CORE NOTES CHAPTER 1: KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

- Part I: States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume;
compressible
Shape Fixed shape No fixed shape No fixed shape
Forces of Very strong forces of Strong forces of Weak forces of
Attraction attraction. attraction. attraction.
Movement of Vibrate about in their Particles slide pass Move rapidly and
particles fixed positions. one another. randomly.
Arrangement of Packed very closely. Packed closely Far apart from one
particles together. another.
Fixed and regular
pattern. No fixed pattern. No fixed pattern.

- Part II: Conversion from one state to another

• Melting (solid à liquid)
When a solid is heated, the particles gain heat energy which is converted to kinetic energy
and vibrate more vigorously in their fixed positions. When the particles gain enough heat
energy, they will overcome the forces of attraction partially and move about randomly and
are no longer held in fixed positions. The state is now liquid. (Heat energy is gained!)

• Freezing (liquid à solid)

When a solid is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy and move about less vigorously.
When the particles lose much energy, they will become close enough to allow the forces of
attraction to act and return them to their fixed positions in regular arrangement. The state
is now solid. (Heat energy is lost!)

• Boiling (liquid à gas)

When a liquid is heated, the particles gain heat energy which is converted to kinetic energy
and vibrate more vigorously. When the particles gain enough heat energy, they will
overcome the forces of attraction and move very far apart and move randomly at high
speeds. The state is now gas. (Heat energy is gained!)

• Evaporation (liquid à gas)

Evaporation occurs when a liquid converts to a gas without reaching its boiling point. This
happens because some liquid particles possess sufficient energy to escape as a gas from
the surface of a liquid as the particles near the surface are more exposed to temperature
changes. Substances that evaporate easily are called volatile liquids. (boils at less than
100°", melts at less than 25°")

• Condensation (gas à liquid)

When a liquid is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy and move about less vigorously.
When the particles lose much energy, they will slow down and move closer together so that
the forces of attraction will be sufficiently strong for the gas to change into a liquid. (Heat
energy is lost!)

By: Oscar Chiang Page 3

 • Sublimation (solid à gas)
Sublimation is the change from a solid into a gas without melting. (e.g. carbon dioxide)

• Deposition (gas à solid)

Deposition is the change from gas state to solid state without freezing.

Why is there a constant temperature for a period of time for a heating and cooling curve?
Heating curve: There is energy used to overcome the forces of attraction between the
particles.

Cooling curve: When the forces of attraction between the particles act more strongly, heat
energy is released. The loss of heat energy is used to compensate the heat energy released
during cooling, so the temperature remains constant.

Heating Curve Cooling Curve

- Part III: Factors affecting melting and boiling points of substances

1. Addition of impurities
A pure substance is made up of only one substance which is not mixed with any other
substances. Pure substances have a fixed boiling and melting point.
Melting point depression – adding impurities decreases the melting point.
Boiling point elevation – adding impurities increases the boiling point.

2. Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure varies at different locations on Earth.

There is a higher atmospheric pressure at a lower point on Earth.

The higher the atmospheric pressure is, the higher the boiling point is.

Lower atmospheric pressure

Higher atmospheric pressure

By: Oscar Chiang Page 4

 - Part IV: Phase Diagram
The diagram shows the state of matter of a substance
under given conditions.

A triple point of a pure substance is the temperature

and pressure which the substance can exist as all three
states at the same time.

- Part V: Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from regions of higher concentration to regions of
lower concentration.

• Factors affecting diffusion

1. Temperature – higher temperature, more kinetic energy, move with greater speeds.
2. Relative molecular mass (Mr) – lower Mr gases travel faster, moving with greater
average speeds.

• Porous pot test

When Mr of Gas X (in porous pot) < Mr of Gas Y (outside of porous pot), Gas X will diffuse out
of the porous pot faster than Gas Y diffusing in.
As there is lesser particles in in the porous pot, the pressure decreases and the Level Y will
fall.

When Mr of Gas Y (outside of porous pot) < Mr of Gas X (in porous pot), Gas Y will diffuse
into the porous pot faster than Gas X diffusing out.
As there is more particles in in the porous pot, the pressure increases and the Level Y will
rise.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 5

 CORE NOTES CHAPTER 2: CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND FORMULAE

- Part I: Binary Ionic Compounds

• Metals in the Periodic Table are usually cations (positive ions) and non-metals are usually
anions (negative ions).

Group Charge Group Charge

1 (Alkali metals) + 15 3-
2 (Alkaline earth metals) 2+ 16 2-
3 to 11 (Transition metals) Varies* 17 (Halogens) 1-
13 3+ 18 (Noble gases) NIL
2+ +
*Zinc is always Zn and Silver is always Ag .

• Naming binary ionic compounds

The cations would take the same name as the metals (e.g. magnesium). Hint: Most metals
end with -ium.
The name of the anion takes the root of the non-metal and adds -ide. (e.g. oxide)

- Part II: Polyatomic Ions

Polyatomic Name Polyatomic Formula Polyatomic Name Polyatomic Formula
Ethanoate / Acetate CH3COO- Phosphate PO43-
Nitrate NO3- Ammonium NH4+
Sulfate SO42- Hydroxide OH-
Carbonate CO32-

• Naming polyatomic covalent compounds

The element with the lower group number will be the first word in the covalent name, the
element with the higher group number will be the second word.

There should be a prefix indicated for the second word.

Prefixes
e.g. 1 Carbon (Group 14) + 1 Oxygen (Group 16) à Carbon monoxide (CO) mono-
e.g. 1 Carbon (Group 14) + 2 Oxygen (Group 16) à Carbon dioxide (CO2) di-
e.g. 1 Sulfur (Group 16) + 3 Oxygen (Group 16) à Sulfur trioxide (SO3) tri-
e.g. 1 Carbon (Group 14) + 4 Fluoride (Group 17) à Carbon tetrafluoride (CF4) tetra-
e.g. 1 Phosphorus (Group 15) + 5 Bromide (Group 17) à Phosphorus pentabromide penta-
(PBr5)

- Part III: Balancing Chemical Equations

To balance an equation, only the coefficients of the formulae can be adjusted. Only include
reactants and products that are known to participate in the reaction.
Tip: Start with the element least appearing on the list.

• Dissociation
All kinds of acids and ionic compounds in aqueous state can be dissociated to form aqueous
ions. If they are in solid, liquid or gas states, they cannot be dissociated.
Example:
Chemical Equation: H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq) à K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Dissociation: 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2K+ (aq) + 2O2- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) à 2K+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) +
2H2O (l)
Cancel spectator ions: 2H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2K+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) à 2K+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) +
2H2O (l)
Result: 2H+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) à 2H2O (l)

By: Oscar Chiang Page 6

 CORE NOTES CHAPTER 3: MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY

- Concept
Calculations

- Part I: Relative Isotopic Mass and Relative Atomic Mass

Isotopes are atoms which have the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons. E.g. 12C, 13C, 14C

!"#$!%# '!(( )* + !,)' )* ,-# .(),)/#

Ar (Relative Atomic Mass) = !
'!(( )* ! 0!$1)23+4 !,)'
!"
Example
It is given that abundance of 35Cl isotope is 75.77% and abundance of 37Cl is 24.23%. Find the
relative atomic mass of !", giving your answer in 2 decimal places.

Ar of Cl = 77.30% × 35 + 22.70% x 37 ≈ 35.45

!"#$!%# '!(( )* ! ')5#065# )* ! (61(,!20#

Mr (Relative Molecular Mass) = !
'!(( )* ! 0!$1)23+4 !,)'
!"
Mr can also be derived from the sum of the Ar of all the atoms in the substance.

