Z⊂Q

2.1.4 Interval notation

Interval notation is a way of representing or writing subset of the set of real

numbers. Suppose that a and b are real numbers such that a < b. Then an
open interval between a and b is one that does not include its end points a and
b i.e {x ∈ R|a < x < b}. We write this in interval notation using parentheses
(a, b). Hence a, b ∈/ (a, b).

In general, the interval notations are:

1. (a, b) represents all the real numbers between a and b, not including a
and b. This is an open interval. In set builder notation, we write {x : a <
x < b, x ∈ R}. For example, the graph of (−4, 2) is

2. [a, b] represents all the real numbers between a and b, including a and
b. This is a closed interval. In set builder notation, we write {x : a ≤ x ≤
b, x ∈ R}. For example, the graph of [0, 4] is

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 3. (a, b] represents all the real numbers between a and b, not including a
but including b. This is a half open interval. In set builder notation, we
write {x : a < x ≤ b, x ∈ R}. For example, the graph of (−1, 3] is

4. [a, b) represents all the real numbers between a and b, including a but
not b. This is a half open interval. In set builder notation, we write {x :
a ≤ x < b, x ∈ R}. For example, the graph of [−4, −1) is

Subsets of the real numbers whose graphs extend forever in one or both
directions can be represented by interval notation using the infinity symbol ∞
or the negative infinity symbol −∞. These are:

1. (−∞, a)

2. (b, ∞)

3. (−∞, a]

4. [b, ∞)

5. (−∞, ∞)

Example 2.1.2. Let U = [0, 10) and define A = [0, 5], B = [2, 8] and C = (1, 6).
Find each of the following sets and display them on the number line.

25
 1. A ∩ C 3. A ∩ Bc

2. A ∩ B 4. Ac ∩ C c

Solution 2.1.1. We Solve as follows

2.2 Radicals and rational powers

In this section, we will learn how to simplify expressions involving square roots,
rationalize denominators and use rational powers/indices.

2.2.1 Square roots

√
If b2 = a, then b is called a square root of a. The symbol is used to denote the
√
positive or principal square root of a number, while − denotes the negative
square root.

√
1. 25 = 5 because 52 = 25 and 5 is positive.

26
 √
2. 100 = 10 because 102 = 100 and 10 is positive.

√
The symbol that we use to denote the positive square root is called a Radical
√
sign. The number under the radical sign is called the Radicand. Together a
is called a radical expression.

Example 2.2.1. Evaluate

√ √ √
1. 64 2. 9 + 16

A rational number that is a square of another rational number is called a perfect

square. All the radicands in the previous example are perfect squares. 1
4
is a
perfect square because ( 21 )2 = 41 .

Theorem 2.2.1. Product rule of square roots

If a and b are positive real numbers, then

√ √ √
ab = a b.

Example 2.2.2. Use the product rule to simplify

√ √ √
1. 500 2. 6x × 3x

Another property for square roots involves division.

Theorem 2.2.2. Quotient rule of square roots

If a and b are positive real numbers, then

r √
a a
=√ .
b b
Example 2.2.3. Use the quotient rule to simplify
q √
2. √48x .
3
1. 100
9 6x

Adding and subtracting square roots

27
Two or more square roots can be combined using the distributive property
provided that they have the same radicands. Such radical expressions are
√ √ √ √
called like radicals. For example, 7 11 + 6 11 = (7 + 6) 11 = 13 11.

Example 2.2.4. Add or subtract as indicated.

√ √ √ √
1. 7 2 + 5 2 3. 7 3 + 12
√ √ √ √
2. 5x − 7 5x 4. 4 50x − 6 32x
√ √
Solution 2.2.1. 1. 7 2 + 5 2

2.2.2 Rationalizing the denominator

Rationalizing the denominator is the process that involves rewriting a radical

expression as an equivalent expression in which the denominator no longer
contains any radical sign.

If the denominator consists of the square root of a natural number that is not
a perfect square, multiply the numerator and the denominator by the smallest

28
radical expression that produces the square root of a perfect square in the
denominator.

Example 2.2.5. Rationalize the denominator.

1. √
15
6
2. √
12
8

Solution 2.2.2. 1. √
15
6
=

Radical expressions that involve the sum and difference of the same two terms
√ √ √ √
are called conjugates. For example, a + b and a − b are conjugates of
each other. What happens when two conjugates are multiplied? Let us see

√ √ √ √ √ √
( a + b)( a − b) = ( a)2 − ( b)2 = a − b

To rationalize the denominator if the denominator contains two terms with one
or two square roots, we multiply the numerator and the denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator.

Example 2.2.6. Rationalize the denominator.

