TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [1]

11. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

11.1 TERMINOLOGY
The word statistics comes from the Latin word “status” meaning “state”. Today the
word statistics has one of the following meanings.
1. As a word, statistics refer to items of numerical information such as prices or
quantitative data such as colour.
2. As a subject, Statistics deals with collection of information, the analysis and
interpretation of the information, and the drawing of conclusions.

This course is about the second meaning of Statistics: the collection of data, its
analysis and the conclusions.

The list of terms below summarizes some of the concepts you are already familiar
with.
 Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis and interpretation
of data (information)
 Infer: Use evidence (such as the results of statistical calculations) and reasoning
to deduce information about a population
 Descriptive statistics: Describe and summarize the basic features of data
o Measure of central tendency: The single number which describes the
centre position for a data set
o Measure of dispersion: The single number which indicates the
distribution (spread) of the data in the set, e.g. standard deviation, range,
etc.
 Inferential statistics: Obtain data of a sample and use the results to make
inferences (conclusions/predictions) about the population
 Obtain data in mainly two ways
o Discrete data: Data obtained by counting
 The money in your pocket at this moment – smallest coin now 10
cents
o Continuous data: Data obtained by measuring
 The height of all the students in class – accuracy depends on the
measuring device (see the study unit on measurements)
 Set: a group of data
o Member: A single value from the set
o Two types of sets
 Population: All the members in the set
 All TUT Engineering students enrolled for the Higher
Certificate
 Sample: A subset obtained from the population by a defined
procedure
 A randomly selected group of 40 Higher Certificate students
 The selection procedure is beyond the scope of this course
 Univariate data: Data depends on one variable only
 Bivariate data: Data depends on two variables

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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11.2 TYPES OF DATA
A collections of related observations is called data. The topic about which
information is collected, is called a variable. The process of collection, analysis an
interpretation is called a statistical experiment.

Here is an example of a typical statistics research project: A technologist at a local

hospital wants to investigate the influence of smoking on lung capacity. She
 measures the lung capacity of 20 patients who smoke and 25 who don't,
 calculates the average lung capacity of the smokers and of the non-smokers, and
 draws conclusions about influence of smoking by comparing the average lung
capacities of the two groups.

As a rule, there are two types of data: qualitative data and quantitative data.

11.2.1 Qualitative data

The observations cannot be measured or counted. Such data are classified in
categories. Here are a few examples:
 Blood types (O, A, B, etc.) of donors at a blood transfusion clinic.
 Employment status (employed or unemployed).
 Makes of cars (Ford, Mazda, etc.).

11.2.2 Quantitative data

We distinguish between discrete and continuous data; see Figure 1 for a summary.

 Discrete data: The observations can be counted. Here are some examples:
o The number of students in a class.
o The number of road fatalities over an Easter weekend.
 Continuous data: The observations are measured. Examples are:
o The height of 1-year-old pine seedlings.
o The time taken to travel by bus from the main campus to the Arcadia
campus.

Figure 1 A summary of the data types

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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11.3 PRESENTATION OF DATA
Data is classified as either ungrouped data or grouped data. In this study unit we will
only mention a few types of graphical presentations used in Statistics; the actual
graphical presentations are beyond the scope of this module.

11.3.1 Ungrouped data

When we have a small number of items, we refer to ungrouped data because we may
look at every item individually. Ungrouped data is always discrete.

For Assignment 2, a mathematics class of 35 students were divided into seven groups
with five members each. The groups obtained the following marks:
78 92 98 84 60 92 82
This is an example of ungrouped data; we have a mark for each group.

Ungrouped data may be represented in one of the following graphical formats,

depending on the purpose of the presentation.

 Pictograms: Pictorial symbols ("pictures") are used to represent quantities

 Horizontal bar charts: Equally spaced horizontal rectangles are used to
represent data
 Vertical bar charts: Equally spaced vertical rectangles are used to represent
data
 Pie diagram: The parts making up a whole is shown in a circle
o The area of the circle represents the whole data set
o The area of each sector is proportional to the fraction of the whole

11.3.2 Grouped data

There are more than 800 students registered for a specific mathematics course at TUT.
For Major Test 4 (WR4), we capture the mark of every registered student in ITS.
However, when we want to analyse the student performance in WR4, we group
members with similar marks together in classes forming a frequency distribution.

 A tally diagram is used to count the members in each class

 The new data set is called grouped data; data with similar values are grouped
together
o The number of members in a class is the frequency of the class
o Cumulative frequency is the sum of the class frequency and all the
frequencies above
o A cumulative frequency distribution is a table summarizing the class
intervals and cumulative frequencies for each class
 The range of a class is (largest member) – (smallest member)
 The upper class boundary value represents the upper limit of the class
 The lower class boundary value represents the lower limit of the class
 The class interval refers to the values between those boundary values
 The class mid-point value is the value exactly halfway between the class
boundary values

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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Let's look at an example with only 27 students. Let's assume the lowest mark is 62
and the highest is 100. We define the classes as shown in Table 1 and count the
number of students with marks in each of the classes. The class width of each class is
10.

❢ Note the different types of brackets! [70;80) means the class includes marks
from 70 to 79, that is, 80 is not in this class.

Table 1 The tally diagram

Class Tally
[60;70) 111
[70;80) 1111 111
[80;90) 1111 1111 11
[90;100] 1111

These numbers are combined in a table called the frequency distribution, shown in
Table 2.

Table 2 The frequency distribution

Class Frequency f
[60;70) 3
[70;80) 8
[80;90) 12
[90;100] 4

For analysis purposes we often add two additional columns to the frequency
distribution headed "Midpoint" and "Cumulative Frequency" respectively. The
resulting table a cumulative frequency distribution.

Mid-point: Determine the point in the middle of a specific class. See Figure 2.

Figure 2 Calculate the mid-point value

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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Cumulative frequency: Add each frequency to the sum of the frequencies above.

Table 3 Cumulative frequency distribution

Class Mid- Frequency f Cumulative

point frequency F
[60;70) 65 3 3
[70;80) 75 8 3 + 8 = 11
[80;90) 85 12 11 + 12 = 23
[90;100] 95 4 23 + 4 = 27

Exercise 11.1
1. Given the following data, complete the cumulative frequency distribution.
120 116 94 120 112 112 106 102 118 112
116 98 116 114 120 124 112 122 110 84
106 122 124 112 118 128 108 120 110 106
106 102 139 102 122 112 110 130 112 114
108 110 116 118 118 108 102 110 104 112
122 112 116 110 112 118 98 104 120 106
108 110 102 110 120 126 114 98 116 100

Mid- Number Frequency f Cumulative

point frequency F
[80;90)
[90;100)
[100;110)
[110;120)
[120;130)
[130;140)
[140;150)

2. A random sample of the results of 50 students produced the following results

in a test.
91 66 38 64 74 52 83 34 70 78
32 24 52 68 66 61 51 28 68 57
72 33 74 75 66 14 32 76 21 61
50 65 64 51 36 32 71 13 63 84
83 60 23 52 53 64 16 62 57 92

Complete a frequency distribution table for the data. Use the class intervals
[10;20), [20;30), ….. Include columns for cumulative frequency and
percentage cumulative frequency.

3. In a research project, a group of female gym members were weighed and the
results in kilograms are as follows:
48, 51, 47, 62, 48, 49, 51, 65, 73, 56, 42, 48, 57, 55, 70, 62, 55, 52, 48, 76, 65,
53, 52, 60, 67, 74, 64, 55, 60, 63, 68, 65, 60, 58, 53

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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 3.1 How many women participated in the research?
3.2 Set up a cumulative frequency distribution by completing the
following table.

Number Frequency f Mid-point Cumulative %F

frequency F
40  x  45
45  x  50
50  x  55
55  x  60
60  x  65
65  x  70
70  x  75
75  x  80
3.3 Identify the class with the highest frequency.
3.4 Determine the first class for which F  50 . ☂☂☂

Grouped data may be represented in one of the following ways:

 Histogram: A number of rectangles
o The height of each rectangle is equal to the frequency of the class
o The width of the rectangle is equal to the class width
 Frequency polygon: Plot the frequency against the class mid-point and join the
points with straight lines
 Cumulative frequency polygon/curve: Plot the cumulative frequency against
the class mid-point and join the points with straight lines
 Ogive: An alternative name for a cumulative frequency polygon.

11.4 TYPES OF MEASURES

11.4.1 Rounding
In descriptive statistics we always include an extra digit in the answer. For example,
if all the test marks of the class are expressed as percentages such as 81%, 65% and
74%, we'll write the mean with one decimal place, i.e. 73.3%.

11.4.2 Measures of central tendency

A measure of central tendency is a single value which describes the centre position
of a data set.
 Mean: The average value of a data set
o Use your clever calculator!
 Mode: The value that appears most often in a data set
 Median: The value "in the middle" if the data is arranged according to size

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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11.4.3 Measures of dispersion
A measure of dispersion is a single number which indicates the distribution of the
data in the set.
 Range: The difference between the biggest and smallest members in the set
o Biggest member – smallest member
 Standard deviation: An indication of the distance of the members from the
mean of the data set
o The smaller the standard deviation, the closer the members of the set are
to the mean of the set
o Use your clever calculator!
o There are two types of standard deviation on the calculator:
 𝜎𝑥 for the standard deviation of the population
 𝑠𝑥 for the standard deviation of the sample – always use the latter!

There are more types of measures in statistics but they are beyond the scope of this
course.

11.5 UNGROUPED DATA

11.5.1 Mean of ungrouped data
The data: 3 9 11 15 20 21
The steps:
1. Set up the calculator.

w31

2. Enter the data.

3=9=11=15=20=21=

3. Obtain the mean value.

Cq142=

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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 x  13.2

11.5.2 Median of ungrouped data

The median value or median is "the one in the middle".
 Arrange the members from smallest to biggest
 Two cases
o For odd numbers: The member in the middle is the median
 3 9 9 15 20 21 24

Median = 15
o For even numbers: Calculate the average of the two values in the
middle
 3 9 11 15 20 21

11+15
Median = = 13
2

11.5.3 Mode of ungrouped data

The modal value or mode is the value that appears most often in the set.
 6 2 4 2 4 1 4

Mode = 4

11.4.4 Comparison of the mean, median and mode

 The mean is easy to calculate and uses and uses all the observations in the data
set. It is, however, heavily influenced by flyers. The mean od a data set is
unique.
 The median is easy to calculate and is not influenced by flyers. It's
disadvantage is that it is determined by only one or two values in a data set.
The median of a data set is unique.
 The mode is easy to calculate. It is especially suited to qualitative data where
the mean and median may provide absurd values. The mode of a data set may
or may not be unique.

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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11.4.5 Range of ungrouped data
The data: 3 9 11 15 20 21
The range: 𝑅 = 21 − 3 = 18

11.5.6 Standard deviation of ungrouped data

The data: 3 9 11 15 20 21

q144=

s  6.9

11.5.6 Variance
The variance of a data set equals the square of the standard deviation, that is,
V  s2

11.5.7 Coefficient of variation

The coefficient of variation is used to compare the variation in two or more sets of
data and is calculated using the formula
s
CV   100
x

The data: 3 9 11 15 20 21
The coefficient of variation:
6.9
CV   100
13.2
 52.3%

Exercise 11.2
1. Ten students took an aptitude test in chemistry. There were 1000 possible
points. The scores ran as follows:
351 998 346 450 320 965 360 346 332 318
Compute the arithmetic mean, median, mode and standard deviation for this
sample.

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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2. The following data indicate the bacterial counts for 11 biological experiments.
138 146 168 146 161 164 158 126 173 145 150
For this data set, calculate the range, median, mode and coefficient of
variation.

3. The following IQ’s belong to a grade 1 class.

152 96 81 106 84 127 80 100 106 91 112 113
Calculate the modal, median and mean IQ.

4. Meridian Trucking maintains kilometre records of all its rolling equipment.

Here are weekly kilometre records for its trucks.
810 450 756 789 210 657 589 488 876 689
1 450 560 469 890 987 559 788 943 447 775
4.1 Calculate the median kilometres a truck travelled.
4.2 Calculate the mean for the 20 trucks.
4.3 Calculate the modal distance travelled.
4.4 The variance
4.5 The coefficient of variation

5. Tiny Tim had a birthday party yesterday. The ages of the people present were
3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 33, 38, 40.
5.1 Find the mean for this data.
5.2 Divide the data into two natural groups and explain why you used this
division.
5.3 Determine the median for each group.

6. In a new factory eleven light bulbs of each type A and type B were fitted.
When any of the light bulbs failed the length of life in months were recorded.
After 18 months eight of type A had failed at 4, 9, 11, 13, 13, 14, 17 and 18
months, and six of type B at ages 7, 12, 15, 15, 16 and 18 months. Suggest,
and calculate for each type, a measure that might be used to compare the life
time of the two bulbs.

7. In a study conducted by the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the

Tshwane University of Technology, the steel rods supplied by two different
companies were compared. Ten sample springs were made out of the steel
rods supplied by each company, and a measurement of flexibility was recorded
for each.

The data are as follows:

Company A: 9.3 8.8 6.8 8.7 8.5

6.7 8.0 6.5 9.2 7.0

Company B: 11.0 9.8 9.9 10.2 10.1

9.7 11.0 11.1 10.2 9.6

7.1 Calculate the sample mean and standard deviation for the data of the
two companies.
7.2 Calculate the coefficient of variation for the data of the two companies.

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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 7.3 Which company shows more variability in flexibility of the springs?
Motivate your answer.

8. In a study of the milk consumption in the United States of America it is

reported that the mean number of gallons consumed per family unit per week
is 8 with a sample standard deviation 3 gallons. A similar study on South
Africa reports a mean consumption of 12 litres with a standard deviation of 4
litres. Which data set exhibits more variability? ☂☂☂

11.6 GROUPED DATA

11.6.1 Set up the calculator
☂ Put your calculator in STAT mode.

☀ Change your calculator's STAT mode to enter the class mid-point and frequency
values!

qwR41

Set up a table for the data as in Table 3, copied here to enhance studies.

Class Mid-point Frequency Cumulative

frequency
[60;70) 65 3 3
[70;80) 75 8 11
[80;90) 85 12 23
[90;100] 95 4 27

1. Set up the calculator.

qwR41

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 2. Enter the data.
 The mid-point values in the first column
 The frequencies in the second column

w3165=75=85=95=EE
EE$3=8=12=4=

11.6.2 Mean of grouped data

☂ Use the STAT function on your calculator to determine the mean!

Cq142
=

x  81.3
11.6.3 Standard deviation of continuous data
Cq142
=
=

s  8.8

11.6.4 Mode of continuous data

The modal class is the class with the highest frequency. Therefore, look in the
frequency column for the biggest value and mark that row.

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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In Table 3 this value is 12 and hence the modal class is [80;90).

The formula:
 1 
Mo  L  C  
 1  2 
where
L Lowers limit of the modal class
C Class width
1 (f of modal class) – (f of the class preceding the modal class)
2 (f of modal class) – (f of the class following the modal class)

Class Mid-point Frequency Cumulative

frequency
[60;70) 65 3 3
[70;80) 75 8 11 Δ1 = 12 − 8 = 4
[80;90) 85 12 23
[90;100] 95 4 27
Δ2 = 12 − 4 = 8

For this data set, L  80, C  10, 1  12  8  4,  2  12  4  8

 4 
 Mo  80  10  
 48
 89.3

11.6.5 Median of continuous data

The median is "the value in the middle". To determine the median class, calculate
a  n 2 where n is the total number of observations. Then look in the cumulative
frequency column for the first value F  a . For Table 3, a  27 2  13.5 . The first
F  13.5 is 23. Therefore the median class is [80;90).

The formula:
n F 
Me  L  C  2 1 
 f 
where
L Lowers limit of the modal class
C Class width
F1 Cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class
f Frequency of the median class

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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 Class Mid-point Frequency Cumulative
frequency
[60;70) 65 3 3
[70;80) 75 8 11
[80;90) 85 12 23
[90;100] 95 4 27

For this data set, L  80, C  10, F1  11, f  12

 13.5  11 
Me  80  10  
 12 
 82.1

11.6.6 Other measures

As in the formulas for the median, Lrefers to the lower limit of the relevant class, F1
refers to the cumulative frequency of the previous class and f refers to the frequency of
the selected class.

11.6.6.1 Quartiles
The data set is divided into quarters. Here F1 refers to the cumulative frequency of
the previous class and f to the frequency of the quartile.
n F 
 First quartile: Q1  L  C  4 1 
 f 
 Second quartile: Q2  Me
 3n  F 
 Third quartile: Q3  L  C  4 1 
 f 

Let's calculate Q3 as an example.

Class Mid-point Frequency Cumulative
frequency
[60;70) 65 3 3
[70;80) 75 8 11
[80;90) 85 12 23
[90;100] 95 4 27

From Table 3, 3(27)

4  20.25 . Thus,
 20.25  11 
Q3  80  10  
 12 
 87.7

11.6.6.2 Percentiles
"Percentile" refers to percentages.

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  kn  F 
 kth percentile: Pk  L  C  100 1 
 f 
P
For example, for 30 : 30(17)
100  8.1

Class Mid-point Frequency Cumulative

frequency
[60;70) 65 3 3
[70;80) 75 8 11
[80;90) 85 12 23
[90;100] 95 4 27
 8.1  3 
P30  70  10  
 8 
 76.4

Exercise 11.3
1. Calculate the median, mode, Q1, Q3, P10 and P60 for the each of the following
data set.

1.1 Class Frequency 1.2 Class Frequency

[50;60) 13 [0;4) 8
[60;70) 13 [4;8) 19
[70;80) 54 [8;12) 18
[80;90) 36 [12;16) 17
[90;100) 10 [16;20) 13

2. The following table describes the age distribution of a randomly selected

sample of South African residents.

Age Frequency
[0;10) 37
[10;20) 35
[20;30) 39
[30;40) 46
[40;50) 33
[50;60) 22
[60;70) 20
[70;80) 17
[80;90) 9
[90;100) 2

2.1 Calculate the median age.

2.2 Calculate the modal age.
2.3 Calculate the standard deviation.
2.4 Calculate Q1.
2.5 Calculate P40.

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3. The following table shows the length in centimetres of a sample of students at
the University.