- Part II: Mole, Molar Mass and Molar Volume of Gases

• Mole
A mole (SI unit: mol) is defined as the amount of substance that contains the same number
of particles as there are in 12 grams of carbon-12.

There are approximately 6.02 x 1023 particles in one mole of substance. This value is also
known as Avogadro’s Constant (NA).

• Molar Mass
Molar mass (g mol-1) is the mass of one mole of a substance.
Molar mass is the relative atomic mass but expressed in g mol-1.
e.g. Hydrogen R.A.M = 1.01, Molar Mass = 1.01g/mol

• Molar Volume
Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of gases contains the same number of molecules
and moles under the same temperature and pressure.
1 mol of gas = 24.0dm3 of gas at r.t.p.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 7

 - Part III: Empirical Formula and Composition Calculation
The empirical formula of a compound shows the types of elements in a compound in the
simplest ratio of the different types of atoms in it.

Empirical formula can be found with mass of the substance and molar mass of the element.

Example
It is given that a compound contains 1.20g of magnesium and 0.80g of oxygen, find the
empirical formula of the compound.
Element Mg O
Mass / g 1.20 0.80
Molar mass / gmol-1 24.31 16.00
Number of moles / mol 1.200 0.800
= 0.0494 = 0.05
4.310(-* 3+ 16.000(-* 3+
Simplest mole ratio 0.0494 0.05
=1 ≈1
0.0494 0.0494
Formula of substance MgO

Note!
The water of crystallisation refers to the molecules that are part of the crystal structure of a
hydrated salt.

26'1#$ )* !,)'( )* ,-# #5#'#2, × 8# )* #5#'#2,

Percentage by mass of an element = × 100%
9# )* #5#'#2,

26'1#$ )* !,)'( )* ,-# #5#'#2, × 8# )* #5#'#2,

Mass of an element = × &'()*+ : & ,-,'* ('&&
9# )* #5#'#2,

- Part IV: Molecular Formula

Molecular formula is the specific number of atoms of each element there are in the
compound where empirical formula only is in the simplest ratio.

Example
Empirical Formula = C3H6O
Molecular Formula = (C3H6O)n
3 45 64789:7;< 54<6:7;
To find the n value, simply take " .
3" 45 86=><>9;7 54<6:7;

By: Oscar Chiang Page 8

 - Part V: Stoichiometry – Calculation using Chemical Equations
Stoichiometry is the relationship between the number of moles of reactants and the number
of moles of products involved in a chemical equation.

Example 1
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) à 2HCl (g)
This means that 1 hydrogen molecule and 1 chlorine molecule form 2 hydrogen chloride
molecules. (Ratio is 1:1:2)
This can be converted to number of moles. Which means, 1 mole of hydrogen molecule and
1 mole of chlorine molecule form 2 moles of hydrogen chloride molecules. (Ratio is still
1:1:2)
This can be converted to mass in grams using Molar Mass (Mr). Which means, 2.02 grams of
hydrogen and 70.90 grams of chlorine form 72.92 grams of hydrogen chloride.

Example 2
If 50g of ZnO reacts with 50g of carbon, what is the mass of CO produced?
ZnO (s) + C (s) à Zn (s) + CO (g)

no. of mol of ZnO = 50 ÷ (65.38 + 16.00) = 0.61440 (-* (5&. =. )

Since mol ratio of >?@: B@ = 1: 1,
Mass of CO = 0.61440 × (12.01 + 16.00) = 17.2 0 (3&. =. )

- Part VI: Concentration and Volumetric Analysis

9!(( )* ()56,# .2 %
Concentration in g dm-3 = ")56'# )* ()56,.)2 .2 G'%
26'1#$ )* ')5#( )* ()56,#
Molar concentration in mol dm-3 =
")56'# )* ()56,.)2 .2 G'%

To convert from concentration to molar concentration, ÷ it by MR as we know that in order

to convert mass to mole, you will have to ÷ it by MR as well.

- Part VII: Limiting Reactants

Limiting reactants are reactants that is completely used up. (The reactant with remaining
reactants are called the excess reactants)

Example 1
A mixture of 0.50mol of H2 and 0.25mol of Cl2 reacts according to this equation:
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) à 2HCl (aq)

Since mol ratio of D4 ∶ B*4 = 1: 1,

For 0.50mol of H2 to react, 0.50mol of Cl2 is required. However, only 0.25mol of Cl2 is
present. Hence, Cl2 is the limiting reactant.

Example 2
Fe (s) + S (s) à FeS (s)
When 7g of iron is completely used up, what is the mass of sulfur involved in this reaction?
Misconception – 7g of sulfur will completely use up 7g of iron because mole ratio is 1:1 ✗

Mole ratio is not equivalent to mass! Find the number of moles in Fe then using mole ratio,
find the number of moles in S and convert back to mass with the molar mass.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 9

 - Part VII: Percentage Yield
Percentage yield is the amount (it can be in gas volume, mass or moles) of product formed in
the reaction. Theoretical yield of an experiment is calculated from the limiting reactant
used from the reaction, representing 100% conversion of limiting reactant to products.

#H/#$.'#2,!5 I.#5G
Percentage Yield = × 100%
,-#)$#,.0!5 I.#5G

Example
In an experiment, 0.7g of lithium reacted with sulfur to produce 2.0g lithium sulfide.
Calculate the percentage yield.
2Li (s) + S (s) à Li2S (s)

J.L
No. of mol of FG = M.NO = 0.10086 (-*
Since mol ratio of FG: FG4 H = 2: 1,
Theoretical mol of FG4 H = 0.10086 (-* ÷ 2 = 0.050432 (-*
Theoretical mass of FG4 H = 0.050432 (-* × (6.94 × 2 + 32.07) = 2.3173 0
4.J
Percentage Yield = 4.P+LP × 100% = 86.3% (3&. =. )

- Part VIII: Percentage Purity

Chemicals used in reactions are often not 100% pure. Percentage purity is the mass of the
pure reactant in a substance. This can be calculated from the actual or experimental yield of
the product.

Note!
The impure reactant sample is a mixture and hence, does not have molar mass.

'!(( )* /6$# (!'/5#

Percentage Purity = '!(( )* .'/6$# (!'/5# × 100%

Example
When 6g of carbon containing impurities is burnt in excess oxygen, 16.5g of carbon dioxide
is produced. Calculate the percentage purity of the carbon.
C (s) + O2 (g) à CO2 (g)

+M.Q
No. of mol of B@4 = +4.J+R+M.JJ × 4 = 0.37491 (-*
Since mol ratio of B@4 ∶ B = 1: 1,
No. of mol of B = 0.37491 (-*
Mass of B = 0.37491 × 12.01 = 4.50270
O.QJ4L
Percentage Purity = M × 100% = 75.0% (3&. =. )

By: Oscar Chiang Page 10

 CORE NOTES CHAPTER 4: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

- Part I: Sub-atomic particles

An atom is the smallest particle in an element. The subatomic particles are protons,
electrons and neutrons.
Subatomic Particle Relative charge Relative mass Location
Neutron 0 1 Found in nucleus
Proton +1 1 Found in nucleus
Electron -1 1 Outside the nucleus, electron
1824 cloud

The following is the behaviour of subatomic particles in an electric field. Like charges repel
and unlike charges attract. The positively charged protons are deflected towards the
negative plate while the negatively charged electrons are deflected towards the positive
plate. The neutrons are not affected.

