UNIT 2: SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUIT
Learning outcomes:
1. AC fundamentals
2. Representation
3. Pure ac circuit.
4. Series ac circuit
5. Parallel ac circuit
AC fundamentals :
An alternating current (a.c.) is the current that changes periodically both in magnitude and direction.
Fig 1 illustrates the ac and dc currents.
Fig 2 shows different types of AC waveforms.
I. GENERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATING VOLTAGE & CURRENT
The generation of single phase alternating voltage and current depend upon Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction.
Consider a single turn coil placed between a pair of magnets shown in Fig.3a. The coil plane is
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of flux. Now the coil is rotated at an angular velocity ‘ω’ rad/ sec in
anti clockwise direction. When the coil rotates in a magnetic field at an angular velocity say ‘ω’ radians
/ sec, it cuts the magnetic flux lines inducing emf between the two ends of coil.
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Fig 3a Fig 3b
At time t=0 sec or ωt = 0 radians (Fig 3a) magnetic flux lines passing through the coil is maximum
= ϕm webers.
After rotating 90˚ i.e. ωt = π/2 radians (Fig 3b) magnetic flux lines passing through the coil is
minimum = 0 weber
Thus the magnetic flux passing through the coil is given by the expression : Φ = Φm Cos(ωt) webers.
According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction the EMF or Voltage induced between the
two ends of the coil is directly proportional to the change in magnetic flux linkage of the coil.
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙
i.e. v ∝ or voltage induced in a single turn coil, v =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
And according to Lenz’s Law induced voltage oppose the cause producing it.
And the cause producing the emf is the change in magnetic flux linkage.
𝑑𝜙 𝑑[𝜙𝑚𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)]
v= ̶ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Thus v = ω Φm Sin(ωt) ----- voltage induced in a single turn coil
If the coil has ‘N’ number of turns then voltage induced in the ‘N’ turn coil
would be:
v = Nω Φm Sin(ωt)
When ωt= 0 rad, v= NωΦm Sin(0) = 0 volts ;
When ωt= π/2 rad, v= Nω Φm Sin(π/2) = Nω Φm volts
Let Nω Φm = Vm , thus v = Vm Sin(ωt)
II. Important terms used in AC System
1. CYCLE: A complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity.
2. TIME PERIOD (T): The time taken by an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle. It is measured in seconds
3. FREQUENCY (f): The number of cycles of an alternating
quantity occurring in a second and is measured in hertz (Hz).
Thus f= 1/T where T is time period of an alternating quantity
in seconds.
4. AMPLITUDE : The maximum value (positive or negative)
attained by an alternating quantity in a cycle. Fig 4
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5. PEAK VALUE: The maximum value (positive or negative) of an alternating quantity.
6. INSTANTANEOUS VALUE: The magnitude of the alternating quantity at a given instant of time . It is
denoted with a small alphabet . ‘e’ or ‘v’ or ‘i’ or ‘p’
7. PEAK TO PEAK VALUE : The maximum value of an alternating quantity from positive peak to
negative peak.
PEAK VALUE
INSTANTANEOUS
VALUE
PEAK TO
PEAK VALUE
Fig 5
8. AVERAGE VALUE OF ALTERNATING QUANTITY
AVERAGE value of a symmetrical sinusoidal quantity is that value which is obtained by averaging all the
instantaneous values over a period of half cycle.
OR
The half cycle average of an a.c. is that value of steady current (dc) which would send the same amount
of charge through a circuit for half the time period as is sent by an alternating current through the same
circuit for the same time duration.
DERIVATION FOR AVERAGE VALUE OF ALTERNATING QUANTITY (SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM)
For the alternating current ,i = Im Sin(ωt) the average is computed over half cycle. Consider an
elementary strip of current of width ‘dωt’ in the positive half cycle as shown in Fig 6 . If the ‘i' is the mid-
ordinate value of the current strip then area of this elementary strip is given by : A e = i dωt
i
And the area of half cycle of current wave is :
𝜋 i1
A= ∫0 i dωt i2
𝜋
= ∫0 Im Sin(ωt) dωt
π 2π t
dωt
= -Im Cos(ωt) π π
0
= 2 Im
Fig 6
And the average of the half cycle current wave is obtained by dividing the area by the time angle for half
cycle i.e. π radians.
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Half cycle area 2Im
Iav = = = 0.637 Im
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝜋
2Vm
And average value of an alternating voltage : Vav = = 0.637 Vm
𝜋
9. ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS ) VALUE OF AN ALTERNATING QUANTITY
RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (d.c.)
which when flowing through a circuit for a given time
interval produces the same amount of heat as produced by
an alternating current when flowing through the same
circuit for the same time interval.
Fig 7
RMS value is denoted by a single letter e.g. for an alternating voltage it is ‘V’ , for an alternating current
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
it is denoted as ‘I’ . And the RMS value for voltage and current are V = and I = respectively.
√𝟐 √𝟐
DERIVATION FOR RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING QUANTITY (SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM)
Consider alternating voltage ,v = Vm Sin(ωt).