Length (cm) Number of students

[155;163) 5
[163;171) 14
[171;179) 26
[179;187) 37
[187;195) 32
[195;203) 9
[203;211) 2

3.1 Calculate the median.

3.2 Calculate the variance.

4. The times, measured to the nearest second, taken by 30 students to complete

an algebraic problem are given below.

Time Number of
(seconds) students
[35;40) 1
[40;45) 7
[45;50) 10
[50;55) 5
[55;60) 2
[60;65) 2
[65;70) 1
[70;75) 2

4.1 What is the range of the data? Motivate your answer.

4.2 Calculate the median.
4.3 Calculate the mode and coefficient of variation.
4.4 Determine Q3.
4.5 Calculate P70.
4.6 Interpret your answer in 4.6.

5. The administrator of a hospital conducted a survey of the number of days

patients stayed in hospital following an operation.
Days in hospital Number of patients
[1;4) 32
[4;7) 86
[7;10) 60
[10;13) 28
[13;16) 14
[16;19) 7
[19;22) 3

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 5.1 Calculate the mode.
5.2 Calculate the variance.
5.3 Calculate the median.
5.4 Calculate Q3.

6. The term "downtime" in a factory refers to the time during working hours in
which a machine is not operating as a result of breakage or failure. The
following distribution shows a sample of 100 downtimes of a certain machine
(rounded to the nearest minute).
6.1 Complete the table.
6.2 Determine the mean downtime.
6.3 Calculate the standard deviation.
6.4 Compute the middle quartile value of the downtimes.

Downtime (minutes) Frequency (f ) Class midpoint ( x ) F

0t 9 3
9  t  18 13
18  t  27 30
27  t  36 25
36  t  45 14
45  t  54 8
54  t  63 4
63  t  72 2
72  t  81 1

7. Consider the data summarizing the mass of a group of eight-year-old boys

below.

Midpoints Mass (kg) Frequency Cumulative frequency

[18;22) 3
[22;26) 5
[26;30) 7
[30;34) 3
[34;38) 2
7.1 Complete the table.
7.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation for the data.
7.3 What is the modal mass of the boys?
7.4 What is their median mass?
7.5 Interpret the value of the median.
7.6 Determine the first quartile.
7.7 Interpret this quartile value.
7.8 Is P80  31 ? Justify your answer.

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ANSWERS 11
Exercise 11.1
Mid- Number Frequency f Cumulative
point frequency F
85 [80;90) 1 1
95 [90;100) 4 5
105 [100;110) 17 22
115 [110;120) 32 54
125 [120;130) 14 68
135 [130;140) 2 70
145 [140;150) 0 70
2.
Result Frequency F %F
[10;20) 3 3 6
[20;30) 4 7 14
[30;40) 7 14 28
[40;50) 0 14 28
[50;60) 9 23 46
[60;70) 14 37 74
[70;80) 8 45 90
[80;90) 3 48 96
[90;100) 2 50 100
3.1 35
3.2
Number Frequency f Mid-point Cumulative %F
frequency F
40  x  45 1 42.5 1 2.9
45  x  50 6 47.5 7 20.0
50  x  55 6 52.5 13 34.1
55  x  60 6 57.5 19 54.3
60  x  65 7 62.5 26 74.3
65  x  70 5 67.5 31 88.6
70  x  75 3 72.5 34 97.1
75  x  80 1 77.5 35 100.0
3.3 60  x  65 3.4 55  x  60

Exercise 11.2
1. 475.6, 348.5, 346, 269.9 2. 47, 150, 146, 9.2%
3. 106, 103, 104 4.1 722.5 km
4.2 709.1 km 5.1 13.2
6. Discussion
7.1 xB  10.26, sB  0.57
7.2 CVA  7.95  0.138 ; CVB  0.56999
1.09873
10.26  0.056

7.3 Company A shows more variability, since CVA  CVB

8. USA since CVUSA  37.5% and CVSA  33.3%

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

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Exercise 11.3
1.1 76.9, 76.9, 71.02, 84.03, 56.69, 79.19
1.2 10.3, 7.7, 6.3, 14.6, 3.8,12
2.1 34.1 2.2 33.5 2.3 23.0
2.4 18 2.5 28.21 3.2 182.8
3.3 109.2 4.4 46.9 4.5 ≈54
4.6 ≈53 4.7 70% of students took less than 53 s to complete
5.2 15.4 5.3 6.9
6.1
Downtime (minutes) Frequency (f ) Class midpoint ( x ) F
0t 9 3 4.5 3
9  t  18 13 13.5 16
18  t  27 30 22.5 46
27  t  36 25 31.5 71
36  t  45 14 40.5 85
45  t  54 8 49.5 93
54  t  63 4 58.5 97
63  t  72 2 67.5 99
72  t  81 1 76.5 100
6.2 x  30.6 6.3 sx 14.216
711
6.4 Me   28.44
25
7.1
Midpoints Mass (kg) Frequency Cumulative frequency
20 [18;22) 3 3
24 [22;26) 5 8
28 [26;30) 7 15
32 [30;34) 3 18
36 [34;38) 2 20
7.2 x  27.2 kg 7.3 s  4.9 kg 7.4 Me  27.1 kg
7.5 Half the boys have a mass less than 27.1 kg
7.6 Q1  23.6 kg
7.7 The mass of ¼ of the boys is less than 23.6 kg
7.8 P80  31.3

TMA105C: Statistics – Descriptive statistics

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [20]
12. REGRESSION ANALYSIS

12.1 INTRODUCTION
We set up an experiment to verify the relationship between two quantities, say x and
y. We captured the data in table form as shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Data in table form

x y
1.1 3.1
1.4 3.3
1.7 3.7
1.9 3.8
2.3 4.4
2.5 5.9
2.7 4.6
3.2 4.9
3.5 5.2
3.8 5.8
4.0 6.0

Next we plot the points as shown in Figure 1. This type of plot is called a scatter
diagram.

Figure 3 The graph of the data

From the graph we observe that, except for the point (2.5;5.9), the points seems to be
close to a straight line. How can we determine the equation of this straight line? One
option is to move a ruler until we get the "best" straight line closest to most points,
draw the line and then calculate the slope and y-intercept of this line; see Figure 2.
The equation of this line is approximately y  2.16  0.96x . Another person might
draw a slightly different straight line.

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [21]
 Figure 4 The straight line using all the data

Points such as (2.5;5.9) is often called a flyer or an outlier. An outlier might be the
result of an incorrect reading or an experimental error. After careful consideration
such points may be ignored in calculations. The equation of the straight line without
the outlier is y  2.01 0.97x .

Which line is the "best"? Surely there must be a more scientific way to determine the
"best" straight line! There are several techniques available but in this section we'll use
a statistical tool called regression analysis.

12.2 TERMINOLOGY
12.2.1 What is regression analysis?
In Statistics, regression analysis is a set of statistical processes used to determine a
relationship or correlation between variables.

The steps usually are:

 Gather the data.
o The data in Table 4is an example of a discrete data set because we
have a set of discrete (individual) points.
 Plot the data in a scatter diagram.
 Based on the positions of the points in the Cartesian plane, decide whether the
data will best fit a straight line, a quadratic function, an exponential function, a
log function, etc.
 Determine the "best" function to represent the data, called the regression line
or curve.
 Determine how "good" the fit is by calculating a constant called the
correlation coefficient.
 Use the regression equation to predict values between and beyond the given
data points.

12.2.2 A summary of some of the terminology

We distinguish between two broad types of regression models:

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [22]
 1. Linear correlation where the data is represented by the equation of a straight
line.
2. Non-linear correlation when the data represents a curve different from a
straight line.

We use the following terms.

 Bivariate data: Data depends on two variables
o Express the dependent variable as a function of the
independent variable
 Scatter diagram: A set of data points plotted in a Cartesian plane
7
6
5
4
y

3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
x

 Correlation: A mutual interdependence between two or more variables

 Linear correlation: The points are close to a straight line
o Perfect linear correlation: The points are all in a perfect straight
line
o Positive or direct linear correlation: The points are all close to
a straight line with a positive gradient
o Negative or inverse linear correlation: The points are all close
to a straight line with a negative gradient
 Correlation coefficient: An indication of the strength of the relationship
between two variables
o Symbol: r
 Use your calculator!
o r  1  1  r  1
o r  0  no linear correlation
o The closer r is to 1, the stronger the correlation
 If r is positive, an increase in one quantity will cause an
increase in the second (graph has a positive gradient)
 If r is negative an increase in one quantity will cause a
decrease in the second (graph has a negative gradient)
 Linear regression: Draw the best possible line through the points in a
graph
 Least-squares regression line: Draw the best possible straight line
through the points
o IMPORTANT: Enter the values of the independent variable as X
on the calculator
 If you don't, your answer will be incorrect!

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [23]
 o General form of the equation of the line: ŷ  A  BX
 This is the form of the equation used on the Casio
 A is the intercept with the y-axis
 B is the gradient of the line
 Note the "hat" ^ on the y in the equation!
o Uses
 Estimate values of Y for a given value of X
 Estimate values of X for a given value of Y
 Linear interpolation: If the value of X is within the range of given X-
values
 Linear extrapolation: If the value of X is outside the range of given X-
values
 Outlier: A "strange" point such as (2.5;5.9) in Figure 1 that may distort
the equation of the line.

There are formulas available to calculate the equation of, for example, the linear
regression line in the form y  mx  c . For a set of n data points of the form ( x; y) ,
n ( xy )   x y  y  m x
m ; c
n  x 2     x 
2
n

Fortunately we will be using our clever calculators!

12.3 THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

The correlation coefficient is a tool used to determine the nature of the relationship
between two variables.

Negative r Nature of correlation Positive r

r 0 No correlation r 0
0.25  r  0 Very weak correlation 0  r  0.25
0.75  r  0.25 Moderate correlation 0.25  r  0.75
0.9  r  0.75 Strong correlation 0.75  r  0.9
1  r  0.9 Very strong correlation 0.9  r  1
r  1 Perfect correlation r 1

❢ Correlation ≠ causation!
We may investigate the relationship the number of cars passing through a
specific toll gate on Sundays and the number of ice creams sold at the mall
next to the toll road. Mathematically there might be a strong positive
correlation even though there is no actual relationship between the two
variables.

☂ The formulas used to calculate the calculate the correlation coefficient for
linear and non-linear data are slightly different. Fortunately your calculator
"knows" which formula to use!

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [24]
☞ There are more tools available to investigate the relationship between
variables. You may study them in more advanced statistics courses.

30.4 SET UP YOUR CALCULATOR

Use the data in Table 5 as an example.

Table 5 Data for the calculator

X Y
50 30
100 65
150 90
200 130
250 150
300 190
350 200

From the scatter diagram shown in Figure 3 we assume the data represents a straight
line.

Figure 5 The scatter diagram for the data in Table 2

12.4.1 Set up the calculator for regression analysis

☀ Make sure your calculator is set up correctly!
qwR42

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

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12.4.2 Enter the data for linear regression

w3250=100=150=200=250=
300=350=$EEEEEEE30=65=
90=130=150=190=200=

12.4.3 Get the values

☞ The equation for a straight line in statistics is y  A  Bx .

Cq151=

q152=

q153=

Thus, yˆ  5  0.586x .

The correlation coefficient r  0.994 and hence there is a very strong positive
correlation between x and y.

12.4.4 Predictions
Use x̂ and ŷ to estimate values of x and y.

 What is the value of y when x is 210?

C210q155=
o y  128

Thus, yˆ  128 .
☂ This is an example of interpolation. x  210 is between two given
values of x in the table.

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [26]
  What is the value of x when y is 220?

C220q154=

Thus, xˆ  367.07 .

☂ This is an example of extrapolation. y  220 is outside the given range

of y-values.

Activity 12.1
Use data in Table 4 (copied here) to answer the x y
following questions. 1.1 3.1
1. Determine the equation of the least-squares
1.4 3.3
regression line
1.7 3.7
1.1 using all the data points and
1.9 3.8
1.2 excluding the point (2.5;5.9).
2.3 4.4
2. Compare the nature of the correlation
between x and y. 2.5 5.9
3. Predict, using the equation in 1.2: 2.7 4.6
3.1 The value of y when x  0.8 and 3.2 4.9
3.2 The value of x when y  4.0 . 3.5 5.2
3.8 5.8
SOLUTION
4.0 6.0
1.1 Using all data points:
A  2.163883
B  0.957218
 yˆ  2.16  0.96 x
1.2 Excluding the outlier:
A  2.00812
B  0.96557
 yˆ  2.01  0.97 x

2. For all the data points:

r1.1  0.8976
 0.89
Without the outlier:
r1.2  0.99205
 0.99
There is, in both cases, a very strong positive correlation between x and
y. When the outlier is excluded, the correlation coefficient is closer to 1
and hence the line is a better fit.

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [27]
 3.1 Predict y (extrapolation)
x  0.8
 yˆ  2.78
3.2 Predict x (interpolation)
y  4.5
 xˆ  2.58 ✔

EXERCISE 12.1
1. Use your calculator to determine the equation of the linear regression line and
the correlation coefficient for the following data sets accurately to two decimal
places. Discuss the nature of the correlation between the two variables.
1.1
x 5 8 13 10 14 15 17 12 18 13
y 5 8 3 8 7 5 3 -1 4 -1
1.2
t 3 10 7 6 11 16 17 15 17 20
x 6 24 30 38 53 56 65 75 91 103
1.3
t 101 -389 103 204 105 606 807 -992 609 -790
F -300 98 -704 -906 -8 690 -12 686 984 -18

2. The table lists average carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the atmosphere
measured in parts per million (ppm) at Mauna Loa Observatory from 1972 to
1988. Let x be the number of years since 1972, that is, x = 0 for 1972, x = 2 for
1974, etc. Let y represent the average CO2 levels.

x y
0 327.3
2 330.0
4 332.0
6 335.3
8 338.5
10 341.0
12 344.3
14 347.0
16 351.3

2.1 Make a scatter plot of the data.

2.2 Fit a linear regression model to the data.
2.3 Use the linear model to estimate the CO2 level in the atmosphere in
1990. Compare your answer with the actual CO2 level of 345.0
measured in 1990.

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

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3. Consider the data below.

x 1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2 2.2 2.4

y 101 107 117 106 132 147 150

3.1 Determine the equation of the linear regression line.

3.2 Calculate the correlation coefficient.
3.3 How can you improve on the accuracy of the regression line?
3.4 Predict y for x = 2.1 and for x = 0.5. Comment on your answers.

4. The percentage of impurity in oxygen gas (y) produced by a distilling process

is thought to be related to the percentage of hydrocarbon (x) in the main
condenser of the processor. One month’s operating data are available, as
shown here.

y 86.9 89.9 90.3 86.3 92.6 87.3 86.3 91.9 89.9 95.6
x 1.02 1.11 1.43 1.11 1.01 0.95 1.11 0.87 1.43 1.02

4.1 Determine the equation of the linear regression line.

4.2 Calculate the coefficient of correlation and comment on your answer.

5. Mr Khosa and Ms Thandi are partners in the chemistry laboratory. Their

assignment is to determine how much copper sulphate will dissolve in water at
10°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°, 60° and 70°C. Their lab results are shown in the
following table where y is the mass in grams of copper sulphate which will
dissolve in 100 g of water at x°C.

x y
10 17
20 21
30 25
40 28
50 33
60 40
70 39

5.1 Calculate the linear correlation coefficient for this data.

5.2 Interpret your answer.
5.3 Determine the equation of the regression line.
5.4 Predict how much copper sulphate will dissolve at 55°C.

6. Opinions on the relationship between aptitude in mathematics (x) and

chemistry (y) are diverse. The following lists the results for 17 students.

Math mark (%) 56 59 62 63 68 69 72 73 74 76 79 82 85 87 94 96 97

Chemistry mark (%) 48 51 58 78 62 66 74 76 71 80 81 83 72 90 92 93 96

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

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6.1 Fit a linear regression model to this data.
6.2 Calculate the correlation coefficient and interpret your results.
6.3 Estimate the chemistry mark for a student with a math mark of 80%.

7. A student wonders if people of similar height tend to date each other. She
measures herself, her roommate, and the women in adjoining rooms. Then she
measures the next man each woman dates. Here is the data (in centimetres).

Women 162 157 162 159 172 159

Men 176 167 172 167 174 159

What was her conclusion? Motivate your answer by showing suitable graphs
and calculations.

8. When water flows across farmland, some of the soil is washed away, resulting
in erosion. Researchers released water across a test bed at different flow rates
and measured the amount of soil washed away. The following table gives the
flow (in litres per second) and the mass (in kilograms) of eroded soil.

Flow rate 0.31 0.55 1.26 2.47 3.75

Eroded soil 0.82 1.95 2.18 3.01 6.07

8.1 Find the equation of the least-squares regression line for predicting soil
loss from water flow rate. Work accurate to two decimal places.
8.2 Hence predict the soil loss from a flow rate of 1.00 ℓ/s. ☂☂☂

12.5 NON-LINEAR REGRESSION

Data cannot always be described by a linear regression model.

Activity 12.2
Thandi changed the pressure p and measured the volume V of a gas at constant
temperature. She captured the data in a table similar to Table 6.

Table 6 Non-linear data

p (kPa) 121.0 99.3 81.0 60.6 43.1

V (cm3) 21.0 25.1 31.7 41.2 60.3

The scatter diagram in Figure 4 reveals the data are not close to a single line.

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [30]
 Figure 6 Scatter diagram showing non-linear data

It reminds us of a hyperbola! We thus need a non-linear regression model.

12.5.1 Setting up the calculator

Cw3

☀ Memorize the CASIO options!

Type of curve Select

Linear regression: y  A  Bx 2: A+BX
Quadratic regression: y  A  Bx  Cx 2 3: _CX2
Log regression: y  A  B ln x 4: ln X
Exponential e regression: y  Ae Bx 5: e^X
General exponential regression: y  AB x 6: A∙B^X
Power regression: y  Ax B 7: A∙X^B
Inverse regression: y  A  B 8: 1/X
x

Use this information to answer the following questions.

1. Which variable, p or V, is the independent variable? Motivate your choice.
2. Determine the equation of the regression line fitting this data set.
3. Use the equation to predict:
3.1 The volume of the gas when the pressure is 70 kPa; and
3.2 The pressure when the volume of the gas is 50 cm3.
SOLUTION
1. The pressure p is the independent variable because the pressure was
changed and the effect of this change on the volume was measured.
2. Enter the data with p as X and V as Y.