- Part II: Atomic number, mass number and isotopes

Atomic number (a.k.a proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of
an element. The number of protons in each element is unique and fixed.

Mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.

Isotopes are atoms with different mass numbers (because of number of neutrons)
e.g. 1H (hydrogen), 2H (deuterium), 3H (tritium)

Isotopes are isoelectronic and therefore have identical chemical properties. However, it
possesses different physical properties.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 11

 - Part III: Atomic shell and orbitals
Principal quantum number is known as the main energy shell. (n=1, n=2, n=3…) Each orbital
can only contain 2 electrons.

s atomic orbitals
There can be a maximum of one s orbital per shell.
e.g. Hydrogen electronic configuration 1s1
The size of s orbital increases with principal quantum number.
Hence, energy level of 1s < 2s < 3s < 4s

p atomic orbitals
There can be three p orbitals per shell. The p orbitals are directional and each point in
different directions – px , py , pz.
The size of p orbital increases with principal quantum number.
Hence, energy level of 2p < 3p < 4p

Arrangement of orbitals with increasing energy:

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s <3d

- Part III: Electronic configurations

1. Full electronic configuration
2. Condensed electron configuration
3. Orbital diagram representation

Full electronic configuration is to list all atomic orbitals.

e.g. 8O à 1s2 2s2 2p4

Condensed electron configuration is to list only the last n-shell orbitals with the noble gas of
the previous period.
e.g. 8O à [He] 2s2 2p4

Orbital diagram representation is to draw electrons (using arrows to represent)

↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2p

- Part IV: Ions

Atoms are electrically neutral as they have equal number of protons and electrons. When an
atom gains or loses electron(s), it will become an ion.
When an atom loses electron(s), it is a positive ion (cation).
When an atom gain electron(s), it is a negative ion (anion).

By: Oscar Chiang Page 12

 CORE NOTES CHAPTER 6: PERIODICITY

- Terms
Isoelectric – same electronic configuration.

Across a period
Nuclear charge (PULL CLOSER)
Nuclear charge is the attraction between electron and nucleus. Nuclear charge increases
with proton number.

Shielding effect (SHIELD THE PULL)

Repulsive forces of inner shell electrons shield valence electrons from attraction of the
nucleus. Shielding effect increases with the number of shells. (Usually shielding effect offsets
nuclear charge)

Down a group
Distance between valence electrons and nucleus
As the principal quantum number of valence electron increases, the distance between the
nucleus and valence electrons increases, hence, the attraction between the valence
electron and the nucleus weakens.

- Part I: Atomic Radii trend

• Across a period
Atomic radius decreases across a period. Across a period, the number of proton increases,
increasing the nuclear charge. This results in a stronger attraction between the electrons and
nucleus, decreasing the atomic radius.

• Down a group
Atomic radius increases down a group. Down a group, the principal quantum number
increases, this increases the distance between the nucleus and valence electrons, increasing
the atomic radius.

- Part II: Ionic Radii trend

• Cation (+)
Atomic radius is longer than cationic (e.g. Mg2+) radius. Cations have less electrons that the
atom and also have one less shell. Therefore, since there is one less shell, it decreases the
distance between nucleus and valence electrons.

• Anion (-)
Atomic radius is shorter than anionic (e.g. F-) radius. Anions have more electrons, hence
there is greater repulsion between the nucleus and valence electrons, pushing it further
away from the nucleus.

• Isoelectronic cation and anion

Between isoelectronic cation and anion (e.g. Mg2+ and F-), the cation has a smaller radius.
This is because cations have more protons which pull valence electrons closer towards
nucleus.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 16

 - Part III: Ionisation Energy
Ionisation (endothermic process) refers to the removal of valence electrons from atom/ions
in their gaseous state.
Ionisation energy refers to the measure of energy needed to pull an electron away from the
attraction of the nucleus.
Elements with low ionisation energy will find it easier to lose an electron to form a cation,
resulting in a ionic bond to be formed.

1st IE refers to the minimum energy required to remove 1 mole of valence electrons from 1
mole of gaseous state M atoms to form 1 mole gaseous M+ ions. (e.g. Mg à Mg+ + e-)
2nd IE refers to the minimum energy required to remove 1 mole of valence electrons from 1
mole of gaseous state M atoms to form 1 mole gaseous M2+ ions.
(e.g. Mg+ à Mg2+ + e- OR Mg à Mg2+ + 2e-)

a. Successive ionisation energy

1st IE < 2nd IE < 3rd IE < …
The number of protons remain unchanged, hence nuclear charge remains the same. When
an electron is removed for ionisation, the other electrons will be more strongly attracted to
the nucleus as the distance between nucleus and remaining electrons decreases, increasing
the energy required to remove the next one.

The first ionisation energy will remove the valence electron (the electron furthest away).
The further the distance between the nucleus and electron to be removed, the lower the
ionisation energy would be.

There is a slight sharp increase between the 7th IE and 8th IE as the electron removed are in
different orbitals. The 8th electron is removed from the 3s orbital while the 7th electron is
removed from the 3p orbital. 3s orbital is nearer to the nucleus compared to 3p, hence, the
8th electron requires more energy to remove.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 17

 b. First ionisation energy trend

• Across a period
The 1st IE generally increases across a period. This is because the number of protons
increases, hence, nuclear charge increasing slightly. (Shielding effect remains the same)

Abnormally
The 1st IE of Mg is higher than Al’s 1st IE because the first electron to be removed in
Aluminium is in 3p orbital while the first electron to be removed in Magnesium is in 3s
orbital. Since 3p orbital is further away from the nucleus compared to 3s orbital, the longer
distance between the valence electron and nucleus results in less energy required for 1st IE
in Al.
N 1st IE is higher than O 1st IE because there is one additional electron in the p-shell which
creates a pair of electron. This causes electron repulsion, lowering the 1st IE as its distance
between the valence electron and nucleus results in less energy required for 1st IE in O.

• Down a group
Down a group, the 1st IE decreases as the principal quantum shell increases down the group.
The distance between valence electrons and nucleus increases, locating the valence
electrons further away from the nucleus, experiencing less attraction from the nucleus,
resulting in lesser energy required for the 1st IE down the group.

- Part IV: Electronegativity

Electronegativity is the relative attraction that an atom has for the shared electrons in a
covalent bond. The more electronegative the atom is, the stronger the pull on the bonding
electrons towards itself is.

The most electronegative atoms are fluorine and the least electronegative atom is francium.

• Across a period
Across the period, electronegativity of the atom increases. This is because the proton
number increases across a period, causing the nuclear charge to increase. (Shielding effect
remains constant) The smaller atom results in a stronger pull on the bonding electrons.

• Down a group
Down a group, electronegatively of the atom decreases. This is because the principal
quantum number increases down the group, increasing the distance between the nucleus
and valence electrons. The larger atom results in a weaker pull on the bonding electrons.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 18

By: Oscar Chiang Page 19
 CORE NOTES CHAPTER 7: REDOX REACTIONS

- Part I: Oxidation Mnemonic:

Oxygen: Oxidation is the gain of oxygen by a substance in a chemical reaction. OxGoLeH
Hydrogen: Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen by a substance in a chemical reaction.
Electrons: Oxidation is loss of electrons. Oxidation hydrogen
loss electron
Oxidation State: Oxidation is the increase in oxidation state of an element. gain oxygen

- Part II: Reduction

Oxygen: Reduction is the loss of oxygen by a substance in a chemical reaction.
Hydrogen: Reduction is the gain of hydrogen by a substance in a chemical reaction.
Electrons: Reduction is gain of electrons.
Oxidation State: Reduction is the decrease in oxidation state of an element.