Square of the voltage would be : v2 = Vm2 Sin2(ωt).
Consider an elementary strip of v2 wave of width ‘dωt’ as shown in v = Vm Sin(ωt)
Fig 8 . If the ‘v2' is the mid-ordinate value of this strip then its area
given by :
➔ Ae = v2 dωt.
The area of voltage square (v2 ) over one cycle would be
2𝜋 2𝜋
➔ A=∫ v² dωt = ∫0 Vₘ² Sin²(ωt) dωt
0 Fig 8
= Vm 2
Vₘ²
= (2 π)
𝟐
= π Vm2
Area in one cycle π Vₘ² Vₘ²
➔ Mean of voltage square = = =
time base of one cycle 2π 2
➔ Root of the Mean of the voltage square , V = √( Mean of voltage square)
𝐕ₘ
i.e. V = = 0.707 Vm
√𝟐
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10. FORM FACTOR (Kf)
It is the ratio of RMS value to the Average value of an alternating quantity.
𝐕 𝐈
Kf = 𝐕ₐᵥ =
𝐈ₐᵥ
𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝐈ₘ
For a Sine wave, Kf = = 1.11
𝟎.𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝐈ₘ
11. PEAK FACTOR / AMPLITUDE FACTOR (KP)
It is the ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity.
𝐕ₘ 𝐈ₘ
Kp = =
𝐕 𝐈
𝐈ₘ
For a Sine wave, Kp= = 1.414
𝟎.𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝐈ₘ
12. PHASE OF AN ALTERNATING QUANTITY
The phase of an alternating quantity is defined as the fractional
part of time period or a cycle through which the quantity moves
forward from a selected reference or origin. It is measured in
seconds or radians. In Fig 9 shown the phase of current at point
B is Ф radians.
Fig 9
13. PHASE DIFFERENCE
The phase difference between two sinusoidal quantity of same frequency refers to the angular
displacement between them. It is measured in degrees or radians.
OR
Two alternating quantities having same frequency are
said to have a phase difference when they attain their
zero value at the different instants. The angle between
zero points of two alternating quantities is called angle (a)
of phase difference.
When two alternating quantities having same
frequency have phase difference then one quantity is
ahead of the other alternating quantity. (b)
In Fig 10(a), waveform A is leading waveform B by
angle 90°.
In Fig 10(b), waveform A is lagging waveform B by
(c)
angle 90°.
In Fig 10(c), waveform A is leading waveform B by
angle 180°.
In Fig 10(d), waveform A is in phase with waveform B . (d)
Fig 10
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REPRESENTATION OF SINUSOIDAL QUANTITY
A sinusoidal quantity can be represented into following forms:
1. Waveform 2. Phasor form 3. Equation form 4. Polar form
Waveform and Phasor form
A sinusoidal quantity is represented by a rotating
vector or rotating phasor “A” whose length is
equal to the amplitude of the quantity “A m” as
shown. The points on the waveform are
represented by the vertical component (i.e. Am
Sin ωt) of the phasor “Am” (Am Sin ωt). The
phasor making an angle of ωt w.r.t. positive x-axis
reference, represents the instantaneous value of
the quantity at an angle of ωt from its zero value
as shown in Fig 11. The speed of rotation of the
phasor is equal to ‘ω’ rad/ sec where ω=2πf. One
rotation of phasor corresponds to one cycle of the Fig 11
alternating quantity.
Equation form and Polar form
➔ A sinusoidal voltage can be represented in the form of equation as, v = Vm Sin(ωt+θ) where θ
is the lead angle of Vm w.r.t. origin or reference.
➔ In polar form a sinusoidal voltage can be represented as, v = Vm ∠θ
v = Vm ∠0°
i = Im ∠0°
v = Vm ∠0°
i = Im ∠-30°
v = Vm ∠0°
i = Im ∠+90°
Fig 12
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Some important trigonometric functions.
III. Complex Numbers
Complex Numbers are the numbers of the form (a + j b) where ‘a’ represents the real part and ‘j b’
represents the imaginary part.
For example, 2 + j 3, is a complex number in which 2 is a real number and j3 is an imaginary number.
Forms of Complex Numbers
There are various forms of complex numbers,
i. Rectangular Form ii. Polar Form
i. Rectangular Form
Rectangular Form is represented by z= (a + ib), where a and b are the real numbers. For example:
(5 + j 5), (-j7), (-3 – j4), etc.
ii. Polar Form
Polar Form is represented by r ∠θ, where r is the amplitude of the alternating quantity and θ is the
phase angle with respect to the positive x-axis.
Any complex number is represented as z= r ∠θ
For example: 5∠45° , 100∠-80 etc.
Conversion of rectangular into polar form:
z= a + j b → r ∠θ
To find r and θ
r = |z| = √ a2 + b2
tan θ = b/a
thus θ = tan-1 (b/a)
Conversion of rectangular into polar form:
z= r ∠θ → a + j b
To find a and b
a= r cos θ and b= r sin θ
a. Convert the following rectangular form of complex numbers into their equivalent polar form.