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

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 A  1.08729
B  2624.6892
V  1.09  2624.69
p
☂ Express the equation in terms of the given variables!

3.1 The volume:

p  70  Vˆ  36.4082
Vˆ  36.41 cm3
3.2 The pressure:
V  50  pˆ  51.37655
 pˆ  51.38 kPa ✔

EXERCISE 12.2
1. The following data were obtained during an experiment.

x 11 17 20 25 40 55
y 96 129 135 145 168 235

It is believed the data fits the regression model y  axb .

1.1 Calculate, accurately to five decimal places, the values of
1.1.1 a and
1.1.2 b.
1.2 Was the correct model used? Explain.

2. To determine the relationship between two quantities m and P, the following

data were collected.

m P
804.184 0.1591
827.326 0.0439
846.611 0.0050
869.753 0.0073
889.038 0.0488
892.895 0.0649
900.609 0.1204

2.1 Set up a regression model of the form P  a  bx  cx2 .

2.2 Predict the value of P when m  1000 .

3. Consider the data given in the table.

C 4.00 2.25 1.45 1.00 0.65 0.25 0.06

−𝑟 0.398 0.298 0.238 0.198 0.158 0.098 0.045

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

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 The regression model for this data has the form r  kCn . Determine the
values of n and k.

4. Trans Road Assist wanted to draw road networks from aerial images. The
company measured intensities at different pixel locations. The table
summarized the intensities as a function of pixel location.

Pixel location (k) Intensity (y)

-3 119
-2 165
-1 231
0 243
1 244
2 214
3 136

Regress the data to a second order polynomial.

5. A few drops of the radio-active Technetium-99m isotopes are injected to scan

gallbladders of patients. Half of the Technetium-99m would be gone in about
6 hours. After about 24 hours the radiation levels reached the levels we are
exposed to in day-to-day activities. The table summarizes the relative intensity
of radiation as a function of time.

t (hours) 0 1 3 5 7 9
 1.000 0.891 0.708 0.562 0.447 0.355
The level of relative intensity of radiation is related to time via an exponential
formula   Aet . Determine
5.1 The value of the regression constants A and  ;
5.2 The half-life of Technetium-99m; and
5.3 The radiation intensity after 24 hours.

6. The wavelength L of sound as a function of frequency f was measured. Use the

results in the table below to determine the least-squares curve of the form

 
L  m 1  b for this data set.
f

Frequency
240 320 400 480 560
(Hz)
Wavelength
140 107 81.0 70.0 60.0
(cm)

7. Determine the relationship between x and y in the form y  Ae Bx .

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 1/4 2 16 128 1024 8192

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

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8. A student is trying to determine the half-life of radioactive iodine-131. He
measures the amount of iodine-131 in a sample solution every 8 hours. His
data are shown in the following table. Also see the scatter diagram.

Time (h) Amount (g)

0 4.80
8 4.66
16 4.51
24 4.39
32 4.29
40 4.14
48 4.04

8.1 Use your knowledge of radio-active decay to determine a model to represent

the data. Justify your choice.
8.2 Use your model to find the half-life of iodine-131.

9. The luminosity of a lamp I varies with applied voltage V. The following data
were obtained in an experiment.

I 2.5 4.9 8.1 12.1 16.9 22.5 44

V 50 70 90 110 130 150 210

9.1 The scatter diagram represents the data. Do you agree with the
dependent and independent variables used in the sketch? Motivate your
answer.
9.2 Determine the best regression
model for this data. Motivate your
choice.
9.3 Predict the value of I when V = 100.

10. In an experiment the relationship between the percentage of light T transmitted

by a solution and the concentration C of the solution was investigated. The
data for a copper solution are as follows:

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [34]
 C (mg/100 cm3) 0.61 1.21 1.82 2.42
T (%) 70 51 33.5 22.8

 Ms Zondeki assumes the data satisfies

the relationship y  Ae Bx .
 Ms Pollock assumes the data satisfies the
relationship y  AB x .
 Ms Ntini assumes the data satisfies the
relationship y  Ax B .

10.1 Determine the values of a and b, and thus the actual relationship, for
each lady.
10.2 Which lady is correct? Motivate your answer.
10.3 Do you think the four sets of experimental data is enough to draw valid
conclusions? Motivate your answer.

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

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ANSWERS 12
Exercise 12.1
1.1 yˆ  7.04  0.24x; r  0.29  weak negative correlation
1.2 xˆ  6.21 4.94t; r  0.91  very strong positive correlation
1.3 Fˆ  46.90  0.19t; r  0.18  very weak negative correlation
2.1 2.2 yˆ  326.70 1.48x
2.3 yˆ  335.57 ppm
3.1 yˆ  59.74  36.21x
3.2 r  0.90
3.3 Discussion
3.4 yˆ 2.1  135.79 ; yˆ 0.5  77.85
4.1 yˆ  91.311.46x
4.2 r  0.09
5.1 r  0.98 5.2 Very strong positive correlation
5.3 35 g 6.1 yˆ  1.99 1.01x
6.2 r  0.90 6.3 78%
7. r  0.58 discussion 8.1 yˆ  0.611.32x
8.2 1.924 kg

Exercise 12.2
1.1.1 89.37 1.1.2 1.02
1.2 r  0.97 2.1 Pˆ  43.99  0.10m  5.99m 2
2.2 1.22 3. k  0.20; n  0.52
4. yˆ  246.57  5.79k  13.36k 2
5.1 A  0.9997;   0.115
5.2 6.02 hours 5.3 0.063
34013.69
6. L  1.33 7. yˆ  0.25e 2.08 x
f
8.1 Aˆ  4.79e 0.0036 t 8.2 8 days
9.1 No. V is the independent variable 9.2 I  109.27  26.88ln I ; r  0.91
9.3 14.51
10.1 yˆ Z  105.03e0.63 x ; yˆ P  105.03  0.53e x ; yˆ N  51.35 x 0.794
10.2 Ms Zondeki & Ms Pollock: rz  0.9986; rP  0.9986; rN  0.9702
10.3 Discussion

TMA105C: Statistics – Regression Analysis

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [36]
TMA105C: Functions – Basics
© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [37]
13. THE BASICS OF FUNCTIONS

13.1. WHAT IS A FUNCTION?

13.1.1 Function vs. relation
In Mathematics, the term relation refers to a relationship between two sets of
information.
 Think of the heights of all the students in your mathematics class. Now pair their
names with their heights. This pairing of heights and names is an example of a
relation.
 The number of bacteria in a petri dish doubles every hour. The pairing of
number of bacteria and time is another example of a relation.

A function is special type of relation. All functions have three parts in common: the
input, the relation and the output. These three components are shown in the diagram
in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The three components of a relation

Let's look at the function "multiple by 3". When you put 2 into the function, the
output is 2 × 3 = 6 as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 The function "multiply by 3"

We give the function a name, say f, and write it as follows:

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☂ Some functions, such as the trigonometric functions, are used so often that they
𝑦
have special names; you are, for example, familiar with the sine sin(𝜃) = 𝑟 .

☂ Sometimes we omit the brackets around the argument in the function name, e.g.
we often write sin 𝜃 instead of sin(𝜃).

We select the input to a function from a set called the domain of the function. The
output of the function is called the range of the function. We'll return to the domain
and range of a function at a later stage.

Thus, a function is a rule linking one set of values (the domain) to another set of
values (the range).
 A function can link a value from the domain to only one value in the range of
the function.
 If a value in the domain is linked to more than one value in the range, the rule
does NOT represent a function; it is just a relation.

Are all relations functions? The last bullet suggested an answer and we'll return to this
question in more detail a little later. We first need to revise some concepts.

13.1.2 Variables and arguments

A variable is something you are trying to measure. It may be objects, events, time
periods or even sets of numbers.
 Examples
o If you want to study the effect of fertilizer on the growth of plants, the
variables are plant height and type of fertilizer.
o You may want to study the effect of hours spent studying for your test
mark. The variables are hours studied and the test scores.
o In an experiment with electric circuits the symbol i represents the current
at time t; the variables are time and current.

We distinguish between independent and dependent variables.

 Independent variable: The variable which doesn't depend on another variable
o In experiments, we change the independent variable and observe the
change in the other variables.
o In most applications involving time, t, time is the independent variable.
 Dependent variable: The variable depends on another variable
o In an experiment, we change the independent variable on purpose. Then
we observe the effect of this change on the dependent variable.
o Your height changed over time. Thus, your age (time) is the independent
variable since you have no control over it. As you grew up, your height
increases – height depends on age (time) and is the dependent variable.

When you sketch a graph of your experimental results, the independent variable is
always placed on the horizontal axis.

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When working with functions you will quite often hear the term "the argument of the
function". Is there a difference between a variable and an argument?
 Argument of a function: The argument is a specific input to the function and
may be a number, a variable, a term or an expression.

Activity 13.1
Compare "variable" and "argument".
SOLUTION
Function Variable Argument
3
x x x
cos 3 y y 3y
2 x1 x x 1
2
sin 𝑥 x 𝑥2 ✔

13.1.3 Domain and range

What is the difference between the domain and
the range of a function? Figure 3 depicts the
difference graphically.
 Domain: What can go into a function
 Co-domain: What may possibly come
out of a function
 Range: What actually comes out of a
function
In this module we'll concentrate on the domain
and range of a function.
Figure 3 Graphical comparison of domain and range

Consider the function defined by f ( x)  3 x where x is a natural number.

 Domain: All the natural numbers, 1;2;3; 
 Co-domain: The natural numbers, 1;2;3; 
 Range: Multiples of 3, 3;6;9; 
How do we determine the domain and range of a function?
 The domain: Determine all the values allowed. Keep the following in mind:
o The denominator of a fraction cannot be zero.
o For real numbers the number under a square root sign cannot be
negative.
 The range: Determine all the values resulting from the input to the function.
o There are no fixed rules to determine the range.
o For a rational function, we solve for x and then see which values of y
are not allowed.

Activity 13.2
Determine the domain and range of the function defined by y  x  3 .

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SOLUTION
Graphically
The curve in Figure 4 depicts the
function y  x  3 .
 Note the  at the point (3;0). This
indicates that the domain starts from
this point.

From the graph we see the possible x-

values are 𝑥 ≥ 3. As a result of this
input, the possible y-values are 𝑦 ≥ 0.

We don't always have a graph to help us Figure 4 The domain and range of the function
determine the domain and range of a
function.

Mathematically
 The domain: We cannot have a negative number under the root sign.
Therefore, 𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0 and hence 𝑥 ≥ 3.
∴ The domain is the set of real values of x such that 𝑥 ≥ 3, that is,
x / x  3; x   or x  [3; ) .
 The range: When 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 0. For all other values of x in the domain,
𝑦 > 0.
∴ The range is the set of all real values such that 𝑦 ≥ 0, that is,
 y / y  0; y   or y  [0; ) . ✔
Before we look at another example, do you
remember the definition of an "asymptote"?
An asymptote is a line a curve approaches as
it approaches infinity. You are familiar with
the asymptotes of the tan function. The
dashed lines in Figure 5 depicts the
asymptotes x    2 and x   2 of the
function y  tan x on the interval [ ;  ] .

Figure 5 The tan function

The asymptotes are not always vertical or horizontal lines. Figure 6 shows the graph
x2  2 x  1
of g ( x)  on the interval [2;15] . The dashed line depicts the asymptote
x2
y  x  4 of g ( x) .

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 Figure 6 One asymptote of g(x)

Activity 13.3
1
Determine the domain and range of the function defined by f ( x)  .
x3
SOLUTION
Mathematically
Since the denominator cannot be zero, 𝑥 − 3 ≠ 0, that is, 𝑥 ≠ 3.
∴ The domain:  x / x  3; x   .

1
Let y  and solve for x:
x 3
y ( x  3)  1
1
x 3 
y
1
x  3
y
∴ The range:  y / y  0; y  . ✔

☂ For some other functions you will need more sophisticated methods which are
beyond the scope of this course.

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Exercise 13.1.1
1. Use the graphs to determine the domain and range in each of the cases.

1.1 1.2

2. Determine the domain and range of each of the following functions.

2.1 f ( x)  x 2  4 2.2 f (t )  2  t
x
2.3 g ( x)  2.4 g (t )  3t  t 2
x 1

3. Determine only the domain of each of the following functions.

2t  1
3.1 f ( x)  3  2x 3.2 g (t )  2
t 1
t 5
3.3 p (t )  3.4 q( s)  s 2  8
2t  3
1 3x  2
3.5 v(t )  3.6 a( x)  2 ☂☂☂
t 1 6x  x  2

13.1.4 Are all relations functions?

This question was asked earlier and the answer is a definite NO! Not all relations are
functions! Even well-known relations such as the circle represented by x 2  y 2  4 is
not a function.

A function relates every element in the domain to exactly one element in the range. A
relation that links two elements in the domain to the same element in the range, is a
function. What if one element in the domain relates to two elements in the range?
Then the relation is NOT a function!

Based on the kind of relation we distinguish two types of functions.

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 A many-to-one (many → one) function
o More than one value from the domain linked to the
same value in the range as shown in Figure 7.
o Examples: y  x 2 and y  sin x

Figure 7 A many-to-one function

 A one-to-one (one → one) function

o Every value from the domain linked to only one value
in the range
o Example: y  x 3

 There is no such thing as ... Figure 8 A one-to-one function

o many-to-many functions
 All the values in the domain are linked to more than one value in the
range, and vice versa
o one-to-many functions
 One value in the domain is linked to more than one value in the
range

13.1.5 Graphical tests

Does a graph represent a relation or a function? Do the so-called vertical line test.

VERTICAL LINE TEST

Draw a vertical line through the curve. If it intercepts the curve once everywhere, the
relationship is a function.

See the two examples in Figure 9. The graph on the left represents a function because
any vertical line will intercept the curve once only. The graph on the right is NOT a
function; note how the vertical line intercepts the curve four times.

Figure 9 Two examples of the vertical line test

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Is the function a one-to-one or a many-to-one function? We use the so-called
horizontal line test.

HORIZONTAL LINE TEST

Draw a horizontal line through the curve. If it intercepts the curve once everywhere,
the function is a one-to-one function.

The two examples in Figure 10 illustrates the application of the horizontal line test.
The graph on the left represents a one-to-one function because any horizontal line will
intercept the curve once only. The graph on the right depicts a many-to-one function;
note how the horizontal line intercepts the curve twice.

Figure 10 Two examples of the horizontal line test

Exercise 13.1.2
1. Write down the domain and range for each of the following sets. Then use
your answer to determine whether the set represents a one-to-one or many-to-
one function or neither.
1.1 (3; 2);(1;0);(1;2);(3;4)
1.2 (2;4);(2;4);(1;1);(1;1)
2. Determine which of the following graphs represent a function. If it is a
function, classify it as a one-to-one or many-to-one function.

2.1 2.2

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 2.3 2.4

13.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS

There are various types of classifications of functions. In the previous section, we
classify a function as one-to-one or many-to-one based on the type of relation
between the domain and range. There are several other possible ways of classification
but in this section we'll look at concepts you are already familiar with.

 Polynomials: P( x)  an xn  an1xn1   a2 x2  a1x  a0 ; an  0

o The coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , , an are constants and real numbers.
o an is called the leading coefficient.
o The powers of x are non-negative integers.
o The domain of a polynomial is the real numbers.
o A multinomial is a polynomial with more than one term.
 Monomial: A polynomial such as 5x 3 with only one term.
 Binomial: A polynomial with two terms, e.g. 2x 1 .
 Trinomial: A polynomial with three terms, e.g. x 2  3 x  7 .
o The degree of the polynomial is determined by the highest power.
 Linear: P ( x)  mx  c
 Quadratic: P( x)  ax 2  bx  c
 Cubic: P( x)  ax3  bx 2  cx  d
o Examples
 g ( x)  3x 4  7 x  2 is a fourth-order polynomial.
 f ( x)  x 2  3x  3 is a quadratic polynomial.
 r ( x)  2 x 2  3x 1 is not a polynomial because of the x 1 .
 p ( x)  2 x 3  x is not a polynomial because of the root sign.
 A( )  12   sin   is not a polynomial because of the trig function

P( x)
 Rational functions: R ( x)  where P( x) and Q ( x ) are polynomials.
Q( x)
o Zeroes: The value(s) of x for which P ( x )  0 .
o Poles: The value(s) of x for which Q ( x)  0 .
o NOTE: The function is undefined at the poles!
o Examples

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 y 1
 R( y )  is a rational function.
y  3y  2
2

3t  1
 q (t )  is not a rational function because the denominator is
t2  9
not a polynomial.

 Algebraic functions: Any function that can be constructed using the algebraic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, powers and roots).

 Transcendental functions: Any function that is not algebraic such as

o Exponential functions
o Logarithmic functions
o Hyperbolic functions
o Trigonometric functions

We'll look into these transcendental functions in great detail later.

Exercise 13.2
1. Which of the following functions are polynomials? Explain why.
1.1 f ( x)  x 2  3x 1  7 1.2 g ( x)  2 x  x 2
1.3 h(t )  2t 3  7t 2  5 1.4 i (t )  3t 2 sin t

2. Are the following examples of rational functions? Motivate your answer.

x 2  3x  4 2x 1
2.1 f ( x)  2.2 g ( x) 
2x  7 2x 1
t
3 2 y2  4 y 1
2.3 h(t )  2 2.4 R( y )  ☂☂
t  7t  5 y2

13.3 TRANSFORMATIONS
A transformation is a general term for one of four ways we use in Mathematics to
manipulate an object. When we apply a transformation to the graph of a given
function, we may obtain the graph of another related function – think back to the
graphs of the trigonometric functions you studied at school!

How are the four categories of transformations applied to the graphs of functions?
The examples given here is for one type of transformation at a time only. We may use
a combination of a number of transformations to obtain the new graph.

13.3.1 Rotation
The graph of the function is rotated through a specified angle to get the new function.
❢ The rotation of graphs of functions is beyond the scope of this course.