- Part III: Oxidation State

Oxidation state is the charge an atom of an element would have if it existed as an ion or
compound (even in covalent)

• Rules for Oxidation State

1. Atoms of elements have oxidation state of zero (e.g. H2)
2. In simple ions, the oxidation state is the charge of the ion written with the sign in front.
(e.g. Na+ charge is +1, O2- charge is -2)
3. In polyatomic ions, the sum of the oxidation states is equal to the overall charge.
4. In compounds, the sum of the oxidation states of all atoms is 0.
5. Some elements have fixed oxidation state in their compounds.

Elements Fixed Oxidation State in Compounds

Hydrogen +1 (when bounded to non-metals)
-1 (when bounded to reactive metals)
Oxygen -2 (in most compounds except when bounded to F and O)
-1 (in hydrogen peroxide H2O2)
+2 (in oxygen difluoride OF2)
Chlorine -1 (in most compounds except when bounded to F and O)
+1 (when bounded to F)
Positive oxidation states when bonded to O.

Example
Using oxidation state, explain whether a substance has been reduced or oxidised in a
reaction.
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) à 2Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)

First step: Check the oxidation state of each substance on both sides of the reaction.
Reactants: Fe = +3, O = -2, C = +2, O = -2
Products: Fe = 0, C = +4, O = -2

Second step: Compare which substance’s oxidation state decreased/increased.

From this, the following can be inferred:
Fe2O3 was reduced as the oxidation state of Iron (Fe) decreases from +3 in Fe2O3 to 0 in Fe.
3CO was oxidised as the oxidation state of Carbon (C) increases from +2 in CO to +4 in CO2.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 20

 - Part IV: Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
• Oxidizing Agents
Oxidizing agent is a substance that causes the oxidation of another substance and
undergoes reduction itself.
A strong oxidizing agent is to have high oxidizing strength and is reduced readily. Therefore,
it has a high tendency to gain electrons, hence, its oxidation state tends to decrease.

Halogens readily accept electrons to form halide ions with noble gas electronic
configuration.
The easier the halogen gains electron, the stronger the oxidizing power of the halogen is.

Down Group 17, the oxidizing power of the halogens decreases (as its reactivity decreases).
This is because the number of electron shells increases down the group, hence, the distance
between the valence electrons and nucleus increases, resulting in the attraction for
incoming electron to decrease.

Halogen Displacement Reaction is a reaction that a reactive halogen will displace a less
reactive halogen from its compound.
Reaction with
Aqueous potassium Aqueous potassium Aqueous potassium
chloride, !"# bromide, !$% iodide, !'
Chlorine water, No visible change Pale yellow solution Pale-yellow solution
"#4 (pale yellow) (Cl2) turns orange (Br2) (Cl2) turns brown (I2)
Bromine water, No visible change No visible change Orange solution (Br2)
$%4 (orange) turns brown (I2)
Iodine water, No visible change No visible change No visible change
'4 (brown)

Example
State and explain the observation when aqueous chloride is added to aqueous potassium
bromide solution.
Step 1: State the observation
Step 2: Explain the theory
Step 3: Explain what gives the colour

Answer: The pale-yellow solution turns orange. The more reactive Cl2, which is pale yellow,
displaces bromine from KBr, forming KCl and Br2, which is orange.

• Reducing Agents
Reducing agent is a substance that causes the reduction of another substance and
undergoes oxidation itself.
A strong reducing agent is to have high reducing strength and is oxidized readily. Therefore,
it has a high tendency to lose electrons, hence, its oxidation state tends to increase.

Down Group 1, the oxidizing power of the alkali metal increases. This is because the
principal quantum number increases, increasing the distance between the nucleus and
valence electrons. Hence, the attraction between the valence electron is weaker and the
metal is more reactive (to lose electrons readily).

By: Oscar Chiang Page 21

 - Part V: Testing
• Testing for Reducing Agents using an Oxidizing Agent
Oxidizing Agent Observation if reducing agents present Use
Potassium manganate(VII) Purple solution turns colourless Test for reducing
(acidified); KMnO4 agents
(purple)
Potassium dichromate(VI) Orange solution turns green Test for reducing
(acidified); K2Cr2O7 agents e.g. SO2
(orange) gas
Chlorine; Cl2 Solution turns darker in colour when Oxidizes Br- to
(pale yellow) reacted with bromide or iodide Br2 & I- to I2
*KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 are acidified with dilute sulfuric acid to increase oxidizing strength.

• Testing for Oxidizing Agents using a Reducing Agent

Reducing Agent Observation if oxidizing agents present Use
Potassium iodide; () Solution turns brown Test for oxidizing
(colourless) agents
Reactive metals Less reactive metal is produced Displacement of less
reactive metals
Hydrogen; *4 Reddish-brown solid (Cu) is formed Reduces copper(II)
oxide to copper
Carbon monoxide; "+ Industrial process Reduces iron(III) oxide
to molten iron in blast
furnace.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 22

 CORE NOTES CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL BONDING

- Part I: Metallic Bonding (only metals)

Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive metals ions and the
delocalised electrons.

• Structure
A metal has a giant metallic structure and its positive metal ions are closely packed and
regularly arranged, surrounded by a ‘sea’ of mobile valence electrons.

• Factors affecting metallic bonding

1. Ionic charge of metal ion
The higher the ionic charge, the stronger the electrostatic forces of attraction between
the positive metal ions and delocalised electrons is.

2. Ionic radius of metal ion

The larger the ionic radius of a metal ion is, the weaker the electrostatic forces of
attraction between the positive metal ions and delocalised electrons is. (use shielding
effect to explain)

3. Number of electrons in ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons

The more electrons in the ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons, the stronger the electrostatic
forces of attraction between the positive metal ions and delocalised electrons is.

• Physical Properties of Metals

Property Explanation
Good conductors Metals are good conductors of electricity because the delocalised
of electricity valence electrons acts as mobile charge carriers that move towards
the positive terminal when connecting to a circuit.
Application: copper used to make electrical wires
Good conductors Metals are closely packed together so when heated, they will
of heat transfer energy from one atom to the next by vibration.
The mobile electrons will also gain energy and they will move
faster, and collide with other electrons more frequently,
transferring energy to the next.
High density Atoms of metals are closely packed together and held by strong
metallic bonds.
Malleable and Metals are malleable (can be bent easily or rolled into sheets) as
ductile they have a regular and orderly arrangement.
High melting and They have high melting and boiling points as they are strong
boiling points electrostatic forces of attraction between positive metal ions and
the delocalised electrons.
Recall: melting point decreases down the group as the number of
electron shells increases, increasing shielding effect.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 23

 - Part II: Ionic Bonding (metals & non-metals)
Ionic bonding is the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged
ions.
Note!
Metals form cations, non-metals form anions.

• Octet rule
The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in the
valence shell. Only the s and p electrons are involved in the octet rule. (only applies to main
group elements)

• Lewis Diagram for Ionic Bonding

Rules
1. Only draw valence electrons with reference to original atom
2. No circles
3. Same electron symbol
e.g.

• Structure
Ionic compounds have a giant ionic structure held together by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between the oppositely charged ions.