1) 3 + j4 2) -6 + j8 3) -14 – j 22 4) 25 – j45 5) j78 6) 78 7) –j15
b. Convert the following polar form of complex numbers into their equivalent rectangular form.
1) 5 ∠53.36° 2) 45 ∠-45° 3) 5 ∠150° 4) 5 ∠180° 5) 20 ∠-90° 6) 8 ∠0° 7) 10 ∠10°
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Phasor Addition (To determine resultant of two alternating quantities)
Consider two components X and Y connected in series carrying current ‘i' i
amperes. This causes voltage drops v1 & v2 in these components as shown X Y
in figure 13. The two alternating voltages are given as, v1 v2
v
v1 = 20 Sin (ωt+ 70˚) and v2 = 30 Sin (ωt + 25˚) Fig 13
To find the total voltage ‘v’.
Explanation:
In series the phasor addition of the two voltages v1 & v2 produce the resultant voltage, vr.
The two voltages can be represented in polar form as follows:
v1 = 20 Sin (ωt+ 70˚) = Vm1 ∠ϴ1= 20 ∠70˚ and v2 = 30 Sin (ωt+ 25˚) = Vm2 ∠ϴ2= 30 ∠25˚
Vm1 leads reference (0˚ line) by 70o & Vm2 leads reference by 25˚
The resultant voltage, vr, can be found by drawing a phasor diagram representing the vectors, Vm1 & Vm2
as shown in fig 13. A parallelogram is constructed with Vm1 & Vm2 forming adjacent sides. The diagonal
of this parallelogram passing through the origin is the maximum value of the resultant voltage. The
resultant voltage is computed as follows
v1 = 20 ∠70˚ = Vm1 Cos ϴ1 + j Vm1 Sin ϴ1 = 6.84+ j 18.79 ;
Vrm=46.35V
v2 = 30 ∠25˚ = Vm2Cos ϴ2 + j Vm2 Sin ϴ2 =27.19 + j12.68 ; Vm1= 20V
v̅r = v̅1 + v̅2 = 6.84+ j 18.79 + 27.19 + j12.68
= 34.03 + j31.47 ϴ1= 70˚ Vm2=30V
Thus , v̅r = 46.35 ∠42.76˚ = Vrm ∠ ϴr ϴ2 =25˚ ϴr =42.76˚
Fig 14 Ref(0˚)
Thus vr = 46.35 Sin (ωt+ 42.76˚) volts = v
Q.1. Determine the resultant of v1 = 20 Sin (ωt+ 80˚) , v2 = 30 Sin (ωt+ 40˚) , v3 = 25 Sin (ωt- 10˚)
Solution: a. v1 = 20 Sin (ωt+ 80˚) , v2 = 30 Sin (ωt+ 40˚) , v3 = 25 Sin (ωt- 10˚)
v1 = 20 Sin (ωt+ 80˚) = 20 ∠80˚ = 3.47 + j1.97
v2 = 30 Sin (ωt+ 40˚) = 30 ∠40˚ = 2.3 + j1.93
v3 = 25 Sin (ωt- 10˚) = 25 ∠-10˚ = 2.46 – j4.34
v̅r = v̅1 + v̅2 + v̅3 = 3.47 + j1.97 + 2.3 + j1.93 +2.46 – j4.34 = 8.23 – j0.44
v̅r = 8.24∠3.06˚ = Vrm ∠ ϴr
Thus , vr = 8.24 Sin (ωt+ 3.06˚) volts
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Q.2. Determine the resultant of i1 = 10 Sin (ωt- 50˚) , i2 = 20 Sin (ωt+ 40˚) , i3 = 15 Cos (ωt- π/3)
i1 = 10 Sin (ωt- 50˚) = 10 ∠-50˚ = 6.43 - j7.66
i2 = 20 Sin (ωt+ 40˚) = 20 ∠40˚ = 15.32 + j12.86
i3 = 15 Cos (ωt- π/3) = 15 Cos (ωt- 60˚) = 15 Sin[(ωt- 60˚)+90˚) = 15 Sin[(ωt+30˚)] = 15 ∠30˚
Thus, i3 = 15 ∠30˚ = 13+ j7.5
Resultant of i1 , i2 , i3 is found as follows:
ir= i1+ i2 + i3 = 6.43 - j7.66 +15.32 + j12.86 + 13+ j7.5
ir = 34.75 + j12.7 = 37 ∠20.075˚
Thus , ir = 37 Sin (ωt+ 20.075˚) A
Q.3. Determine the resultant of :
v1 = 15 Cos (314t- 120˚) , v2 = 40Sin (314t + 40˚) , v3 = 15 Sin (ωt - 5π/3)
Q.3. Determine the circuit voltage in the circuit given
v1 = 15 Cos (314t- 120˚) , v2 = 40Sin (314t + 40˚) , v3 = 15 Sin (ωt - 5π/3)
i
Z1 Z2 Z3
v1 v2 V3
v
Fig 15
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