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13.3.2 Reflection
"Flip" the graph of the function about the line of reflection to obtain the new function
 When you fold a paper with a graph and its reflection on the line of reflection,
you will see only one curve
o Trace the following onto a piece of paper and observe the symmetry about
the line of reflection

We say the reflection is symmetric about the line of reflection.

General examples:
1. The inverse of a function is the reflection of the function about the line
y  x (more on this in a later unit).
2. y   f ( x) is a reflection of y  f ( x) about the x-axis, that is, the two
functions are symmetric about the x-axis.
3. y  f ( x) is a reflection of y  f ( x) about the y-axis, that is, the two
functions are symmetric about the y-axis.

13.3.3 Translation
"Move" the graph of the function as a whole from one point to another to obtain the
new function.

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 If c  0 :
o y f ( x)  c shifts the graph of y f ( x) a distance c upward.
o y f ( x)  c shifts the graph of y f ( x) a distance c downward.
o y f ( x  c) shifts the graph of y f ( x) a distance c to the left.
o y f ( x  c) shifts the graph of y f ( x) a distance c to the right.

Study the four examples below

13.3.4 Resizing
The graph of the function is stretched or compressed vertically or horizontally.
 If c  0 :
o y  c f ( x) stretches the graph of y  f ( x) vertically by a factor c.
o y  1c f ( x) compresses the graph of y  f ( x) vertically by a factor c.
o y  f (cx ) compresses the graph of y  f ( x) horizontally by a factor c.
o y  f ( x / c ) stretches the graph of y  f ( x) horizontally by a factor c.

Study the examples below.

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Exercise 13.3
1. Reflect the following curves as indicated.

1.1 f ( x)  x 3  7 x 2  5 x  1 1.2 f ( x)  x 2
About the x-axis About the line y  x

2. Use the given graph of f ( x ) to sketch the new function g ( x) on the same
system of axes.

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 2.1 g ( x)  ( x  1) 2  3 2.2 g ( x)  x  1  2

3. Use the given graph of f ( x ) to sketch the new function g ( x) on the same
system of axes.
3.1 g ( x)  sin x  1 3.2 g ( x)  x3

13.4 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

Some functions are symmetrical about the vertical axis, some are symmetrical about
the origin (0;0) and others are not symmetrical at all. Based on its symmetry a
function may be classified as even, odd or neither.
 Even function: The graph of the function is symmetrical about the vertical
axis (y-axis)
o Mathematically: f ( x)  f ( x)

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 o Example: f ( x)  x 2 is an even function because
f (  x )  (  x) 2  x 2  f ( x )
 Odd function: The graph of the function is symmetrical about the origin (0;0)
o Mathematically: f ( x)   f ( x)
o Example: f ( x)  x 3 is an even function because
f (  x )  (  x )3   x 3   f ( x )
 Neither even nor odd: All functions that are neither even nor odd

The table below summarizes the theory.

Even function Odd function Neither

Mathematically f ( x)  f ( x) f ( x)   f ( x) No general rule
Graphically

Examples f ( x)  x 2 , g ( x)  cos x f ( x)  x3 , g ( x)  sin x f ( x)  x 3  2 x 2

Exercise 13.4
1. Each sketch shows part of the graph of f ( x ) . Complete the graph as indicated.
1.1 Expand as an even function 1.2 Expand as an odd function

2. Classify each of the following functions as even, odd or neither. Justify your
answer with relevant calculations.
2.1 f ( x)  x 5  x 3  x 2.2 g (t )  (t  1)2
2.3 h( y )  2 y 2.4 p( x)  tan x
t4 x
2.5 g (t )  2.6 h( x ) 
t3 1 1  x2
2.7 f (t )  2t 2  7 2.8 g ( x)  sin 2 2 x ☂☂☂

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13.5 CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
13.5.1 What is a continuous function?
The official definition of a continuous function can be quite complicated. It is
sufficient for this course to know a continuous function is a function whose graph is
a single, unbroken curve. You can thus sketch the graph without lifting your pen from
the paper. If a function is not continuous, it is said to be discontinuous.
You are already familiar with examples of continuous and discontinuous functions –
think trig!

13.5.2 Piecewise-continuous functions

Have another look at the graph of tan x : The function "jumps" from  to  at
x   2 . Thus, the function is discontinuous at that point. But the function is
continuous on the interval   2 , 2  .

There are more functions which are continuous "in pieces" and hence we call them
piecewise continuous functions. We write the function then over several lines.

Consider the function in the sketch:

f ( x )  3 from for x less than -1
f ( x)   x 2  3 between -1 and 1
f ( x)  x for x greater than 1

Mathematically, we write this piecewise

defined function as
 3, x  1
 2
f ( x)   x  3, 1  x  1
 x, x 1


What "happens" at, for example, x  1 ? The function changes from y  2 just before
the point to y  1 just after the point. In this course it is suffice to know about the
jump; the theory of limits may be covered in more advanced courses should you
decide to continue with your education.

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Exercise 13.5
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.
 x 2 , 2  x  2  x, x  0
1. f ( x)   2. g ( x)  
 4, x2   x, x  0

 4, x  2
 3, x  1  2
3. p( x)   4. q ( x)   x , 2  x  2 ☂☂☂
 x, x  1  4,
 x2

13.6 PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

A function is periodic if it repeats itself at regular intervals. If a function is not
periodic, it is aperiodic or non-periodic.
 Cycle: One complete repetition
 Period: The smallest possible length
of one cycle
o Symbol: T
 Frequency: Number of cycles per
second
o Symbol: f
o f 1
T
 Amplitude: For a wave-like function the amplitude is the maximum distance
from the equilibrium
o Not all periodic functions has an amplitude! Just think of the tan function!
 f ( x  a )  f ( x) means f is a function with period a

Here are some examples of periodic functions.

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Exercise 13.6
1. Why are the following NOT periodic functions?
1.1 1.2

2. Each graph depicts one cycle of a periodic function. Draw two more cycles of
the function.
2.1 2.2

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ANSWERS 13
Exercise 13.1.1
1.1 1.2

Domain:  x / x  
Range:  y / y  0; y  

Domain: x / x   6;12
Range:  y / y   7;11

2.1 f ( x)  x 2  4 2.2 f (t )  2  t
Domain: x / x   Domain: t / t  2; t  
Range:  y / y  4; y   Range:  y / y  0; y  
x
2.3 g ( x)  2.4 g (t )  3t  t 2
x 1
Domain:  x / x  1; x   Domain: t / t  
Range:  y / y  1; y   Range:  y / y  3 2 ; y  

2t  1
3.1 f ( x)  3  2x 3.2 g (t ) 
t 2 1
x / x  3 2 ; x   t / t  1; x  
t 5
3.3 p (t )  3.4 q( s)  s 2  8
2t  3
t / t   3 2 ; x   s / s  ; 2 2    2 2;   
1 3x  2
3.5 v(t )  3.6 a( x) 
t 1 6 x2  x  2
t / t  1; t   x / x   2 3 or x  1 2 ; x  

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Exercise 13.1.2
1.1 (3; 2);(1;0);(1;2);(3;4) 1.2 (2;4);(2;4);(1;1);(1;1)
Domain: 3; 1;1;3 Domain: 2; 2; 1;1
Range: 2;0; 2; 4 Range: 4; 4;1;1
One-to-one function Many-to-one function
2.1 2.2

Not a function Many-to-one function

2.3
2.4

Many-to-one function Not a function

Exercise 13.2
1.1 f ( x)  x 2  3x 1  7 Not a polynomial; negative exponents
1.2 g ( x)  2 x  x 2 Not a polynomial; x as an exponent
1.3 h(t )  2t 3  7t 2  5 Polynomial
1.4 i (t )  3t 2 sin t Not a polynomial; presence of sint

x 2  3x  4
2.1 f ( x)  Rational
2x  7
2x 1
2.2 g ( x)  Irrational
2x 1
3t
2.3 h(t )  2 Irrational
t  7t  5
2 y2  4 y 1
2.4 R( y )  Rational
y2

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Exercise 13.3
1.1 f ( x)  x 3  7 x 2  5 x  1 1.2 f ( x)  x 2
About the x-axis About the line y  x

2.1 g ( x)  ( x  1) 2  3 2.2 g ( x)  x  1  2

3.1 g ( x)  sin x  1 3.2 g ( x)  x3

Exercise 13.4
1.1 Expand as an even function 1.2 Expand as an odd function

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2.1 f ( x)  x5  x3  x : Odd
2.2 g (t )  (t  1)2 : Neither even nor odd
2.3 h( y )  2 y : Neither even nor odd
2.4 p( x)  tan x : Odd
t4
2.5 g (t )  : Neither even nor odd
t3 1
x
2.6 h( x )  : Odd
1  x2
2.7 f (t )  2t 2  7 : Even
2.8 g ( x)  sin 2 2 x : Even

Exercise 13.5
 x 2 , 2  x  2  x, x  0
1. f ( x)   2. g ( x)  
 4, x2   x, x  0

 4, x  2
 3, x  1  2
3. p( x)   4. q ( x)   x , 2  x  2
 x, x  1  4,
 x2

Exercise 13.6
1.1 Cycles not repeating 1.2 Overlap of cycle

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2.1 2.2

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14. COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS

14.1 REVISION
Carefully consider the following function:
f ( x)  x  1 .
Let's revise a few concepts.
1. What is the independent variable in this function?
 The independent variable is x since it is the unknown that depends on
no other variable.
2. What is the argument in this example?
 The argument is x  1, the specific input for this function.
3. Calculate f (5) .
 Replace the x with 5 in the function: f (5)  5 1  4  2 .
4. Write down f ( a ) .
 Replace x with a in the function: f (a)  a  1 .
5. Determine f ( x  1) .
 Replace x with x  1 in the function: f ( x  1)  ( x  1)  1  x .

In the answer of the last question above, we replaced the x in the definition of the
function f with another function, i.e. x  1. We thus have one function inside another
function – and we call the result a composite function.

14.2 OPERATIONS WITH FUNCTIONS

14.1 The intersection of sets
In mathematics a set refers to a collection of "things". Sometimes different sets have
"things" in common. For example, if A is the set of even numbers and B is the set of
multiples of 3, then the union of the two sets, written as A  B , is the set consisting of
all even numbers as well as all the multiples of 3. The intersection, written as A  B ,
is the set of even multiples of 3.

Activity 14.1
Determine A  B and A  B if A  2; 4;6;8;10;12 and B  3;6;9;12;15 .
SOLUTION
A  B  2;3; 4;6;8;9;10;12;15
 All the elements in A or all the elements in B that are not in A.
 Note that every element appears only once in the union of the two
functions; the element 6 appears in both A and B but is written only
once in the union.

A  B  3;6;12

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  All the elements in A and B ✔

14.2 The domain of a combination of functions

To form a new function, we may add, subtract, multiply and divide functions in a
manner similar to real numbers.

Let f  f ( x ) and g  g ( x) be two functions with domains A and B respectively.

  f  g  ( x)  f ( x)  g ( x) with domain A  B
  f  g  ( x)  f ( x)  g ( x) with domain A  B
  fg  ( x)  f ( x) g ( x) with domain A  B
 f  f ( x)
   ( x)  with domain  x / x  A  B; g ( x)  0
g g ( x)

Activity 14.2
Given: f ( x)  2  x and g ( x )  2  x where x . Determine
a) The domain of each of the two functions;
b) The intersection of those two domains;
c)  f  g  ( x) and its domain;
d)  fg  ( x) and its domain; and
 f 
e)   ( x ) and its domain.
g
☀ In the real number set the argument of a square root must be positive!
SOLUTION
a) f ( x)  2  x :
2 x  0
 x  2
Thus, D f   x / x  2, x    [2; )

g ( x)  2  x :
2 x  0
2 x
x  2
Thus, Dg   x / x  2, x    (; 2]
b) Let's represent the domain of each of the functions on the number line
as shown in Figure 11.

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 Figure 11 The domains of the functions

 Df  Dg  [2; )  (;2]  [2;2]

c) f  g  ( x)  2  x  2  x
Domain  [2; 2]

d)  fg  ( x)   2 x  
2  x  4  x2
Domain  [2; 2]

f  2 x 2 x
e)   ( x)  
g 2 x 2 x
Domain  [2; 2) ✔

☃ x  2 is excluded from the domain of

 f 
  ( x ) since division by 0 is undefined.
g

☂ x  2 is an asymptote of f ( x) g ( x) as
shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12 The graph of f(x)/g(x)

Exercise 14.1
1. Determine fg and f . Simplify the answer and include the domain of each.
g
1.1 f ( x)  x 2  1 and g ( x)  x  1
1.2 f ( x)  x 2 and g ( x )  x  1

2. Perform the indicated operation and include the domain in your answer.
1 1
2.1  f  g  ( x) if f ( x)  and g ( x) 
x3 x3
 f 
2.2   ( x ) if f ( x)  2 x  10 and g ( x)  x  5
g

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 1
2.3  f g  ( x) if f ( x)  2 x 2  5 x  3 and g ( x) 
x 3
9 3x  1
2.4  f g  ( x) if f ( x)  2 and g ( x)  ☂☂☂
3x  14 x  5 3

14.3 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS

Consider the function f ( x)  sin 3x . Is this function the product of the sine function
and the straight line y  3 x ?
No! The argument of the sine function is 3x in this example. Such functions where
one function is the function of another is called a composition of the function and
needs further investigation.

14.3.1 The definition

In the composition of two functions, the output of one function is used as the input to
another function. The output of the composition of the two functions is called a
composite function.

Let's look at the "picture" of the composition of the two

functions f and g to form a new function h shown in Figure
13.
 The input for g is x
 The output of g is u  g ( x )
 This output becomes the input for f
 The output for f is thus f (u )
 But u  g ( x )
Hence f (u )  f  g ( x) 
Figure 13 The composite function h(x)

 Let the composite function be h  h( x)
 Thus, h( x)  f  g ( x) 

We sometimes say one function g ( x) is inside another function f ( x ) . Thus, g ( x) is

the inside function and f ( x ) is the outside function.

Let g ( x)  x  1 and f ( x )  x  1 . To determine the composition of f and g, replace

the x in f with the function g. Thus, the composition of f and g is then
f  g ( x)   f  x  1
 ( x  1)  1 and g ( x) is x.
 x

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14.3.2 Notation
The combination of f and g is written as  f g  ( x) , read as "f of g of x".
Thus:
  f g  ( x)  f  g ( x)  , that is, g is inside f.
 g f  ( x)  g  f ( x)  , that is, f is inside g.

☂ The symbol between the f and g is a small circle ; it is not a point as f g

means "multiply".

☂ We sometimes use and abbreviated notation. For example, f g implies

f g  ( x) .

☂ The x in  f g  ( x) is the argument of the composition. It does NOT mean

f g times x.

14.3.3 An important property

Does the order of f and g matter? Let's look an example to determine the answer.

Activity 14.3
Is ( f g )( x)  ( g f )( x) for all functions? Use the functions f ( x)  2 x  3 and
g ( x)  x  7 to motivate your answer.
SOLUTION
Determine  f g  ( x) and  g f  ( x) .

f g  g inside f ⇒ replace every x in f with ( x  7)

f g  ( x)  f  g ( x) 
 2( x  7)  3
 2 x  11

g f  f inside g ⇒ replace every x in g with (2 x  3)

g f  ( x)  g  c( x) 
 (2 x  3)  7
 2x  4

Conclusion: In general, ( f g )( x)  ( g f )( x) . ✔

☂ The mathematical symbol ⇒ is read as "implies that". It is NOT an equal sign!

In Activity 14.3 the domain of f and g was the set of real numbers. The domain of the
composite functions  f g  ( x) and  g f  ( x) is also the set of real numbers. Will it

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always be this easy to determine the domain of the composite function? Let's
investigate.

14.3.4 The domain of the composite function

We must keep the domain of both functions in mind when we determine the domain
of the composition of functions. The domain of the composition is always the smaller
of the separate function.

Activity 14.4
Determine the domain of  f g  ( x) if f ( x)  x  2 and g ( x)  x 2 .
SOLUTION
f g  ( x)  x 2  2
The right-hand side is defined for x 2  2 , that is,
x   2 or x  2 . It thus seems as if the
domain of the composite function is
 
;  2    2;  as depicted in Figure 14,
but it is not.
☃ The domain of a composite function is
always the smaller of the separate
functions.

Domain of f :  x / x  2; x   Figure 14 Graphs for Activity 14.2

Domain of g:  x / x  
The domain of the composition is the smaller of the domains of f ( x ) and
g ( x) . In this example, the domain of f ( x ) is a subset of the domain of g ( x)
∴ Domain of f g :  x / x  2; x   ✔

Activity 14.5
Why does  f g  (4) not exist when f ( x)  4  x 2 and g  x  3 ?
SOLUTION
Wrong answer
f g  ( x)  4   
2
x3
 4  ( x  3)
 1 x ✔
  f g  (4)  1  (4)
5 ✘

Figure 15 Graphs for Activity 14.3

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 f g  ( x)  4   
2
❢ x3  1  x . It is thus possible to calculate the
value:  f g  (4)  7  (4)  11 but it is the wrong answer! -4 is
NOT in the domain of f g and can thus not be used as input.

Correct answer
Domain of f:  x / x  
Domain of g:  x / x  3, x  
Domain of g is the smallest.
∴ Domain of f g :  x / x  3, x  
Hence, 𝑥 = −4 is not in the domain of the composite function and thus
 f g  (4) doesn't exist. ✔

14.3.5 The steps

To determine the composition of two functions f  f ( x ) and g  g ( x) :
1. Rewrite the composition, e.g.  f g  ( x)  f  g ( x)  .
2. Replace every x in the outside function f with the inside function g.
3. Simplify the answer.
4. Determine the domain of the composition only when asked.

Activity 14.6
Determine  q p  ( x) if p  2 x  3 and q( x)  3x 2  1 . Include the domain in your
answer.
SOLUTION
 q p  ( x)  q  p( x)  Rewrite the composition

  Substitue ever x in q with p

2
3 2x  3 1
 3  2 x  3  1
Simplify
 6x  8 ✔
 Domain:  x / x  

Exercise 14.2
1. Determine  f g  ( x) and  g f  ( x) for each of the following sets of
functions.
1.1 f ( x)  3  4 x; g ( x)  x 2  1
1.2 f ( x)  2x  7; g ( x)  x
1.3 f ( x)  x2 1; g ( x)  x 1
1.4 f ( x)  x 2  3x; g ( x)  x  1

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2. Determine the composite function indicated.
2.1  f g  ( x) when f ( x)  x 2  3x  2 and g ( x)  2 x  1.
2.2  f g  (t ) when f (t )  9  2t and g (t )  t 2  2t  3 .
2.3  g f  ( x) when f ( x)  x3  2 and g ( x)  3 x  2 .
2.4  p q  (t ) when p(t )  t  2 and q(t )  t 2  2t  4 .