• Factors affecting forces of attraction

1. Ionic charge
The higher ionic charge, the stronger the electrostatic forces of attraction between the
oppositely charged ions is.
Example
,-"# v.s. ./+ à ./+ has a stronger ionic bond.

2. Ionic radius
Down the group, the number of principal quantum shell increases, hence, the shielding
effect increases, the ionic radius increases, resulting in a weaker ionic bond.
Example
012 vs ,-"# à 012 has a stronger ionic bond.

• Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

Property Explanation
Good conductors of In solid state, the ions are in fixed positions and prevents them
electricity in molten and from acting as charge carriers in conducting electricity when a
aqueous state potential is applied.
However, in liquid/molten state or aqueous state, they can
conduct electricity as the lattice structure breaks down and the
ions are mobile.
High melting point & It has a giant ionic structure held together by strong
boiling point electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged
ions. Hence, it requires a lot of energy to overcome the strong
electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
Soluble in water but not
in organic solvents -
Hard and brittle

By: Oscar Chiang Page 24

 - Part III: Covalent Bonding (only non-metals)
Covalent bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between the nuclei and valence
electrons shared between the atoms. It has a simple molecular structure.

In the absence of metallic element, non-metals can chemically combine between themselves
by sharing electrons à molecules are formed.
Exception of non-metal and
metal with covalent bond:
• Lewis Diagram for Covalent Bonding !"#! , %&#"
Rules where # = halogen
1. Only draw valence electrons with reference to original atom
2. One line represents one pair of shared electrons
3. Same electron symbol

Examples

• Exceptions of Octet rule

a. Molecules whose central atoms have fewer than 8 electrons after bonding. (Example: !"& )
b. Molecules whose atoms have more than 8 electrons after bonding. (Example: #"' )

• Dative covalent bonds

A dative covalent bond is when only one of the bonded atoms contributes both electrons for
sharing. (represented by à in Lewis diagram)

A dative covalent bond can occur when one atom has a lone pair of electrons (electron-rich)
and the other atom has an empty orbital in its valence shell (electron-deficient).

Note!
Dative bonds are as strong as the regular covalent bonds.

Examples

In CO, oxygen is electron-rich and carbon is In NH4+, N is electron-rich and hydrogen ion is
electron-deficient. With the dative bond, electron-deficient. With the dative bond, hydrogen
carbon has attained octet structure. has attained full valence shell structure.

• Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

The shape of a covalent molecule can be predicted using the VSEPR Theory: Electron
domains surrounding the central atom arranges themselves as far apart as possible to
minimise electron-electron repulsion. (Consider 3D models)

Electron domains à bonds or electron pair around the central atom

Central atom àatom or ion bonded to the most number of atoms

Example
The central atom is N. There are 3 electron domains.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 25

 The repulsion between lone pairs and bond pairs determines the bond angle.
Exert smallest repulsion Exert greatest repulsion

Bond pair-bond pair repulsion Lone pair-bond pair repulsion Lone pair-lone pair repulsion
VSEPR Theory covalent molecule shapes
Number of Number of bond Number of Shape of molecule Bond angle
electron domains pairs lone pairs
2 2 0 Linear 180°

3 3 0 Trigonal planar 120°

3 2 1 (V-shape) Bent <120°

4 4 0 Tetrahedral 109.5°

4 3 1 Trigonal pyramidal <109.5°

4 3 2 (V-shape) bent <<109.5°

• Bond Polarity
Recall!
Electronegativity is the relative attraction that an atom has for the shared electrons in a
covalent bond.

a. Non-polar bond
When two identical atoms with no electronegativity difference bond, the bonding electrons
are shared equally, thus electron density is symmetrically distributed. This results in a
non-polar bond.

b. Polar bond
When two atoms with different electronegativity bond, the electron density is distorted
towards the atom with a higher electronegativity. This results in a polar bond, with partial
charges (positive or negative) on both ends of the bond due to uneven distribution of
electrons, creating a dipole.

Tip!
If the central atom is bonded to different elements and/or lone pairs on the central atom
exist, you can immediately rule that the molecule is polar.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 26

 Bond Polarity Flowchart

Practice: Which of the following are polar/non-polar molecules?

By: Oscar Chiang Page 27

 • Intermolecular forces
a. London dispersion forces (instantaneous induced dipole)
b. Dipole forces
c. Hydrogen bonding

a. London dispersion forces (all covalent molecules)

London dispersion forces is the electrostatic attraction that arises due to formation of
instantaneous dipole and induced dipole.

Generally weak forces of attraction because of the temporary and fluctuating nature of
dipole attractions.
London dispersion forces exists
between all simple covalent molecules.
Electrons in a molecule are constantly moving. At
any one moment, the electron distribution can be
unevenly distributed which gives rise to small partial
charges - instantaneous dipole.

The instantaneous dipole in one molecule then

induce another dipole in another neighbouring
molecule.

(Not in Y3IP syllabus)

London dispersion forces increases when number of
electron increases as the electron cloud will
increases. When electron clouds are weakly held by
the nucleus, they become more polarisable and
hence, temporary dipoles form more easily.

Factors affecting London forces:

1. Number of electrons
As the number of electron increases, London dispersion forces increases, hence, more
energy is required to overcome them. (melting and boiling point increases)

Example Question: Predict and explain whether N2 or O2 have higher boiling point.

Answer: O2 has a higher boiling point. Both molecules are held together by London
dispersion forces. However, O2 has more electrons. Hence, O2 has stronger London
dispersion forces, which require more energy to overcome.

b. Dipole-dipole forces (polar molecules)

Dipole-dipole forces is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ends of two
polar molecules with permanent dipoles.

As these dipoles are permanent, the forces of attraction are stronger than London forces.
Hence, polar molecules of similar mass to non-polar molecules have higher boiling/melting
points.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 28

 c. Hydrogen bonding (highly electronegative atom)
Hydrogen bonding is the attraction of a H atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (N,
O or F) in one molecule and a highly electronegative atom in another molecule.

When H is bonded to a highly electronegative atom, the electron density is drawn to the
electronegative atom. H becomes partially positively charged and it is highly electron-
deficient.

The highly electronegative atom of another, with a lone pair, is attracted to the partially
positively charged H atom.

• Giant molecular structure

Giant molecular structure is a structure where atoms are infinitely bonded. Molecules with
giant molecular structure are expressed in its empirical formula.

a. Diamond (Carbon allotrope)

For every carbon atom, it is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms (tetrahedral unit) by strong
covalent bonds. Hence, diamond is made up of repeating tetrahedral units.

Property Explanation
Non-conductor of No delocalised electrons as all valence electrons are used for
electricity bonding.
High melting point & Large amounts of energy is required to overcome the strong
boiling point covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
Not soluble in any Strong carbon-carbon covalent bonds must be broken to
solvent dissolve diamond.
Very hard Valence electrons are shared with four other carbon atoms to
form very strong covalent bonds. This results in an extremely
rigid tetrahedral structure.

b. Silicon dioxide
For every silicon atom, it is covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms. For every oxygen atom,
it is covalently bonded to two silicon atoms. Hence, the empirical formula is 41+4 . Silicon
dioxide have similar properties to diamond.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 29

 c. Graphite (Carbon allotrope)
Graphite is made up of hexagonal layers of carbon atoms. (For every carbon atom in a layer,
it is bonded with 3 other carbon atoms)

Property Explanation
Good conductor of For every carbon atom in graphite, there is 1 electron not
electricity participating in bonding. Hence, these electrons are delocalised
and move along the layers from one carbon atom to the next.
High melting point & Large amounts of energy is required to overcome the strong
boiling point covalent bonds between the carbon atoms within each layer.
Soft and slippery The layers of carbon atoms lie on top of each other and is held
by weak intermolecular forces. Therefore, these layers can
slide over one another easily.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 30

 CORE NOTES CHAPTER 9: ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

- Part I: Acids
An acid is defined as a substance that dissociates in water to form hydrogen ions and
anions, according to the Arrhenius Theory.