29
 h √
1. √ 7√
5+ 3
2. √
x+h− x

Solution 2.2.3. 1. √ 7√
5+ 3
=

Example 2.2.7. Simplify

 √ −1 √ √
1. 3
+ 27. 2. −1 + 125 + 1√
1− 5
.
21

 √ −1 √
Solution 2.2.4. 1. 3
21
+ 27 =

30
Similarly, one can easily rationalize the numerator by considering the above
discussion.

2.3 Complex numbers

A complex number is an expression of the form a + bi, where a, b ∈ R, and

√
i2 = −1 or equivalently −1 = i. The set of such numbers is called the set of
complex numbers and is denoted by C.

If z = a + bi ∈ C, then we call a the real part of z and b the imaginary

part of z. We write this as a = Re(z) and b = Im(z). The representation of a
complex number in the form a+bi is called the Cartesian form of the complex
number. If b = 0, then z = a, and z is said to be purely real. Similarly, z is
purely imaginary if a = 0.

Example 2.3.1. Let z = −3 − 4i. State Re(z) and Im(z).

2.3.1 Equal complex numbers

Definition 2.3.1. Two complex numbers z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di are equal

(z1 = z2 ) if and only if a = c and b = d.

Example 2.3.2. 1. State the value of x and of y given that x + yi = 5 + 4i.

2. Find the value of a and b if (a + b) + (a − b)i = 7 + 2i.

Solution 2.3.1. 1. x = 5 and y = 4.

2.

31
2.3.2 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers

Let z = a + bi and ω = c + di be two complex numbers.

z + ω = (a + bi) + (c + di).

Although the real and the imaginary parts can not be combined, we can remove
the brackets and total up like terms. That is

z + ω = a + bi + c + di

= (a + c) + bi + di

= (a + c) + (b + d)i.

Example 2.3.3. Compute z + ω if z = 4 + 5i and ω = 3 − 2i.

Similarly, if z = a + bi and ω = c + di, then

z − ω = (a + bi) − (c + di)

= a + bi − c − di

= (a − c) + (b − d)i.

Example 2.3.4. Find z − ω if z = 4 + 5i and ω = 3 − 2i.

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2.3.3 Multiplication of complex numbers

Let z = a + bi and ω = c + di be two complex numbers.

zω = (a + bi)(c + di).

These are multiplied in the same way as you would determine the product
(3x + 4y)(2x + 5y). Thus,

zω = (a + bi)(c + di)

= ac + adi + bi(c) + bidi

= ac + adi + bci − bd

= (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.

Example 2.3.5. Given that z = 3 + 4i and ω = 2 + 5i. Compute zω.

Solution 2.3.2. zω =

If the expression contains more than two factors, we multiply the factors to-
gether in stages.

Example 2.3.6. Multiply (3 + 4i)(5 − 8i)(1 − 2i).

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From the previous example, we observed that i3 = −i, because i2 = −1. Con-
tinuing, we see that i4 = i2 × i2 = −1 × −1 = 1, i5 = i and i6 = −1.

In summary, to calculate any high power of i, you can convert it to a lower

power by taking the closest multiple of 4 that is no longer bigger than the
exponent and subtract this from the exponent. For example, i99 = i(96+3) = i3 =
−i.

Example 2.3.7. Simplify each of the following:

1. i17 2. i120 3. i64002

2.3.4 Conjugate complex numbers

Compute (5 + 8i)(5 − 8i).

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A pair of complex numbers like these are called conjugate complex numbers,
and the product of conjugate complex numbers is always purely real. In gen-
eral is z = a + bi, then the conjugate of z, denoted by z̄, is given by z̄ = a − bi.

Example 2.3.8. Given that z = 5 + 4i compute

1. z − z̄ 2. z + z̄ 3. zz̄

Solution 2.3.3. 1. z − z̄ =

2.3.5 Division of complex numbers

Division of a complex number by a real number is very easy. For example, if

z
z = 5 − 4i, then 3
= 5−4i
3
= 5
3
− 43 i. However, how do we manage with 7−4i
4+3i
?

If we could convert the denominator into a real number, we could divide out as
in the example above. This can easily be done by multiplying the denominator
by its complex conjugate.

Example 2.3.9. Simplify each of the following:

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 1. 2.
3 + 2i 1+i
+ 2 + 4i
1 − 3i 3 − 2i

Solution 2.3.4. 1.
3 + 2i
=
1 − 3i

Example 2.3.10. Solve each of the following for a and b.

1. 2.
3i − 2 i+a
= 3a + 3(b − 1)i.
2
− 2b + i3 = + b.
2i − 6 i i

Solution 2.3.5. 1.
3i − 2
= 3a + 3(b − 1)i =
2i − 6

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