3. Determine  f g  ( x) if f ( x)  x and g ( x)  x 2  2 x  1 . Include the

domain of the composition in your answer.

1
4. Consider the functions p(t )  9  t 2 and q(t )  .
2t
4.1 Calculate  p q  (1) .
4.2 Determine  q p  (3) .
4.3 Determine an expression for p p .
4.4 Is q q  q 2 ? Motivate your answer.

5. Given: h( x)  x 2  1 and g ( x )  x .
5.1 Determine  h g  ( x) .
5.2 Determine  g h  ( x) .
5.3 What do you notice from the results of 5.1 and 5.2?

6 6
6. Consider the two functions f ( x)  and g ( x)  3  .
3 x x
6.1 Determine  f g  ( x) .
6.2 Determine  g f  ( x) .
6.3 What do you notice about the results from 6.1 and 6.2?

7. Consider the two functions f ( x)  x 2 and g ( x)  x  2 . For what real value of

x is  f g  ( x)   g f  ( x) ?

8. The functions f ( x)  cx  3 and g ( x)  cx  5 are both defined on the set of

real numbers. If f g  g f x  , what is the value of the constant c?

1
9. Determine  f f  ( x) if f ( x)  ; x  0
x

1
10. Consider the functions p( x)   1 and q( x)  x3 .
x
10.1 Determine
10.1.1  p q  ( x) and its domain
10.1.2 q p  ( x) and its domain

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 10.2 For what value(s) of x is p q  q p ? ☂☂☂

☂ The function y  x is called the identity function.

☂ Your conclusion in question 6.3 will be handy in the study unit on inverse
functions.

14.4 DECOMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

It is sometimes necessary to break down a complex function into more basic
functions. We say we decompose a function into simpler functions. This is an
essential skill you'll use later in differentiation and integration.

We know if f ( x)  cos x and g ( x )  3 x , then  f g  ( x)  sin 3x . In this section we'll

"untangle" a composite function.

Activity 14.7
Decompose the function h( x)  x3  2 and h( x)   f g  ( x) into more basic
functions.
SOLUTION
There are two possible combinations of functions.

Option 1
If f ( x)  x and g ( x)  x3  2 , then
f g  ( x)  f  x3  2 

 x3  2

Option 2
If f ( x)  x  2 and g ( x)  x3 , then
f g  ( x)  f  x3 

 x3  2 ✔

☀ The decomposition of a function is not necessarily unique!

Exercise 14.3
1. Assume h( x)   f g  ( x) . Determine its decomposition into simpler
functions.
3 2 1
1.1 h( x )  3  x 2 1.2 h( x )  3  2 
x x x

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 1.3 h( x)  4 16 x 2  1 1.4 h( x)  sin  2 x 2  3
1.5 h( x)  2cos x 1.6 h( x)  cos 2 x

2. Assume h( x)   f g  ( x) . Determine a function g  g ( x) for each of the

functions h( x ) and f ( x ) .
2.1 f ( x )  e x ; h( x )  e 2 x  3 2.2 f ( x )  x ; h( x )  x 3  1
2
 1
2.3 f ( x)  x 2 ; h( x)  cos 2 x 2.4 f ( x )  x ; h( x )   x  
2

 x

1
3. Decompose f ( x)  into three basic functions.
sin  x 4 

2
4. The function g ( x)  is the composition of two functions.
5  2  x2
Determine these two functions.

5. Express the function in the form f g .

HINT: Determine the functions f and g!
a3
h(t )   t 3  1
5
5.1 5.2 p(a) 
a3  1
F (t )  sin  3t   3  v( x)  5x 1
2
5.3 5.4 ☂☂☂

14.5 INTERACTIVE MATERIAL

From the Wolfram Demonstrations project: Take note of the copyright!
The demos are all available on myTUTor.

 Combining functions by Ed Pegg

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ANSWERS 14
Exercise 14.1
1.1 fg  f ( x)  g ( x)  ( x 2  1)( x  1)  x3  x 2  x  1
f f ( x) x 2  1 ( x  1)( x  1)
    x 1
g g ( x) x  1 x 1
f f ( x) x2
1.2 fg  f ( x)  g ( x)  x 2
x 1  
g g ( x) x 1
1 1 4
2.1 f  g  ( x)    2 ; domain:  x / x  3; x  
x  3 x  3 x  2x  3
 f  2 x  10
2.2   ( x)  ; domain:  x / x  5; x  
g x5
2 x2  5x  3
2.3  f g  ( x)   2 x  1 ; domain:  x / x  3; x  
x 3
  3x  1 
 f g  ( x)  
9 3
2.4   ; domain: x / x  5, x   13 ; x  
 3 x  14 x  5   3  x  5
2

Exercise 14.2
1.1  f g  ( x)  4 x2  1 ; g f  ( x)  16 x 2  24 x  10
1.2  f g  ( x)  2 x  7 ; g
f  ( x)  2 x  7
1.3  f g  ( x)  x  2 ;  g f  ( x )  x 2  2
1.4  f g  ( x )  x 4  6 x 3  6 x 2  9 x ;  g f  ( x)  x 2  3x  1
2.1  f g  ( x)  4 x2  10 x  6 2.2  f g  (t )  2t 2  4t  15
2.3  g f  ( x)  x 2.4  p q  (t )  t 2  2t  6
3.  f g  ( x)  x  1; domain: x / x  0; x  
4.1  p q  (1)  35 4 4.2  q p  (3) undefined
4.3 p p  t2 4.4 q q  q 2 Prove this!!!!!!!!
5.1  h g  ( x)  x 2  1 5.2  g h  ( x)  x 2  1
5.3  h g  ( x)   g h  ( x)  x 2  1 6.1  f g  ( x)  x
6.2  g f  ( x)  x 6.3  f g  ( x)   g f  ( x)  x
7. x 1
2 8. c 1
1
9. f f  ( x)  x; x  0 10.1.1  p q  ( x)   1; x  0
x3
3
1 
10.1.2  q p  ( x)    1 ; x  0 10.2 x  1
x 
Exercise 14.3
1.1 f ( x)  x ; g ( x)  3  x2 or f ( x)  3  x ; g ( x)  x2
1.2 f ( x)  3 x 3  2 x 2  x; g ( x)  1
x
1.3 f ( x)  x ; g ( x)  16 x  1
4 2
or f ( x)  4 16x  1; g ( x)  x2

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1.4 f ( x)  sin x; g ( x)  2 x 2  3 or f ( x)  sin(2 x  3; g ( x)  x 2
1.5 f ( x)  2 x ; g ( x)  cos x 1.6 f ( x)  cos x; g ( x)  2 x
2.1 g ( x)  2 x  3 2.2 g ( x)  x 3  1
1
2.3 g ( x)  cos x 2.4 g ( x)  x 
x
1
3. f ( x)  g h k where g ( x)  ; h( x)  sin x; k ( x)  x 4
x
3
4. g ( x)  p q where p( x)  ; q ( x)  2  x 2
5 x
h(t )  f g   t 3  1
5
5.1 if f (t )  t 5 and g (t )  t 3  1
a3 a
5.2 p(a)  f g  3 where f (a)  and g (a)  a 3
a 1 a 1
5.3 F (t )  f g  sin  3t  3  where f (t )  sin t and g (t )  3t   3


1
v( x)  f g  5 x where f ( x)  5x and g ( x)  x 2  1
2
5.4
☞ Discuss other possible decompositions with your lecturer!

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15. INVERSE FUNCTIONS

15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.1.1 Reciprocals
What is the "opposite" of each of the following actions?
 Turn on the light.
o Switch off the light.
 Turn left.
o Turn right.
 Increase the petrol price by 23 cents.
o Decrease the petrol price by 23 cents.

Each of these everyday actions has an "opposite" or "inverse" action. You are also
familiar of the "inverse" concepts when working with fractions.

Activity 15.1
What is the opposite or "inverse" of each of the following?
1
 4 Inverse:
4
9 1 2
 2 Inverse: 
9
2 9
3 1 5
 5 Inverse: 
3
5 3
1 1
 𝑥 Inverse: x ✔
1
x

In Mathematics, the quantity we obtain by dividing 1 (one) by a number is quite often

called the reciprocal or multiplicative inverse.

Activity 15.2
Write down the reciprocal of each of the following.
2 1 7
 7 Reciprocal: 
2
7 2
1 11 1 5
 25 Reciprocal: 2 15   
5 11
5 11
𝑥 1 y
 𝑦 Reciprocal: 
x
y x
𝑥 1 x 1

𝑥+1
Reciprocal:  ✔
x
( x 1) x

Let's revisit an exponential law before we continue with the "inverse" concept.

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15.1.2 The meaning of x 1
You are familiar with the following exponential law:
1
a 1  ; a  0
a

Activity 15.3
Simplify each of the following expressions.
1
 31 
3
1
 x  x 1  x 
x
1
 4
41
1
  2 x  5 
1

2x  5
1
  sin x  
1
✔
sin x

☂ Note that a 1 means "the reciprocal of a ". Keep this in mind – you'll need it
later!

15.2 THE INVERSE OF A FUNCTION

15.2.1 Investigation
Consider the function f ( x)  x  3 . This function adds 3 to every input. The function
"subtract 3 from every input" may be written as g ( x)  x  3 . Since "add" and
"subtract" are "opposite" actions, we say g ( x) is the inverse of f ( x ) .

Activity 15.4
Consider the functions f ( x)  x  3 and g ( x)  x  3 .
a) Sketch the graphs of f ( x ) , g ( x) and the line y  x on one system of axes.
b) Calculate  f g  ( x) and  g f  ( x) .
c) Write down your conclusions about the function f ( x ) and its inverse g ( x) .
SOLUTION
a) The graphs: f and g are two straight lines with the same slope and
different y-intercepts.

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 b) f g  ( x)  f  g ( x)  g f  ( x)  g  f ( x) 
 f ( x  3)  g ( x  3)
 ( x  3)  3  ( x  3)  3
x x

c) Conclusions
i. The graphs of f ( x ) and g ( x) are symmetrical about the line
y  x.
ii. f gg f x ✔

Let's look at p ( x)  3 x : Multiply every input by 3. The "inverse" of "multiply" is

x
"divide". Thus, the inverse of p( x) is the function q ( x)  .
3

Activity 15.5
x
Consider the functions p ( x)  3 x and q ( x)  .
3
a) Sketch the graphs of p( x) , q ( x ) and the line y  x on one system of axes.
b) Calculate  p q  ( x) and  q p  ( x) .
c) Write down your conclusions about the function p( x) and its inverse q ( x ) .
SOLUTION
a) The graphs: Both graphs pass through the origin but have different
slopes.

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 b)  p q  ( x)  p  q ( x)  q p  ( x)  q  p ( x) 
 f( ) x
3  q(3x)
x 3x
 3  
3 3
x x

c) Conclusions
i. The graphs of f ( x ) and g ( x) are symmetrical about the line
y  x.
ii. f gg f x ✔

Have another look at the two activities above.

☂ The composition of each function and its inverse yields the identity function
y  x.

☂ The graphs of each function and its inverse is symmetrical about the line
y  x.

We'll now use those facts to formalize the definition of the inverse of a function.

15.2.2 Inverse functions

DEFINITION
Let f  f ( x ) and g  g ( x) be two functions. If  f g  ( x)  x AND  g f  ( x)  x ,
then g is the inverse of f, and f is the inverse of g.

☂ We have to calculate  f g  ( x) and  g f  ( x) to prove that f and g are

inverse functions.

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NOTATION
The inverse of the function f  f ( x ) is written as f 1 ( x) and read as "f inverse of x".

1
☂ Very important! f 1 ( x)  .
f ( x)

1 1
Usually, f ( x)  f 1 ( x) . Here is an exception: If f ( x)  , then f 1 ( x)  .
x x

FACTS TO REMEMBER
1. Mathematically: f f 1  f 1 f  x .
2. Graphically: f and f 1 are symmetrical about the line y  x .
3. The inverse of an inverse is the original function:  f 1   f .
1

The range of f  f ( x ) becomes the domain of f 1 as depicted in the diagram in

Figure 16. Thus, to calculate the inverse of a function, we may swap x and y in
y  f ( x) so that x  f ( y ) and then solve the "new" y to obtain the expression for the
inverse function.

Figure 16 The domain and range of a

function and its inverse

STEPS TO DETERMINE THE INVERSE

1. Let y  f (x ) .
2. Swap x and y.
3. Solve for y.
4. Check for limitations on x (the domain).
5. Write down f 1 (x ) .
6. Write down the domain of the inverse.

Activity 15.6
Determine the inverse of the function defined by f ( x)  2 x  5 .
SOLUTION
Let y  2 x  5 .
Inverse
Swap x and y:
x  2y 5

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 Solve for y:
x  5  2y
x5
y 
2
This function is valid for all x
x5
 f 1 ( x)  ✔
2

Activity 15.7
Determine the inverse of f ( x)  x3  1 .
SOLUTION
Let y  x3  1
Inverse
x  y3  1
x 1  y3
 y  3 x 1
This function is valid for all x
Figure 17
 f 1 ( x)  3 x  1 ✔

The graph in Figure 17 depicts f ( x)  x3  1 and its inverse. Note the symmetry about
y  x.

Activity 15.8
t
Determine the inverse of p(t )  ; t 1.
t 1
☂ Be careful! There is no x in the function!
SOLUTION
t
Let y 
t 1
Inverse
y
t
y 1
t ( y  1)  y
ty  t  y
t  y  ty
 y (1  t )
t
y  ; t 1
1 t
t
 p 1 (t )  ; t 1 ✔
1 t

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Is the inverse of a function always a function?

15.2.3 When is the inverse a function?

Let's do another activity to answer this question.

Activity 15.9
Consider the function f ( x)  x 2  1 .
a) Calculate f 1 ( x) .
b) Sketch the graph of f and f 1 on one system of axes.
c) Is f 1 ( x) a function? Motivate your answer.
SOLUTION
a) Let y  x 2  1 .
Inverse
x  y2 1
x 1  y2
 y   x 1
But the square root of a negative number is not a real number. Hence
x 1  0 for the inverse and thus x  1.

 f 1 ( x)   x 1; x  1 ✔

☂ Note the  in front of the root sign.

b) The graph of f and its inverse

3
f x

Inverse

2 1 1 2 3

y x

TMA105C: Functions: Inverse functions

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 c) Perform the vertical line test on the graph of 2

f 1 ( x) : The line intercepts the curve twice.

1
Hence, the inverse is NOT a function. ✔
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Perform the horizontal line test on the graph of f ( x ) in the activity above: A
horizontal line intercepts the graph more than once. Thus, f ( x ) is a many-to-one
function.

☂ Only one → one functions have inverse functions!

☂ Invertible function: The inverse of the function exists and is a function.

15.3 APPLICATIONS

APPLICATION 1
You've used inverse functions in the past without, maybe, realizing it!

♘ You now have the knowledge: Quickly sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 for
𝑥 ∈ [−180°; 180°]. Then sketch the graph of its inverse on the same system of
axes. Is the inverse a function?

Activity 15.10
Solve for x if sin x  0.6 .
SOLUTION

You probably used the key on your clever calculator to obtain the
answer:
x  36.9 ✔
The function sin 1 is the inverse of the familiar sine function. We'll return to the
inverse trigonometry functions in a later study unit.

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APPLICATION 2
The graphs in Figure 18 depicts the function
y  2 x and its inverse.

We'll revisit those functions in a later study unit

and show that one is the inverse of the other.

Figure 18 The graphs of y = 2 x and its inverse

Exercise 13
1. Sketch the inverse of the given function on the same set of axes. The dashed
line represents the graph of y  x .
1.1 1.2

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 1.3 1.4

2. Determine the inverse of each of the following functions.

x5
2.1 f ( x)  3x  7 2.2 g ( x) 
3
3x  2 3
2.3 h( x )  2.4 p( x) 
5 x3
t 1
2.5 q(t )  (t  1)3 2.6 k (t )  3
2
t
2.7 f ( x)  3 2  x 2.8 f (t )  ,t  4
t 4
3 y7
2.9 f (s)  2  2 , s  0 2.10 f 1 ( y ) 
s 3
x 1
2.11 u ( x )  3  2 x 2.12 y  , x   12
2x 1

3. Are the following sets of functions inverses? Use the definition of inverse
functions to justify your answer.
2 x x
3.1 f ( x)  ; g ( x) 
x 2 x
t 1
3.2 p(t )  5 ; q(t )  2t 5  1
2

4. Consider the function defined by f ( x)  x 2  2 . Is this function invertible?

Motivate your answer.

5. Determine the inverse of each of the following functions. Clearly state the
domain and range of the function and its inverse.
5.1 f (t )  t  2 5.2 g (t )  t  2

Given: f ( x)  2 x  4 and g ( x)  x2  2 .
2
6.
6.1 Determine f g and g f .
6.2 Is g the inverse of f ? Why?

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7. Use the function f, represented by f ( x)  3 x  2 , to explain the following
statement: "A function and its inverse is symmetrical about the line y  x ."

8. Is the following function invertible? Motivate your answer.

f ( x)  x 3  4 x 2  3x

15.4 INTERACTIVE MATERIAL

From the Wolfram Demonstrations project: Take not of the copyright!
The demos are all available on myTUTor.