Acids show acidic properties only when they are dissolved in water as the hydrogen ions
produced which are responsible for the acidic properties.
In organic solvents, acids exist as simple molecules as no dissociation occurs.

• Properties of acids
Physical Properties of Acids
Acids turn moist blue litmus paper red Memorising Tip!
Weak acids have a sour taste Red for danger à acids are
dangerous à acids turn litmus
Strong acids are corrosive paper red!
pH values are less than 7 at room temperature and pressure

• Uses of acids
Acid Uses
Sulfuric Acid ("4 #$O ) In car batteries, fertilizers and detergents
Hydrochloric Acid ("%&) In leather processing and cleaning metals
Nitric Acid ("'$P ) In making fertilizers and explosives
Ethanoic Acid (%"P %$$") In preserving food and adhesives such as glue

- Part II: Bases

A base is any metal oxide or hydroxide that could react with an acid to produce only salt and
water.
An alkali is a substance that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions. (soluble in water)

Bases
bases

Insoluble metal Alkalis

oxides and !"#$ alkali
hydroxides %#$
'"(#$)(
*"(#$)(
!$&

Alkalis show alkaline properties only when they are dissolved in water as the hydroxide ions
produced are responsible for the alkaline properties.

• Properties of bases
Physical Properties of Alkalis
Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue
Alkalis have a bitter taste and soapy feel
pH values are greater than 7 at room temperature and pressure
Physical Properties of Insoluble bases
Red/Blue Litmus paper does not change.
pH is at 7.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 31

 • Uses of bases
Base Uses
Ammonia solution ('"P ) In window-cleaning solutions and fertilizers
Calcium oxide (%)$) In neutralising acidic soil, make iron, concrete and cement
Magnesium hydroxide In toothpaste to neutralise acid on teeth and antacids
(*+$")
Sodium hydroxide (')$") In soaps and detergents (industrial-cleaning detergents)

- Part III: Reaction of acids

1. Acid + Reactive Metal
Acid + Reactive Metal à Salt + H2

Example 1
Chemical Equation: *+ (-) + "4 #$O ()/) → *+#$O ()/) + "4 (+)
Ionic Equation: *+ (-) + 2"R ()/) → *+4R ()/) + "4 (+)

Test for hydrogen gas: When a piece of metal (magnesium ribbon) is added to acid (sulfuric
acid), effervescence of a colourless and odourless gas is observed that extinguishes a
lighted splint with a ‘pop’ sound heard.

• Reactivity series of metals

Metal Reaction with dilute acid
Most reactive Potassium (2)
Sodium (')) Yes; explosive
Calcium (%))
Magnesium (*+)
Aluminium (3&) Yes (suitable for reactions)
Zinc (45)
Iron (67)
Lead (89) Yes; slow When &' reacts with ()* and
(! +," , salt &')*! and &'+," are
Copper (%:) insoluble.
Silver (3+) No Hence, they will form a coating
Least reactive Gold (3:) around the metal, which prohibit
further reaction.

2. Acid + Base/Alkali (Neutralisation) Note!

)-+," is also insoluble.
Acid + Base/Alkali à Salt + H2O
Example 2 (Acid + Insoluble base)
Chemical Equation: 2"%& ()/) + *+$ (;) → *+%&4 ()/) + "4 $(&)
Ionic Equation: 2"R ()/) + *+$ (-) → *+4R ()/) + "4 $(&)

Example 3 (Acid + Alkali)

Chemical Equation: "%& ()/) + ')$" (<=) → ')%& ()/) + "4 $(&)
Ionic Equation: "R ()/) + $"3 ()/) → "4 $(&)

For aqueous ammonia, as it is a weak alkali, it should be written as '"P ()/) + "4 $ (&).
'"P ()/) + "4 $ (&) ⇌ '"OR ()/) + $"3 ()/)

Example 4
Chemical Equation: 2'"P ()/) + 2"4 $ (&) + "4 #$O ()/) → ('"O )4 #$O ()/) + 2"4 $(&)
Overall equation: 2'"P ()/) + "4 #$O ()/) → ('"O )4 #$O ()/)
Ionic equation: '"P ()/) + "R ()/) → '"OR ()/)

By: Oscar Chiang Page 32

 3. Acid + Carbonate
Acid + Metal Carbonate à Salt + H2O + CO2
Example 5
Chemical Equation: ')4 %$P (-) + 2"%& ()/) → 2')%& ()/) + "4 $(&) + %$4 (+)
Ionic Equation: ')4 %$P (-) + 2"R ()/) → 2')R ()/) + "4 $(&) + %$4 (+)

Test for carbon dioxide gas: When a metal carbonate solid (sodium carbonate) is added to
acid (dilute hydrochloric acid), effervescence of a colourless and odourless gas is observed.
When bubbled into limewater, a white precipitate is produced.

4. Alkali + Ammonium Salt

Alkali + Ammonium salt à Salt + H2O + NH3

Example 6
Chemical Equation: ')$" ()/) + '"O %& ()/) → ')%& ()/) + "4 $(&) + '"P (+)
Ionic Equation: $"3 ()/) + '"OR ()/) → "4 $(&) + '"P (+)

Test for ammonia gas: When an alkali (sodium hydroxide) is added to ammonium salts
(ammonium chloride) and gently warmed, a pungent gas is evolved and it turns damp red
litmus paper blue.

• Reactions Summary
Acid + Reactive Metal à Salt + H2
Acid + Metal Carbonate à Salt + H2O + CO2
Acid + Base/Alkali à Salt + H2O
Alkali + Ammonium salt à Salt + H2O + NH3

- Part IV: pH and pOH

pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration and is calculated as the negative logarithm of
the concentration of the hydrogen ions.
?$" scale, a parallel scale to the pH scale, is used to measure the concentration of
hydroxide ions.
?" Scale ?$" scale
R
?" = −&B++J [" ] ?$" = −&B++J [$"3 ]
R 3/[
[" ] = 10 [$"3 ] = 103/\[
In all solutions at room temperature, ?" + ?$" = 14.

• Methods to determine pH Type of solution [!" ] vs ["!# ] pH

1. pH probe attached to a datalogger Neutral [!" ] = ["!# ] 7
2. Universal indicator Acidic [!" ] > ["!# ] < 7
Universal Indicator Alkaline [!" ] < ["!# ] > 7

At room temperature, pH of pure water is 7. Thus, the concentration of "R ions is

103L HB& IH3P . The "R ions comes from the auto-ionization of water.
!! " ⇌ !" (&') + "!# (&')

By: Oscar Chiang Page 33

 - Part VI: Importance of pH in soil
The ideal pH of soil for plants is 6.5 to 7.5, close to neutral pH.
If the pH of soil is too high, the plants would turn yellow. This is because the plant takes in
iron from the soil to make chlorophyll. However, as the pH increases above neutral value,
the availability of iron decreases in the soil, resulting in the lack of iron to make chlorophyll
and the plant turns yellow.