 Function Transformations and Inverses by Aori Neyo

 Elementary Transcendental Functions and Their Inverses by Michael
Schreiber

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ANSWERS 15
Exercise 15
1.1 1.2

1.3 1.4

x7
2.1 f 1 ( x )  2.2 g 1 ( x)  3x  5
3
5x  2 3
2.3 h 1 ( x)  2.4 p 1 ( x )   3; x  0
3 x
1
2.5 q (t )  t  1
3
2.6 k 1 (t )  2t 3  1
4t
2.7 f 1 ( x)  2  x3 2.8 f 1 (t )  ,t  1
t 1
3 y7
2.9 f 1 ( s)   ;s  2 2.10 f 1 ( y ) 
2s 3
1 3  x2 1 x
2.11 u ( x)  2.12 f 1 ( y )  ; x  12
2 2x 1
3.1 f g  x  not inverse of each other
3.2 Inverse of each other
4. Not invertible; many-to-one function
5.1 f 1 (t )  (t  2)2 ; Domain  t / t   ; Range   y / y  0; y  
5.2 g (t )  t  2; Domain  t / t 
1 2
; Range   y / y  2; y  

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6.1 f g x; g f x 6.2 Yes
7. Discussion
8. Not invertible; many-to-one function
☃ Use your differentiation knowledge to sketch the
graph!

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16. THE MODULUS FUNCTION

16.1 ABSOLUTE VALUES

16.1.1 The definition
How "far" is 4 from 0 on the number line? What is
the distance between 0 and -4 on the number line?
The answer to both questions is 4, as indicated in Figure 19 How far ...?
Figure 19.

In general, the "distance" from a number to 0 on a number line is called the "absolute
value" of the number. Here are a few examples:
 The absolute value of 4 is 4.
 The absolute value of -4 is 4.
 The absolute value of 7 is 7.
 The absolute value of -3 is 3.
 The absolute value of -101 is 101.
Thus, the absolute value of a number is always the value of the number without its
sign.

DEFINITION
The absolute value or modulus of a real number a, denoted by a , is the numerical
value of the number without its sign.

More examples:
 2  2 and 2  2
 7.6  7.6 and 7.6  7.6
    and   
  2  2 but  2  2

Exercise 16.1.1
1. Simplify the following expressions.
1.1 6  6 1.2 6  6
1.3 3 4 1.4 34
1.5 43 1.6 43
1.7 2 6 1.8 2  (6)

2. Justify your answer in each case with relevant examples.

2.1 Is a  b  a  b for all real values of a and b?

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 2.2 Is a  b  a  b a, b  ? ☂☂☂

16.1.2 Basic equations

We know that 3  3 and 3  3 . Keep this in mind and answer the following
question.

Activity 16.1
Solve for x if x  5 .
SOLUTION
Using intuition: Based on the example above,
x  5 because 5  5 and x  5 because 5  5

Mathematically:
x  5 or x  5  x  5 ✔

The sketch on the left illustrates the solution of

x  5 : The value of a number x that is five units
from 0. Why is the distance measured from 0? Because x  x  0  5 !

How will we determine the solution of x  1  3 graphically?

 The left-hand side of the equation has a 1 instead of a 0.
 Look for all values 3 units from 1.

Activity 16.2
Solve for x if x  1  3 .
SOLUTION
x 1  3 or   x  1  3
x  4 x  1  3
 x  2

 x  2 or x  4 ✔

In general, the solution of ax  b  c is obtained by solving for x in ax  b  c and in

(ax  b)  c .

Activity 16.3
Solve for x if 2 x  1  5 .

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SOLUTION
2x 1  5 or (2 x  1)  5
2x  4 2 x  1  5
x  2 2 x  6
 x  3
 x  3 or x  2 ✔

☂ An absolute value equation must always be in the standard form, which means
there must be a positive value on the right-hand side of the equation.

☂ Why does the solution of x  1  2 not exist? The right-hand side is

negative!

Exercise 16.1.2
Solve the following equations.
1. 2x  3  7 2. t 1  3
3. 2a  1  7 4. 3 n  2
1 x
5. 6  2 x  24 6. 3
2
7. 3x  2  4 8. 4 x  2 8  0 ☂☂☂

16.1.3 Inequalities
An inequality implies that two values are not equal.
 x  y : x is not equal to y
 x  y : x is less than y
 x  y : x is greater than y
 x  y : x is less than or equal to y
 x  y : x is greater than or equal to y

Reminder 1: When you divide by a negative number in an inequality, remember to

change the inequality!
 If  x  3 , then x  3

Reminder 2: 2  x  5 means x  (2;5) and 2  x  5 means x  [2;5] .

Reminder 3: Expressions such as 2  x  3 and 2  x  3 has no meaning.

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Activity 16.4
Solve for x if x  2  3 .
SOLUTION
x23 and ( x  2)  3
x  5 x  2  3
 x  1

1  x  5 ✔

Activity 16.5
Solve for x if 3  x  2 .
SOLUTION
3 x  2 or (3  x)  2
 x  1 3  x  2
x 1 x  5

 x  1 or x  5 ✔

Exercise 16.1.3
Solve the following inequalities.
t
1. 2x  6 2. 3
2
3. 2x  5  1 4. 5  4 x  1
t
5.  3  10 6. 3x  1  4  1
2
7. 3 4x 1  9 8. 5  x 1  9 ☂☂☂

16.2 THE MODULUS FUNCTION

16.2.1 The definition
We now know that 2  2 and 2  2 . Based on this fact, we define a new function,
called the modulus function as follows.

 x if x0
The basic modulus function is defined as f ( x)  x   for all
 x if x0
real values of x.

TMA105C: Functions: Modulus function

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [89]
☂ This is an example of a piecewise defined function because the function is
defined in two "pieces": y  x on the interval x  [0; ) and y   x on the
interval x  (;0) a shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20 The modules function

☂ Sometimes the modulus function is called the absolute value function.

☂ Domain: x ; Range: y  [0; ) .

☂ The modulus function in its basic form f ( x)  x is an even, aperiodic

function.

16.2.2 Transformations
The basic modulus function is given by f ( x)  x . We may "change" the graph of a
modulus function by, for example, flipping it about the x-axis or moving it up by one
unit as shown in Figure 21

Figure 21 Two transformations of the modulus function

TMA105C: Functions: Modulus function

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [90]
The sketch in Figure 21 compares the graphs of y  x  2  1 and y  x . The
minimum point (2;1) of y  x  2  1 is called the salient point or vertex.

Figure 22 A typical translation

The general or standard form of a modulus function is

f ( x)  ax  b  c .

☂ Note the negative sign in the general formula!

b 
☂ The coordinates of the vertex are given by  x; y    ; c  .
a 

b
☂ The graph is symmetrical about the line x  .
a

STEPS TO SKETCH THE GRAPH

1. Write the function in the standard form f ( x)  ax  b  c .
2. Write down the coordinates of the vertex.
3. Draw the line of symmetry through the vertex.
4. Calculate the y-intercept, if any.
5. Calculate the x-intercepts, if any.
6. Sketch the graph by connecting the points and using symmetry and
transformations.

Activity 16.6
Sketch the graph of f ( x)  x  1  3 .

TMA105C: Functions: Modulus function

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [91]
SOLUTION
NOTE: a  1; b  1; c  3
Vertex: ( x; y )  (1;3)
Line of symmetry: x  1
y-intercept:
y  0  1  3  1  3  2
x-intercept:
( x  1)  3  0 or ( x  1)  3  0
x4 x  2
Connect the points. ✔

Activity 16.7
Sketch the graph of g ( x)  2 x  1  1 .
SOLUTION
NOTE: a  2; b  1; c  1
Vertex: ( x; y)  ( 12 ;1)
Line of symmetry: x   12
y-intercept:
y  1 1  2
x-intercepts:
2x 1 1  0
2 x  1  1
No solution
∴ No x-intercepts
Connect the vertex and the y-
intercept, and use symmetry to complete the graph ✔

Exercise 16.2
1. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.
1.1 f ( x)  1  x 1.2 g ( x)  1  x
1.3 p(t )  t  2  3 1.4 q(t )  2t  3  4

2. Consider the function f ( x)  x  1  3 .

2.1 Calculate f (5) and f (5) .
2.2 Determine the intercepts of f ( x ) with the axes.
2.3 Write down the coordinates of the salient point.
2.4 Hence sketch the graph of f ( x ) on the interval  5;5 . ☂☂☂

TMA105C: Functions: Modulus function

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16.3 INTERACTIVE MATERIAL
From the Wolfram Demonstrations project: Take not of the copyright!
The demos are all available on myTUTor.

 Vertex Form of Absolute Value Functions by Abhi Gulati

 Number Line Solutions to Absolute Value Equations and Inequalities by Eric
Schulz and Laura R. Lynch

TMA105C: Functions: Modulus function

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ANSWERS 16
Exercise 16.1.1
1.1 6  6  12 1.2 6  6  0
1.3 3 4 1 1.4 3  4  1
1.5 4 3 1 1.6 4  3 1
1.7 2 6  12 1.8 2  (6)  12
2.1 No 2.2 No

Exercise 16.1.2
1. x  2; x  5 2. t  4; t  2
3. a  4; a  3 4. n  1; n  5
5. x  9; x  15 6. x  5; x  7
7. No solution 8. x  0; x  4

Exercise 16.1.3
1. 3  x  3 2. 6  t  6
3. x  3 or x  2 4. No solution
5. 26  t  14 6. No solution
7. 1  x  1 2 8. 4  x  8 or  8  x  6

Exercise 16.2
1.1 1.2

1.3 1.4

2.1 f (5)  1 and f (5)  3

2.2 y-intercept: y  2 ; x-intercept: x  4; x  2
2.3 (1; 3) 2.4

TMA105C: Functions: Modulus function

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17. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
☞ This is NOT a complete set of notes! You must use Bird to practice the
concepts!

17.1 DEFINITIONS
17.1.1 The three basic trigonometric functions
From the right-angled triangle OAP the three basic trigonometric functions are
defined as follows:
y opposite
 Sine function: sin   
r hypotenuse
x adjacent
 Cosine function: cos   
r hypotenuse
y opposite
 Tangent function: tan   
x adjacent

Also keep in mind that, from Pythagoras' Theorem: In any right-angled triangle the
square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares on the other two sides
 x2  y 2  r 2

17.1.2 The three reciprocals

Recall the reciprocal of a number a is 1 a provided a  0 . Thus, the reciprocal of 4 is
1 3
1 2
4 , and the reciprocal of 3 is  2 . The reciprocals of the three basic trig functions
2
3
are defined as follows:
1 x adjacent
 Cotangent function: cot    
tan  y opposite
1 r hypotenuse
 Secant function: sec    
cos  x adjacent
1 r hypotenuse
 Cosecant function: csc    
sin  y adjacent

NOTE: In older textbooks (including Bird!) and notes the abbreviation cosec  was
used for the reciprocal of sin  . Lately this was changed to csc because:
 Only three letters were used in the abbreviations of the other five functions; it
thus made sense to use only three letters for cosecant as well.
 Programs running in the background in mathematical software such as
Mathematica and word processing such as the equations editor in Word were
simplified when all the names were three characters long.

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [95]
Evaluate reciprocal trig functions using your calculator:
sin 23  0.3907  csc 23  sin123  2.5593  2.559
cos97  0.1218  sec97  cos97
1
  8.2055  8.206
tan 263  8.1443  cot 263  1
tan 263  0.1227  0.123

NOTES
 Use the x 1 key on your calculator!!!!
 Note that rounding takes place in the last step only.

NB! DON'T round off the value of sin 23  0.3907  0.391 and then determine
1
the inverse 0.391  2.5575  2.558 - this answer is INCORRECT!!!!!!

1 1
NB! Remember, sin 1 x  since  csc x
sin x sin x

17.2 PROPERTIES AND GRAPHS OF THE SIX TRIG FUNCTIONS

17.2.1 Reminders
 Recall an asymptote is a line a curve approaches at infinity.
o The line x   2 is an asymptote of f ( x)  tan x .
o tan 2 is thus undefined.
 A function is periodic if it repeats itself at regular intervals.
o The six trig functions are periodic.
o The inverse trig functions are NOT periodic.
 A function is continuous if its graph has no jumps or breaks.
o The sine and cosine functions are continuous.
o The tangent function and the three reciprocal functions are piecewise
continuous since there are "jumps" in their graphs.
 Remember the difference between an even and an odd function.

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

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  For an even function:
o The graph is symmetrical about the vertical axis
o f ( x)  f ( x)
o Example: y  cos t
 For an odd function:
o The graph is symmetrical about the origin
o f ( x)   f ( x)
o Example: y  sin t
 There are also several functions which are neither even nor odd.
o Example: y  (t  3)3

☂ You must be able to sketch and/or identify the graph of the sin, cos and tan
functions.

☂ You must be able to sketch and/or identify the graph of the sec, csc and cot
functions.

❢ The x-axes in the graphs below display arguments in radians, while the
domain, range and asymptotes are in degrees. This was done on purpose –
practice your conversion skills!

17.2.2 Sine and cosecant

Function Reciprocal Graph

Name sine cosecant
Definition y 1
sin   csc  
r sin 
r

y
Domain (, ) x  0; 180;
 360;
Range [ 1;1] (; 1]  [1; )
Period 360 / 2 360 / 2
Even/odd Odd Odd
Asymptotes None 0; 180;
 360;
Continuity Continuous Piecewise
continuous

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

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 17.2.3 Cosine and secant
Function Reciprocal Graph
Name cosine secant
Definition x 1
cos   sec  
r cos 
r

x
Domain (, ) x  90;
 270;
Range [ 1;1] (; 1]  [1; )
Period 360 / 2 360 / 2
Even/odd Even Even
Asymptotes None 90;
 270;
Continuity Continuous Piecewise
continuous

17.2.4 Tangent and cotangent

Function Reciprocal Graph
Name tangent cotangent
Definition y 1
tan   cot  
x tan 
x

y
Domain x  90; x  0; 180;
 270;  360;
Range (; ) (; )
Period 180 /  180 / 
Even/odd Odd Odd
Asymptotes 90; 0; 180;
 270;  360;
Continuity Piecewise Piecewise
continuous continuous

17.3 SPECIAL ANGLES

It is worthwhile to memorize the values of the trig functions below. You should
already know them!

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [98]
 0 30 45 60 90

0 rad  /6  /4  /3  /2
sin  0 1
2
1
2 2
3 1
csc Undefined 2 2
2
3
1
cos 1
2
3 1
2
1
2
0
sec 1 2
3 2 2 Undefined
tan  0 1
3
1 3 Undefined
cot  Undefined 3 1 1
3
0

17.4 Identities
You should be able to prove these identities. You should also be able to apply the
identities to simplify trig expressions and/or solve trig equations.

17.4.1 Basic identities

cos 2 x  sin 2 x  1 cos 2 x  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
1  tan 2 x  sec 2 x 1  cot 2 x  csc2 x
sin( x)   sin x cos( x)  cos x
sin x cos x 1
tan x  cot x  
cos x sin x tan x
1 1
sec x  csc x 
cos x sin x

17.4.2 Compound angles

sin( x  y )  sin x cos y  cos x sin y
cos( x  y )  cos x cos y sin x sin y
tan x  tan y
tan( x  y ) 
1 tan x tan y

17.4.3 Double angles

2 tan x
sin 2x  2sin x cos x tan 2 x 
1  tan 2 x

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [99]
 cos 2 x  cos 2 x  sin 2 x
 2 cos 2 x  1
 1  2sin 2 x

17.5 TRIG EQUATIONS

 Always simplify an equation before you solve it!
 If, for example, sin 2 x  a where a  [1,1] , then sin x   a .
 Keep the specified domain in mind when solving a trig equation!
 sin x  0.5, x  [0,360] means the solution MUST be in degrees.
o x  30 or x  180  30  150
 cos x  0.5, x  [0, 2 ] means the solution MUST be in radians
2 4
o x or x 
3 3

17.6 INVERSE TRIG FUNCTIONS

17.6.1 Reminder
The inverse of a function y  f ( x) , denoted by f 1 ( x) , is a function such that
x 1
x  f ( y ) . For example, if f ( x)  2 x  1 , then f 1 ( x)  .
2
To determine the inverse of f ( x)  sin x :
o Let y  sin x
o Swap y and x: x  sin y
o Closely study the two curves in the sketch. Which one DOES
NOT represent a function? Why?
 x  sin y
 A vertical line will intercept the solid curve more than
once.
 For x  sin y to be a function we must limit its range to  2  y  2 .

NOTES
* "Reciprocal" and "inverse" are NOT synonymous in this context!!
1 1
* Remember: sin 1 x  since  csc x !
sin x sin x
* A function and its inverse are always symmetrical about the line y  x .

☂ You must be able to sketch and/or identify the graph of the inverse sin, inverse
cos and inverse tan functions.

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [100]
☂ You must be able to identify the graph of the inverse secant, inverse cosecant
and inverse cotangent functions.

17.6.2 The inverse of sine

Properties Graph
Name Inverse sine or
arcsin
Definition y  sin 1 x
 x  sin y
Domain 1  x  1
Range  
  y
2 2
Asymptote None
Even/odd Odd

17.6.3 The inverse of cosine

Properties Graph
Name Inverse cosine
or arccos
Definition y  cos 1 x
 x  cos y
Domain 1  x  1
Range 0 y 
Asymptote None
Even/odd Neither

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [101]
17.6.4 The inverse of tangent

Properties Graph
Name Inverse tangent
or arctan
Definition y  tan 1 x
 x  tan y
Domain All real
numbers
Range  
  y
2 2
Asymptote 
y
2
Even/odd Odd

17.6.5 The inverse of cotangent (enrichment only)

Properties Graph
Name Inverse
cotangent or
arccot
Definition y  cot 1 x
 x  cot y
Domain x  (;0) and
x  [0; )
Range 0 y 
Asymptote y0
NOTE 
cot 1 0 
2
Even/odd Odd

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [102]
17.6.6 The inverse of secant (enrichment only)

Properties Graph
Name Inverse secant
or arcsec
Definition y  sec 1 x
 x  sec y
Domain x  1 or x  1
Range 
0  y  or
2

 y 
2
Asymptote 
y
2
NOTE Undefined for
1  x  1
Even/odd Odd

17.6.7 The inverse of cosecant (enrichment only)

Properties Graph
Name Inverse
cosecant or
arccsc
Definition y  csc 1 x
 x  csc y
Domain x  1 or x  1
Range 
  y  0 or
2

0 y
2
Asymptote y0
NOTE Undefined for
x  ( 1;1)
Even/odd Odd

17.6.8 On the calculator

☂ NOTE: Is your calculator in radian or degree mode?