Neutralise soil acidity à Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) or calcium carbonate (limestone)
Neutralise soil alkalinity à Ammonium sulfate

- Part VII: Oxides

Oxides are compounds made up of oxygen and one other element.
Oxides

Metal + oxygen Non-metal + oxygen

Basic oxides Amphoteric Acidic oxides Neutral oxides

(reacts with acids) oxides (reacts with (reacts with neither
(reacts with acids alkalis) acids or alkalis)
and alkalis) '#
Most acidic oxides !#
+,# dissolve in water to
-.( #& !( #
form acid, except !"#!
$( #
/0# (giant molecular
*1# structure) non-metallic monoxides

- Part VIII: Bronsted-Lowry Theory

Bronsted-Lowry Theory defines a Bronsted acid as a proton donor and a Bronsted base as a
proton acceptor.
Conjugate acid;
Example Formed after
Bronsted base gaining a proton
"%& ()/) + "4 $ (&) → %& 3 ()/) + "P $R ()/)
Bronsted acid Conjugate base;
Formed after
losing a proton

- Part IX: Salts

A salt is an ionic compound when the hydrogen ion of an acid is replaced by a metal cation
or ammonium ion.
e.g. *+ + 2"%& → *+%&4 + "4
Not all salts are neutral.
Acidic salt; Hydrogen ion
Example contributed to acidity

Phosphoric acid is a tribasic acid, hence, it will have 3 end points.

Reaction 1: ')$" ()/) + "P 8$O ()/) → ')"4 #$O ()/) + "4 $ (&)
Reaction 2: 2')$" ()/) + "P 8$O ()/) → ')4 "#$O ()/) + 2"4 $ (&)
Reaction 3: 3')$" ()/) + "P 8$O ()/) → ')P #$O ()/) + 3"4 $ (&)
Last endpoint – neutral salt

By: Oscar Chiang Page 36

 - Part X: Hydrolysis of Salts
Salts can dissolve in water to give a neutral, acidic or alkaline solution. A reaction with water
is also known as hydrolysis.
Base Acid Salt
Strong Strong Neutral
Strong Weak Basic
Weak Strong Acidic

• Neutral Salts
Neutral salts are formed by a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base. The ions of
neutral salts do not react with water.

• Basic Salts
Basic salts are formed by a reaction between a weak acid and a strong base. When dissolved
in water, the dissolved salt gives hydroxide ions. (pH > 7)
!"" !##$% (%() → !"" !##& (%() + $%' (%()

!"" !##& (%() + "! # (,) ⇌ !"" !##" (%() + ./& (%()

• Acidic Salts
Acidic salts are formed by a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base. When
dissolved in water, the dissolved salt gives hydrogen ions. (pH < 7)
$"( !, → $"(' (%() + !,& (%()

$"(' (%() + "! # (,) ⇌ $"" (%() + /& .' (%()

Reversible sign because !""# is a weak acid. Hence, when it reacts

with water, it does not dissociate completely.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 37

 - Part XI: Titration Curves
Equivalence point is the midpoint of the region with a sharp sudden charge in pH. The
coordinates of the equivalence point show the volume of titrant used and the pH of the salt
solution when complete neutralisation has taken place with no excess of either reactant.

• Strong Acid-Strong Base titration

A neutral salt formed, does not undergo hydrolysis. Equivalence
point is pH 7.

Example
0.100 '() *'3P of +,) titrated with 0.100 '() *'3P -./+.
+,) + -./+ → -.,) + +4 /
1 : 1

Since mol ratio = 1:1,

Complete neutralisation occurs when volume of +,) = Volume of -./+, 25.0cm3.

Since +,) is a strong monobasic acid, [.34*] = [+R ],

[+R ] = 0.100 '() *'3P
Initial pH = −)(8+J (0.100)
Initial pH = 1.00

• Weak Acid-Strong Base titration

A basic salt formed. Equivalence point is above 7.

Example
0.100 '() *'3P of ,+P ,//+ titrated with 0.100 '() *'3P -./+.
,+P ,//+ + -./+ → ,+P ,//-. + +4 /
1 : 1

Since mol ratio = 1:1,

Complete neutralisation occurs when volume of ,+P ,//+ = Volume of -./+, 25.0cm3.
dissociates partially

Since ,+P ,//+ is a weak acid, [.34*] > [+R ],

[+R ] = 0.100 '() *'3P
Initial pH > −)(8+J (0.100)
Initial pH > 1.00

• Strong Acid-Weak Base titration

An acidic salt formed. Equivalence point is below 7.

Example
0.100 '() *'3P of +,) titrated with 0.100 '() *'3P -+P .
+,) + -+P → -+O ,)
1 : 1

Since mol ratio = 1:1,

Complete neutralisation occurs when volume of ,+P ,//+ = Volume of -./+, 25.0cm3.

Since +,) is a strong monobasic acid, [.34*] = [+R ],

[+R ] = 0.100 '() *'3P
Initial pH = −)(8+J (0.100)
Initial pH = 1.00

By: Oscar Chiang Page 38

 - Part XI: Solubility Table
Salts containing Soluble in water Insoluble salts
Group 1 cations &
ammonium ion
Sodium (Na+) All salts are soluble. -
SPAN Potassium(K+)
Ammonium ion (NH4+)
Nitrate ion (SO3-)
Chloride ion (C) -) Most chlorides are soluble except Lead(II) chloride LSM
Silver chloride Living
Stream
Mercury(I) chloride Ministry
CSI Sulfate ion(SO42-) Most sulfates are soluble except Calcium sulfate
Lead(II) sulfate CLB
Barium sulfate
Iodide ion (; -) Most iodidies are soluble except Lead(II) iodide
Silver iodide LSM
Mercury(I) iodide
Carbonate ion (CO32-) Group 1 cations & ammonium ion Most carbonate are insoluble
(SPA) carbonates are soluble. except
Hydroxide (OH-) Group 1 & barium
Oxide (O2-) oxides/hydroxides Most oxides and hydroxides
(calcium hydroxide is sparingly are insoluble except
soluble)

- Part XII: Salt Preparation

Reaction of acid +
excess insoluble
No metal/base/carbonate
Does the salt contain SPA ions?
Soluble salt
Yes Titration
Yes
(Acid + Alkali)
Salt Preparation Is the salt soluble in water?

No Precipitation
Insoluble salt (2 soluble salt solutions)

• Reaction of acid + excess insoluble metal/base/carbonate

The following are the possible reactions for a soluble salt to be produced: Note!
Acid + Reactive Metal à Salt + H2 If the metal is unreactive,
(e.g. copper), do not use the
Acid + Insoluble Base à Salt + H2O metal. You will learn more in
Acid + Insoluble Carbonate à Salt + H2O + CO2 Chapter 14: Reactivity Series.

Procedure (Example: ZnSO4)

1. Put dilute sulfuric acid in a beaker and warm it gently.
2. Add powdered zinc/zinc oxide/zinc carbonate till some remains undissolved (in excess).
3. Filter the mixture to remove excess zinc powder.
4. Heat the filtrate (ZnSO4 in aqueous state) until it is saturated.
5. Allow the solution to cool for crystallization to occur.
6. Filter off crystals from cold saturated solution.
7. Dry the ZnSO4 crystals between a few sheets of filter paper.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 39

 • Titration
Titration is used for salts containing sodium, potassium and ammonium (SPA) ions. Titration
is the following reaction:
Acid + Alkali à Salt + H2O

Procedure (Example: NaSO4)

1. Pipette 25.0cm3 of dilute sulfuric acid into a conical flask.
2. Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator.
3. Add slowly, with swirling, aqueous sodium hydroxide from a burette into the flask, until
the indicator changes from red to orange.
4. Record the volume of titrant (NaOH) used to neutralize the acid.
5. Repeat the titration by adding this volume of sodium hydroxide into 25.0cm3 of acid,
without the indicator.
6. Heat the solution (NaSO4) until saturated.
7. Allow the solution to cool for crystallization to occur.
8. Filter off crystals from cold saturated solution.
9. Dry the NaSO4 crystals between a few sheets of filter paper.