QUESTION
1 1
We know that cot x  . May we thus conclude that cot 1 x  ? NO!
tan x tan 1 x

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [103]
PROOF
Let
y  cot 1 x .
Then, from the definition,
x  cot y
so that
1 1

x cot y
 tan y
Thus,
1
y  tan 1  
 x
Therefor
1
cot 1 x  tan 1   ✔
x

Similarly:
1
sec 1 x  cos 1  
x
1
csc 1 x  sin 1  
x

☀ Don't round off sin 23  0.3907  0.391 and then determine the inverse
1
 2.5575  2.558 . This answer is WRONG!!!!
0.391

EXAMPLES
Do you agree with the following? Use your calculator!
 tan 1 0.5  26.6
 cos 1 0.5  60
 sec 1 0.5 gives an error message; the function is undefined for 0.5
 csc 1 1.5  41.8
 sin 1 0.3  0.3
 cot 1 1.5  0.59

☞ NOTE: The smallest possible angle is called the principle value.

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

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17.7 APPLICATIONS
7.1 Solve triangles
Let ABC be any triangle. See the sketch for naming the sides.

17.7.1.1 The sine rule

The rule
a b c
 
sin A sin B sin C

Use when:
 Two sides and an angle opposite one of those sides are given
 One side and two angles are given

17.7.1.2 The cosine rule (law of cosines)

The rule
b2  c2  a 2
a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos A  cos A 
2bc
a  c2  b2
2
b 2  a 2  c 2  2ac cos B  cos B 
2ac
a  b2  c2
2
c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos C  cos C 
2ab

Use when:
 Two sides and the included angle are given
 Three sides are given

7.1.3 Which rule to use?

Yes No
Is the triangle
right-angled?

Does the question involve Do you know a side and

Yes any angles? its opposite angle?
No Yes No

Use the trig

rations (sin, cos, Use Pyhagoras Use the sine rule Use the cos rule
tan)

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

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17.7.1.4 The area rule
area ABC  12 (base)(perpendicular height)
abc
A  s( s  a)( s  b) Ss  c) where s 
2
A  12 ab sin C
A  12 bc sin A
A  12 ac sin B

17.8 TRANSFORMATIONS
Consider the function y  a sin(bx  c)  d .
 a: Changes the amplitude to a
o Amplitude of y  sin t is 1
o Amplitude of y  2sin t is 2
o Amplitude of y  12 sin t is 0.5

 b: Changes the period

o Period of y  sin t is 2
2
o Period of y  sin 3t is
3
2
o Period of y  sin 2t is  4
1
2

 c: Shifts the graph c units to the right if b  1

o y  sin t passes through (0, 0)
o y  sin  t  3  : Shifts 
3 to the right
o y  sin  t  5  : Shifts 
5 to the left

 d: Shifts the graph d units up

o y  sin t passes through (0, 0)
o y  sin t  1 : Shifts 1 up

TMA105C: Functions: Trigonometric functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [106]
 o y  sin t  12 : Shifts 0.5 down

☞ The next application, sinusoids, is so important for engineers, we discuss it in

a separate study unit.

17.9 APPLICATIONS IN LATER COURSES

 The sinusoid f (t )  A cos(t   ) , a function in the time domain is associated
with the phasor F  Ae j , a function in the frequency domain.
 The simple harmonic motion of, for example, a swinging pendulum is written
in the form of a sinusoid.
 The Fourier series of a function is expressed as a combination of sinusoids.

Practise using Bird

 Pythagoras, pp 213 – 214
o Practice Exercise 91, pp 214 – 215
 Trig ratios, pp 215 – 222
o Practice Exercise 92, pp 216 – 217
o Practice Exercise 93, p 218
o Practice Exercise 94, pp 221 – 222
 Right-angled triangle, pp 222 – 223
o Practice Exercise 95, p 223
 Graphs, pp 226 – 237
o Practice Exercise 97, p 229
o Practice Exercise 98, pp 233 – 234
o Practice Exercise 99, p 236
 Solving triangles, pp 244 – 253
o Practice Exercise 102, pp 246 – 247
o Practice Exercise 103, p 248
o Practice Exercise 104, p 250
o Practice Exercise 105, pp 252 – 253
 Identities, pp 254 – 256
o Practice Exercise 106, p 256
 Trig equations, pp 256 – 260
o Practice Exercise 107, p 258
o Practice Exercise 108, p 258 – 259

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 o Practice Exercise 109, p 259
o Practice Exercise 110, p 260
 Compound angles, pp 261 – 270
o Practice Exercise 111, p 263
o Practice Exercise 112, pp 266 – 267
o Practice Exercise 113, p 268
o Practice Exercise 114, p 269
o Practice Exercise 115, p 270
 Revision tests, pp 271 – 276
 Inverse trig functions, pp 327 – 328
o Practice Exercise 129, p 328, #5 – 13

Exercise 17.1
1. Sketch the following pairs of graphs on one system of axes on the interval
indicated.
1.1 f ( x)  2sin x; g ( x)  sin 2 x; x  [  ;  ]
1.2 p( x)  cos x; q( x)  cos( x  4 ); x  [0; 2 ]

2. Solve for x if x  [0; 2 ] and

2.1 sin x  0.356 2.2 cos x  0.513
2.3 2tan x  0.5

3. Use a calculator to evaluate the following. Round answers off to three decimal
places where necessary.
3.1 2sec3 1120  1 3.2 2sec104.50 co sec104.50

4. Use a calculator to determine, accurately to one decimal place, the values of

x  00 ; 3600  if:
4.1 cot x  1.664  0 4.2 3sec x  5.103  0

2
4.3 sec x  1.544  0
3

Exercise 17.2
1. Simplify the following expressions:
1.1 sin  .cot  .sec 1.2 sec  .cos   tan 2 
cos 
1.3 sin x.sec x 1.4 1
sec 

1.5 cot 2 A sec2 A  1  1.6
1

1
csc A  1 csc A  1

2. Prove the following identities:

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 2.1 tan A.cosec 2 A cos 2 A  cot A
2.2 sec 2  .cot 2   1  cot 2 
2.3 1  sin  1  tan    1
2 2

sin   cos    1  2sin  .cos 

2
2.4
2.5 sin x  cos x  sin 2 x  cos 2 x
4 4

2.6 sin 3 A  cos3 A  (sin A  cos A) 1  sin A.cos A

3. Use a calculator to evaluate the following. Round answers off to three decimal
places where necessary.
3.1 2sec3 1120  1 3.2 2sec104.50 cosec 104.50

4. Use a calculator to determine, accurately to one decimal place, the values of

x  00 ; 3600  if:
4.1 cot x  1.664  0 4.2 3sec x  5.103  0
2
4.3 sec x  1.544  0
3

 
5. Suppose the equation y  6 cos  t  models a buoy bobbing up and down in
3 
water. The equilibrium point is y = 0. Describe the location of the buoy when
t  0.

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Exercise 17.3
INSTRUCTIONS
 Solve each of the trig equations on the interval indicated.
 If there is no solution, clearly explain why a solution doesn't exist.

1. Determine the two smallest positive values of x that will satisfy the following
equations. Express the answers in terms of  .
1.1 2sin x 1  0 1.2 cos x  2   cos x
1.3 sin(3x   )  0 1.4 sin3x  1
1.5 tan 4x  1 1.6 cot x  3  0
1.7 4sec x  2  3 1.8 cot x  cos x

2. Solve the following equations for x  [0; 2 ] . Express the answers in terms of
𝜋.
2.1 tan 2 x  1 2.2 3 tan 2 x  1  0
2.3 cot x cos 2 x  2 cot x 2.4 2sin 2 x  sin x  1
2.5 2sin 2 x  3cos x  3  0 2.6 3cot 2 x  1  0
2.7 csc 2 x  csc x  2  0 2.8 2 cos 2 x  cos x  0
2.9 2 cos 2 x  5cos x  3 2.10 cos3 x  cos x
2.11 cos 2 x  1  sin x 2.12 4 cos 2 x  1  0
2.13 4sin x  5  6
2

3. Solve for x on the interval indicated.

3.1 3 tan 2 x  0; x [0;2 ) 3.2 cos  x  0.5; x  [0; 2)
 x
3.3 sin    1  0; x  [0; 4 ) 3.4 cos x  1  sin 2 x; x  [0;  ]
2
3.5 sec x csc x  2csc x; x  [ 2 ; 2 ]
3.6 tan x csc x  2 tan x  0; x  [0;  ]
3.7 sec x  2 cos x; x  [0;  ]
3.8 sin 2 x   cos 2 x; x  [0;  ]
3.9 sin x  sin 2 x  0; x  [0;  ]

4. Solve for x on the interval indicated. Give all answers accurately to two
decimal places.
4.1 sec2 x  2 tan x  4; x  [0; 2 ]
1
4.2 tan x  2  ; x  [0;  ]
tan x  2

5. Solve the following equations for x  [0; 2 ] .

5.1 2sin 2 x  sin x  1 5.2 2 cos 2 x  3cos x  0

6. Solve the following trigonometric equation: 2 sin  tan   0 where

  0;  . Give your answer accurately to three decimal places.

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ANSWERS 17
Exercise 17.1
1.1 1.2

qx  cosx  
1.0
2 y
y 0.8
4
fx  2 sinx
gx  sin2x 0.6

1 0.4

0.2  5
2 4
0.0
 3 2
 -  2   -0.2 4 2
x
2 x
-0.4

-1 -0.6

-0.8 px  cos x

-1.0
-2

2.1 3.506; 5.919 2.2 2.109; 4.174

2.3 2.897; 6.038
3.1 -39.046 3.2 -8.252
4.1 149.00 or 329.000 4.2 54.00 or 306.00
4.3 117.60 or 244.40

Exercise 17.2
1.1 1 1.2 sec 2 
1.3 tan x 1.4  sin 2 
1.5 1 1.6 2tan Asec A
3.1 -39.0 3.2 -8.3
4.1 149.00 or 329.00 4.2 54.00 or 306.00
4.3 117.60 or 244.40 5. 6 units below the equilibrium point.

Exercise 17.3
1.1 x  7 ; x  11 1.2 x  3 ; x  5
6 6 4 4
1.3 x   ; x  2 1.4 x   ; x  7
3 3 2 6
1.5 x  5 ; x  7 1.6 x   ; x  7
16 16 6 6
1.7 No solution 1.8 x   ; x  3
2 2
2.1 No solution 2.2 x  5 ; x  7 ; x  11
6 6 6
2.3 x   ; x  3 2.4 x   ; x  7 ; x  11
2 2 2 6 6
2.5 x  0; x   ; x  5 ; x  2
3 3
2.6 x   ; x  2 ; x  4 ; x  5
3 3 3 3
2.7 x   ; x  2 ; x  5
6 3 6
2.8 x   ; x  3 ; x  2 ; x  4
2 2 3 3
2.9 x  2 ; x  4
3 3
2.10 x  0; x   ; x   ; x  3 ; x  2
2 2

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2.11 x  0; x   ; x   ; x  2
2
2.12 x  ; x  2 ; x  4 ; x  5
3 3 3 3
2.13 x  ;x  5 ;x  7 ;x  11
6 6 7 6
3.1 x  0; x   ;x  ;x  3 3.2 x  1 ;x  2
2 2 3 3
3.3 x  3.4 x0
3.5 x   ; x   3.6 x  0; x   ; x  5 ; x  
3 3 6 6
3.7 x   ; x  3 3.8 x  3 ; x  7
4 4 8 8
3.9 x  0; x   ; x  
3
4.1 x  1.25; x  2.36; x  4.39; x  5.50
4.2 x  1.05; x  2.09; x  4.19; x  5.50
5. x  0; x  2 ; x  
3

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18. SINUSOIDS

18.1 INTRODUCTION

Does the graph on the left represent sin x , cos x or

sin x  cos x ? It could be either one of them, depending on
the placement of the axes! Curves such as those, which
looks like waves, are called sinusoids. Sinusoids are
sometimes called trigonometric wave forms because their
graphs looks like waves.

We see many applications of sinusoids in real life. Here are a few examples; see if
you can identify more.
 An oscilloscope is used to display varying signal voltages in two dimensions;
take note of the sinusoid next time you "read" an oscilloscope.
 Simple harmonic motion, described by, inter alia, an oscillating spring-mass
system and a swinging pendulum, is graphically represented by sinusoids; see
the interactive demos at the end of this study unit.
 Run your wet finger around the rim of a wineglass. The resulting "singing" is
caused by the vibrations of the glass and approximates a pure sine wave.
 As a first approximation, a speech signal S may be represented by the sum of
L
a number of small sinusoids1 in the form S [n]   At [n]cos t [n] where
n 1

At [n] represents the time-varying amplitude of the nth sinusoidal component

and t [n] the component's phase.

8.2 TERMINOLOGY
The mathematical function called a sinusoid describes a repetitive oscillation with a
constant amplitude, period and phase.

The general equation of a sinusoid has the form

y  A sin( t   )  d .
The equation may also be written as a cosine function
y  A cos( t   )  d
since, for any x, cos x  sin( x  2 ) .


1
Applications of Sinusoidal Modeling to Speech and Audio Signal Processing by Michael W. Macon,
accessed on 20 January 2020 at
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bebd/e15ce835dc5bf27faf38c1474a3d3f7dc196.pdf

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The amplitude of a sinusoid may be defined as the
maximum deviation from its centre; see Figure 23.
The value of A in the general equation represents the
amplitude of the sinusoid.

The unit of A depends on the dependent variable. Here are

two examples:
 Consider i(t )  2.7sin  t   9  where i represents Figure 23 The amplitude of a sinusoid
current mA at time t.
o Then the unit of A is mA because sin  t   9  is a number.
 Let x(t )  1.1sin  2t   3  be the vertical displacement of a mass connected to
a spring. Assume x is measured in centimetres.
o The unit of A is then cm.

Figure 24 depicts the sinusoid y  2sin  x   4  .

Here A  2 .
 The magnitude A  2 represents the
deviation from the horizontal axis.
 Because of the negative sign of A, the curve
first go down to its minimum value and the
up to its maximum value.
Figure 24 The sinusoid 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛൫𝑥 + 𝜋ൗ4൯

The symbol  represents the angular velocity and

specifies the number of complete oscillations in a unit time interval.
  is sometimes called the angular frequency.
 If the independent variable (x in this case) is measured in seconds, then the
unit of  is radians per second, that is, rad/s.

The symbol  in the general equation depicts the phase angle of the sinusoid.
  is also called the phase shift or phase.
 When x is measured in seconds,  is measured in radians.
  represents the lead or lag of the sinusoid compared to y  A sin t
o The lead or lag time   is called the time displacement.
o We'll return to these concepts later.

The period T of a sinusoid refers to the time taken to complete one complete cycle of
the sinusoid.
2
 T seconds


The number of cycles in one second is called the frequency of the sinusoid and
denoted by f.
 1
 f   Hz    2f
2 T

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The d in the general formula represents vertical shift
and determines the equilibrium position, that is, the
line about which the curve oscillates. Figure 25 shows
the graph of f ( x)  sin x  1 . Note how the curve
oscillates about the dashed line d  1 .

We use these facts to determine the equation of a

sinusoid.

Figure 25 The equilibrium position

Activity 18.1
Determine the equation of the sinusoid in the sketch.
SOLUTION
Equilibrium:
Oscillate about y  0
d  0
Amplitude:
Maximum at 2; minimum at -2
A 2
Value of 𝜔:
One complete cycle fit in on the interval
0; 2  ; see the arrow in the sketch.
Thus,
T  2
2
 
2
1
Value of 𝛼:
The curve intercepts the horizontal axis at 
4  shift to the right
Thus,    4
The equation of the sinusoid
y  sin(t   4 ) ✔

Exercise 18.1

1. Determine the amplitude, angular velocity, phase, period and frequency of

each of the following sinusoids. Assume t represents time measured in second.
 t 3
1.1 y  sin  2t  3 1.2 y  1.1sin   
 10  

2. The voltage output V (in volts) at time t (in seconds) of an electric generator
varies according to the equation
V  220sin 120 t  3 
Determine
2.1 the amplitude,
2.2 the period,

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 2.3 the frequency and
2.4 the phase angle of the voltage.

3. Consider the function defined by q(t )  3cos  t   4  .

3.1 Write the function in the form y  A sin t    .
3.2 Hence analyze the function.
HINT: Give all the properties you can deduce from the formula.

 
4. Consider the function y  2sin   x  1  .
 2 
4.1 What is the period of this function?
4.2 Calculate the two smallest positive values of x such that y  0 . ☂☂☂

18.3 TRANSFORMATIONS
18.3.1 Revision
Before we revise transformations, let's look at a useful trig identity.

Activity 18.2
Simplify sin  x  2  .
SOLUTION
From the identity for compound angles, sin  x  y   sin x cos y  sin y cos x
we have
sin  x  2   sin x cos 2  sin 2 cos x
0 1

 cos x ✔
Both sine and cosine functions are sinusoids.

❢ Keep in mind that cos x  sin( x  2 ) and sin x  cos( x  2 ) .

☃ The general formula for a sinusoid is defined as a function of t where t

represents time. It may also be a function of displacement x, or any other
suitable variable as determined by the application.

The general formula for a sinusoid is y  A sin( t   )  d . How does the constants
A, 𝜔, 𝛼 and d change the graph of the sinusoid? Let's revise transformations of the
sine function.

The solid line in the figures represent the basic sine function y  sin t .

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18.3.2 The role of A
The equilibrium position or centre refers to the axis about which the sinusoid
oscillates. Its value is halfway between the minimum and maximum values of the
sinusoid.

Compare the three graphs shown in Figure 26.

 A  2 doubles the amplitude of the
basic sine function.
 A  0.5 halves the amplitude.
 When A is negative, the standard curve
is reflected about the horizontal axis.
 The value A depicts the vertical
stretch or amplitude of the function.
 The intercepts with the horizontal
axes, the period and the equilibrium
position is the same for all values of A. Figure 26 The role of the value of A

Conclusions
 A , the magnitude of A, determines the amplitude of the sinusoid.
 When A is negative, the graph is reflected about the equilibrium axis.