• Precipitation
Precipitation is used to obtain insoluble salts. The insoluble salt appears as a precipitate and
is obtained by filtration after reaction between a soluble salt and another soluble salt/acid.
The following shows the precipitation reaction:
Soluble salt + Soluble salt/acid à Insoluble salt + Soluble salt

When selecting reactants,

Soluble salt solution containing cation: choose a nitrate (nitrates are always soluble)
Soluble salt solution/acid containing anion: choose a salt containing sodium/potassium (as
sodium/potassium ions are always soluble in water)

Example
Choose 2 reactants to form insoluble silver chloride crystals.
<8=>* (.?) + =@,) (.?) → <8,) (A) + -.-/P (.?)
Alternative: <8=>* (.?) + +,) (.?) → <8,) (A) + +-/P (.?)

Procedure (Example: AgC))

1. Mix aqueous silver nitrate and aqueous sodium chloride.
2. Filter the mixture.
3. Pour water through the residue to wash the salt and remove soluble impurities.
4. Dry the silver chloride crystals between a few sheets of filter paper.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 40

 CORE NOTES CHAPTER 10: QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

- Part I: Test for gases

Gas Test Produced during…
ammonia (-+P ) Colourless and pungent gas is evolved Reaction of Alkali +
alkaline Turns moist red litmus paper blue Ammonium salt
Nitrate test (-./+ +
aluminium, warmed)
Heat aqueous ammonia
carbon dioxide Effervescence of a colourless and Reaction of Acid + Metal
(,/4 ) odourless gas is observed carbonate
acidic oxide White precipitate is produced when Thermal decomposition of
bubbled into limewater - B@(>C)+ non-Group 1/2 metal
carbonates
hydrogen gas (+4 ) Effervescence of a colourless and Reaction of Acid + Reactive
Reducing Agent (RA) odourless gas is observed Metal
Extinguishes a lighted splint with a ‘pop’
sound heard
Chlorine gas (,)4 ) Yellowish-green and pungent gas Bleach (-.,)/) reacts with
Oxidising Agent (OA) evolved dilute hydrochloric acid
Turns moist blue litmus paper red (then
white due to +/,), a bleach chemical)
oxygen gas (/4 ) Colourless and odourless gas evolved Decomposition of hydrogen
Oxidising Agent (OA) Relights glowing splint peroxide by catalyst
manganese(IV) oxide or heat
sulfur dioxide When the gas is reacted with acidified Metal sulfite reacts with acid
(E/4 ) potassium manganate(VII), FGH/O , the
*not tested in syllabus, purple solution changes to colourless.
know it’s a RA and reacts
with OA

- Part II: Test for Anions

Anion Test Procedure Test result
carbonate Add dilute acid (effervescence was observed when White ppt. formed
Acid + Carbonate reaction
(,/P 43 ) acid is added) and bubble into limewater. in limewater.
3
chloride (,) ) Add dilute nitric acid followed by IJ=>* (.?). white ppt.

sulfate (E/O 43 ) add dilute nitric acid followed by an equal volume white ppt.
CSI
Precipitation reaction
of K.(-/P )4 (.?)
iodide (; 3 ) Add dilute nitric acid followed by IJ=>* (.?). yellow ppt.

Add =@>C (@L) followed by a piece of aluminium red litmus paper

nitrate (-/P 3 )
foil and warm the solution gently with a damp red turns blue
litmus paper over the mouth of the test tube.

By: Oscar Chiang Page 41

 - Part III: Testing for Cations
Cations (.?) Few drops of -./+ (.?); Few drops of -+P (.?);
Excess -./+ (.?) Excess -+P (.?)
!,-" test cannot
distinguish ./ %# , 01 !# , aluminium (<) PR ) white ppt. formed – <)(/+)P ; white ppt. formed – <)(/+)P ;
23!# apart. amphoteric oxide dissolves in excess – colourless does not dissolve in excess

amphoteric oxides cations

!"% test is required to solution
4R white ppt. formed – NO(/+)4 ; white ppt. formed – Pb(/+)4 ;
distinguish 23!# . lead(II) (NO )*
amphoteric oxide dissolves in excess – colourless does not dissolve in excess
01 !# can be
distinguished from ./ %# solution
by the insolubility of zinc (PH4R ) white ppt. formed – PH(/+)4 ; white ppt. formed – PH(/+)4 ;
014/! . amphoteric oxide dissolves in excess – colourless dissolves in excess – colourless
solution solution
4R light blue ppt. formed; light blue ppt. formed;
copper(II) (,Q )
does not dissolve in excess dissolves in excess – dark blue

coloured cations
solution
iron(II) (RS 4R ) green ppt. formed;
does not dissolve in excess
iron(III) (RS PR ) red-brown ppt. formed;
does not dissolve in excess

cations with +1 charge

Sodium (-.R ) No ppt formed;
Potassium (F R )
ammonium No ppt. formed;
(-+O R ) Colourless & pungent gas turns -
moist red litmus paper blue
calcium (,.4R ) white ppt. formed – B@(>C)+ ; No ppt. formed;
does not dissolve in excess
Add a few drops of NaOH

No precipitate Precipitate observed

Warm and test

with moist red White precipitate Coloured precipitate
litmus paper Al (OH) Zn(OH) Ca(OH)
3 2 2
Blue Green Brown
Pb(OH) 2
Cu(OH) 2 Fe(OH) 2Fe(OH) 3

Gas (NH ) evolved No visible Add excess NaOH Fe

3

Cu Fe
27 27 37

Turns red litmus change

paper blue
NH 4
+
Na , K
+ #
Dissolves and form
white precipitate 1
No change

A13+
Zn Ca
2+ 2

Pb
27

Add a few drops of NH 3

No precipitate Precipitate observed

Na
+

K
+

Ca
2+ White precipitate Coloured precipitate
Al (OH) Zn(OH) 3 2
Blue Green Reddish-Brown
Pb(OH) 2
Cu(OH) 2 Fe(OH) 2 Fe(OH) 3

Add excess NH Fe Fe
3 27 37

Dissolves and form

No change colourless deep blue
solution
A13+ Zn
2+

Pb
27

Cu
27

By: Oscar Chiang Page 42

 e.g. ,.,/P → ,./ + ,/4
- Part IV: Thermal Decomposition
Metal Metal oxide Metal hydroxide Metal carbonate Metal nitrate
heated heated heated heated
Potassium Stable to heat Stable to heat Decomposed to
Sodium metal nitrite (-/43 )
and oxygen
Calcium Stable to heat
Magnesium Decomposed to Decomposed to the Decomposed to the
Aluminium the metal oxide metal oxide and metal oxide,
Zinc and water carbon dioxide nitrogen dioxide
Iron and oxygen
Tin
Lead
Copper
Mercury Decomposed to Decomposed to the Decomposed to the
Silver the metal and - metal, carbon metal, nitrogen
Gold oxygen dioxide and oxygen dioxide and oxygen

By: Oscar Chiang Page 43