18.2.3 The role of 𝝎

Consider the three curves in Figure 27Figure 27.
 For 𝜔 = 0.5, the basic sine graph is
stretched horizontally.
o The period of the function is doubled
to 4𝜋.
 If 𝜔 = 2, the basic sine graph is compressed
horizontally.
o The period of the function is halved
to 𝜋.
 The amplitude and equilibrium are the same
for all three functions. Figure 27 The role of 𝜔

Conclusions
 The value of 𝜔 changes the period T of the function, according to   2
T .
 When 𝜔 increases, the period decreases, and vice versa.

18.2.4 The role of d

The graph in Figure 28 depicts the influence of d on the graph of the sinusoid.

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  The value of d determines the vertical shift
and hence the equilibrium position of the
sinusoid.
o d  0  a shift of d units down
o d  0  a shift of d units up
 The amplitude, period and intercepts with
the horizontal axes remain the same for all
graphs.
Figure 28 The role of d

Conclusion
 The value of d determines the equilibrium position of the sinusoid.

18.2.5 The role of 𝜶

Careful analysis of Figure 29 reveals the
following.
 sin  t   3  shifted the graph of sint

3 units to the left.

o Keep in mind that t   3  t     3 

 sin  t   6  shifted the graph of sint

6 units to the right.

 The amplitude, period and equilibrium

position remain the same for all graphs.
Figure 29 The role of 𝛼
Conclusion
 The value of 𝛼 determines the horizontal shift.
 If 𝛼 is negative, the shift is to the left, e.g. t  ( 4 )  t  4
 If 𝛼 is positive, the shift is to the right, e.g. t  ( 4 )  t  4

18.2.6 Lead and lag time

In the previous section we saw that the 𝛼 in the general equation determines a
horizontal shift in the graph. In the two examples in Figure 29,   1 . How do we
determine the horizontal shift if   1 ?

 represents the value of the so-called time displacement. The sign of 

 

determines whether the sinusoid leads or lags the standard sine function.

Let's compare two sinusoids (dashed lines) to basic sine function f (t )  sin 2t , the
solid line in the sketches:

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Equation    
g (t )  sin  2t   h(t )  sin  2t  
 3  3
Graph

Time displacement  3   3 
  to the left   to the right
 2 6  2 6
Explanation: Moving … the dashed line reaches a … the dashed line reaches a
from left to right maximum before the solid line maximum after the solid line
along the horizontal ⇒ g (t ) leads f (t ) by  6 ⇒ g (t ) lags f (t ) by  6
axis, …
In general, … A sin(t   ) leads A sin(t ) by A sin(t   ) lags A sin(t ) by 




Exercise 18.2
1. Use trig identities to prove that sin x  cos( x  2 ) .

2. Write down a function with the given amplitude, period, phase shift and
vertical shift.
2.1 A  1.5, T  4 ,    2 , d  10
2.2 A  0.5, T   3 ,     3 , d  5

3. Each of the graphs depicts a sinusoid. Determine the equation of the following
sinusoids in the form y  A sin t     d .
3.1

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 3.2

3.3

4. The graph represents a sinusoid with

frequency f  2.5 Hz and    4 .
4.1 What is the period of the
sinusoid?
4.2 What is the angular frequency?
4.3 What is the time displacement
when compared to the basic sine
function with the same
frequency?
4.4 Write down the amplitude of the
sinusoid.
4.5 Write down the equation of the sinusoid in the form y  A sin t    .
4.6 Determine three intercepts of the graph with the horizontal axis.
☂ ☂☂

18.4 SKETCHING SINUSOUDS

To determine the intercepts with the horizontal axis, recall that
sin x  0  x  n n  .

To sketch the graph of a sinusoid in the form y  A sin t    we may do it in steps.
1. Calculate the three intercepts with the horizontal axis.
 Calculate the intercepts by solving sin t     0 , that is, solve for t
t    0; t     ; t    2

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 2. Use the intercepts to set up the axes and mark the intercepts.
 Remember to label the axes!
3. Mark the maximum and minimum values of the function halfway between the
intercepts.
 Maximum   A and minimum   A
4. Connect the points with a smooth sine curve.

☂ "Sketch" in this context is NOT an accurate graph. However, the sketch must
show the general shape of the sinusoid, the intercepts with the horizontal axis
and the amplitude.

Activity 18.2
Sketch one cycle of the graph of y(t )  2sin  3t  4  .
SOLUTION
Intercepts: 2sin  3t  4   0
 3t  4  0
or
 t  12
 3t  4  2
 t  912  34
A  2  maximum value = 2 and
minimum value = -2.
See the graph in Figure 30. ✔ Figure 30 The sketch of the sinusoid

Exercise 18.3
1. Sketch one cycle of each of the following sinusoids.
1.1 y  sin  2t  3 4  1.2 y   sin   30 
1.3 y  5sin  t   3  1.4 y  sin 2   30
1.5 y  5sin  3t   4  1.6 y  3sin  t   4 
1.7 y  3sin  2t   4  1.8 y  5sin  3t   3 

2. Given: f (t )  2sin  t  4  .
2.1 Write down each of the following properties of the sinusoid.
2.1.1 The amplitude
2.1.2 The angular velocity
2.1.3 The phase shift
2.1.4 The period
2.1.5 The frequency
2.2 Does the function lead or lag g (t )  2sin t ? Motivate your answer.
2.3 Sketch one cycle of the graph of f (t ) .
2.4 Calculate the time displacement between f (t ) and

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 2.4.1 the function q(t )  2sin  t  3  and
2.4.2 the function q(t )  2sin  t  23  .
2.5 Is f (t ) even, odd or neither? Motivate your answer.

3. An alternating current has a period of 25 ms and a maximum value of 30

ampere. At time t  0 , the current is -10 A. Express the current i  i (t ) in the
form i  R sin t    .

 
4. A function f is defined by f  t   sin  2t   , where t is in seconds and
 4
f  t  in centimetres.
4.1 Sketch ONE complete cycle of this oscillating function. Indicate the
intercepts with the t-axis as multiples of  .
4.2 Through how many cycles does the function go in one second (1 s)?
 
4.3 What is the time displacement between f  t   sin  2t   and
 4
 
g  t   sin  2t   ?
 5

5. The temperature, in 0C, of a room varies according to the sinusoidal function

 
T (t )  5.8sin  (t  11)  .
12 
5.1 Determine: (using the S.I. units)
5.1.1 the amplitude
5.1.2 the period
5.1.3 the frequency and
5.1.4 the time displacement of the wave, stating whether it is a lead
or lag time.
5.2 Sketch one cycle of the graph of T(t). ☂☂☂

18.5 COMBINING TRIG FUNCTIONS

The combination of a sine and cosine function with the same frequency is always a
sinusoid.

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☞ The case where the frequencies are
different is beyond the scope of this course.
See the graph in Figure 31 as an example
of the combination of sinusoids with
different frequencies.

Figure 31 Sinusoids with different frequencies

The general formula to combine two sinusoids a cos t  and b sin t  is
a cos(t )  b sin(t )  A cos(t   )
where A  a 2  b2 and   tan 1  ba  .

❢ NB! Draw a sketch to determine in which quadrant  is!

 3   3 
 tan 1    tan 1    0.983 but in the first case 𝛽 is in the 4th
 2   2 
quadtant, while for the second 𝛽 is in the 2nd quadrant. See Figure
32.

b/y

𝑎<0 𝑎>0
𝑏>0 𝑏>0

a/x
𝑎<0 𝑎>0
𝑏<0 𝑏<0

Figure 32 The signs of a and b in the quadrants

☃ NB! The a is always the coefficient of cos(t ) ; b is the coefficient of sin(t )

Activity 18.3
Write 5sin(2t )  3cos(2t ) in the form A cos t    where t represents time in
seconds.
SOLUTION
Given:   2 ; a  3 and b  5   in the second quadrant
A  (3)2  52  34

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 5
 ref  tan 1    1.03037
  3
     1.03037  2.111
 5sin(2t )  3cos(2t )  34 cos  2t  2.111 ✔

Exercise 18.4
Always use the principal value of 𝛽 in this exercise.

1. Express each of the following in the form f (t )  R cos t    where t

represents time.
1.1 f (t )  2 cos t  3sin t 1.2 f (t )  5cos t  8sin t

2. Express each of the following in the form g ( x)  R cos  x    with  in

degrees.
2.1 g ( x)   cos x  sin x 2.2 g ( x)  2sin 3 x  5cos 3 x
2.3 g ( )  8sin 2  5cos 2 2.4 g ( )  3 cos   sin 

3. Show that  3 cos t  sin t  2 cos  t  56  .

t t
4. Write p (t )  7 cos    3sin   in the form R cos(t   ) where
2 2
     . Round off your answers to 2 decimal places. ☂☂☂

18.7 INTERACTIVE DEMOS

 Elementary Transformations of a Sine Wave Quiz by Izidor Hafner

 Induction of a Sinusoidal Magnetic Field within a Coil by Y Shibuya
 Dynamics of a Double Spring Mass by Stephen Wilkerson
 Free Vibrations of a Spring-Mass-Damper System by Stephen Wilkerson
 Effect of Gravity on a Simple Pendulum by Julia Cai and Melinda Coleman

Practise using Bird

Practice Exercise 97, p 229
Practice Exercise 98, pp 233 – 234
Practice Exercise 99, p 236
Revision Test 6, p 243, # 8

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ANSWERS 18
Exercise 18.1
1. See the properties of the sinusoids in the table.
 t 3
Property 1.1 y  sin  2t  3 1.2 y  1.1sin   
 10  
Amplitude 1 1.1
Angular velocity 2 1
10

Phase 3  3
Period 2
2  2
1
10
 20
Frequency 1

1
20

1
2.1 220 V 2.2 60 s

2.3 60 Hz 2.4 3

3.1 y  3sin  t  3 4 
3.2 A  3;   1;    3 4 ; T  2 ; f  1
2;d 0
4.1 4 4.2 1; 3

Exercise 18.2
1. Proof 2.1 y  1.5sin  2t  2   10
2.2 y  0.5sin  6t  3   5 3.1 y  2sin  t  4 
3.2 y  2sin 2t  2 3.3 y   sin  2t   8 
4.1 0.4 s 4.2 5
4.3 Lead by 1
20 4.4 10
4.5 y  10sin  5 t   4  4.6  1 20 ; 0.15; 0.35

Exercise 18.3
1. Sketch one cycle of each of the following sinusoids.
1.1 1.2

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1.3 1.4

1.5 1.6

1.7 1.8

2.1.1 2 2.1.2 1
2.1.3  4 2.1.4 2
2.1.5 1 2 2.2 Lag
2.3 2.4.1 7
12

2.4.2  512 2.5 Neither

3. i  30sin  225 t  0.3399  4.1

4.2  4.3 9
20

5.1.1 5.8C 5.1.2 24 s

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5.1.3 1
Hz 5.1.4 Lag by 11
24 12

5.2

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Exercise 8.4
1.1 f (t )  2cos t  3sin t  13 cos(t  0.98)
1.2 f (t )  5cos t  8sin t  89 cos(t  2.13)
2.1 g ( x)   cos x  sin x  2 cos( x  165)
2.2 g ( x)  2sin 3x  5cos3x  29 cos(3t  21.80)
2.3 g ( )  8sin 2  5cos 2  89 cos(2 122.01)
2.4 g ( )  3 cos  sin   2cos(  30)
3. Proof
t t t 
4. p (t )  7 cos    3sin    6.61cos   0.40 
2 2 2 

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19. EXPONENTIAL AND LOG FUNCTIONS

19.1 REMINDERS
19.1.1 The number e
From the chapter on the number system we know the number 𝑒 = 2.7182 … is an
irrational number. It is also a transcendental number because it is never the solution
of an algebraic equation.

The number e is sometimes called Euler's number after Leonard Euler, a famous
Swiss mathematician from the 1700's.

A FEW APPLICATIONS OF e
 We already saw how Bernoulli derived the approximate value of e using the
compound interest formula A  1  1x  . We now know lim 1  1x   e .
x x

x 

 The formula A  A0 e may be used to model population growth and

kt

radioactive decay. The function A  A(t ) represents the amount present at any
time t. The constant A0 usually represent the original amount present and k
may be calculated using additional information.

1 1 1 1 1
 Series expansion: e  1        where
1! 2! 3! 4! n0 n !

n!  1 2  3  n .
o 4!  1 2  3 4  24
 Read as "four factorial".

o Use the on your clever calculator.

8
1
o The sum up to 𝑛 = 8 yields an approximation e  1    2.71828
n 1 n !

 Probability theory: On entering a highly secret meeting, fifty people put their
cell phones in a bag. When they leave, they pick a phone at random.
o What is the probability2 (chance) that no one gets his or her own
phone?
 Answer: 1 e  37% .
o What is the probability that at least one person will get his or her own
phone?
 Answer: 1  1 e  63% .
o You will learn more about probability in other mathematical courses.
 More facts:
o e   e ; use your calculator to verify this statement!
o ei  1  0 where i  1 .

2
Tony Crilly. 50 mathematical ideas you really need to know; p 27.

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19.1.2 Definitions and exponential laws
 Base: The number that must be multiplied by itself
 Exponent: Indicates how many times a number must be
multiplied by itself
 Index: Synonym for exponent
 Indices: Plural of index
 Power: Synonym for exponent

EXPONENTIAL LAWS AND PROPERTIES

Let a, b and c be any real numbers. Then
1. ab  a c  abc
2. a b  a c  a b c
3. a 
b c
 a b c
c
a a
c
 ab   a b and    c ; b  0
c c c
4.
b b
5. a0  1
1
6. a b  ; a0
ab
7. 00 is undefined.

Exercise 19.1
1. Simplify each of the following expressions without using a calculator.
e5
1.1 1.2 e 2 e3
e 2

2. Evaluate each of the following.

7
1
2.1 5! 2.2  n!
n0

3. Evaluate each of the following expressions. Work accurately to four decimal

places where necessary.
1  x2 2 84
3.1 f (0.5) if f ( x)  e 3.2 N (7.937) if N (t ) 
2 1  2799e  t

4. Simplify the following expressions without using a calculator.

e a e 2b 3  e n 1  e n  4
4.1 4.2
3  e n 1  e n
b
e2
1
 3e3 
4
en  210n  2
4.3   4.4
  3e 3  e n  4 5n
 

5. Bird, Practice Exercise 59, p 125, #1 – 6 ☀☀☀

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19.2 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
19.2.1 What is an exponential function?
The general form of an exponential function is
f ( x)  a x x 
where a , a  0 and a  0 .

☂ In an exponential function the base is a constant and the exponent a variable.

WHY MUST THE BASE BE POSITIVE?

We know 0 2  0 and hence 02  1 02 is undefined. Thus, f ( x)  a x is undefined
when a  0 .

Let's look at a few examples where a is negative. Let's use a  2 as an example.

 When the exponent x is an integer:
o (2)2  4 , (2)3  8 , (2) 4  16 , (2)5  32
o Note the difference in the sign: The function value is positive for even
values of x and negative for odd values!
 When the exponent x is not an integer:
o Using mathematical software such as Mathematica® and Scientific
Workplace®, we get (2)2.1  4.07  1.32 j and (2)2.1  0.22  0.07i .
Your clever calculator gives an error message!
o Thus, the result is a complex number and we can't sketch the graph.
 Hence, f ( x)  a x is undefined when a is negative or zero.

GRAPHS WHEN THE BASE IS POSITIVE

Let's take the two scenarios based on the value of a from the definition above as
shown in Figure 33.

Figure 33 The value of a and the shape of the

curve
 a 1:
o f ( x)  1x  1 x  ; the graph is a straight line parallel to the x-axis
through y  1 . Hence the graph is a straight line and not exponential.
 a 1:
o The graph passes through y  a 0  1 .

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 o lim a x   ; the function grows as x increases.
x 

o lim a x  0 ; the function approaches 0 as x decreases.

x 

 0  a 1
o The graph passes through y  a 0  1 .
o lim a x  0 ; the function decays to 0 as x increases.
x 

o lim a x   ; the function approaches  as x decreases.

x 

NOTES
 In the special case where a  e , the function is called the natural exponential
function.
 Some textbooks, including Bird3, define "exponential function" as the function
with base e. We use the more general definition of exponential functions in
this course.
 In mathematical software such as Matlab® and Mathematica®, the built-in
function Exp[x] evaluates e x .

19.2.2 Some properties of exponential functions

19.2.2.1 The functions f ( x)  a x and g ( x)  a  x  1

ax

Figure 34 Compare f(x) = ax and g(x) = a-x

 f ( x)  a x represents exponential growth because the function increases as x

increases.
 g ( x)  a  x  1 x represents exponential decay because the function decreases
a
as x increases.

19.2.2.2 The function f ( x)  a x for different values of a

In Figure 35, f ( x)  2 x , g ( x)  3x and h( x)  e x .

3
Bird, p 125

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 Figure 35 Compare graphs for different values of a > 1

 For x  0 the growth is faster for bigger values of a.

 For x  0 the function approaches 0 faster for bigger values of a.

Figure 36 depicts the graphs of p( x)   12   2 x , q( x)   13   3 x and

x x

r ( x)   1e   e x .
x

Figure 36 Comparison for 0< a <1

19.2.2.3 Summary of the properties of the exponential function

 The exponential function is aperiodic.
 The exponential function is neither even nor odd.
 The functions y  a x and y  a  x are symmetrical about the y-axis as shown
in Figure 34.
 The y-intercept of the exponential function is one.
 The x-axis is an asymptote.
 The domain is  ;   .
 The range is  0;  .
 The exponential function is a one-to-one function and hence its inverse exists.

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19.2.2.4 Transformations of the exponential function
We may apply the usual transformations (resize, translation, shift, etc.) to an
exponential function. Here are a few examples of transformations of the exponential
function.

ACTIVITY 19.1
Use the graph of f ( x)  2 x to sketch the graphs of each of the following functions.
a) g ( x)  2 x 1 c) k ( x)  3  2 x
b) h( x )  2 x  1 d) p( x)  2 x
SOLUTION
a) g ( x)  2 x 1
"Shift" the graph of f ( x)  2 x
one unit to the left as illustrated
by the arrows in the sketch.
 y-intercept is y  21  2
 Remember:
2x1  2x 21  2  2x

b) h( x )  2 x  1
"Shift" the graph upwards by one
unit as illustrated by the arrows
in the sketch.
 The asymptote of h( x ) is the
line y  1 .
 y-intercept: y  20  1  2

c) k ( x)  3  2 x
"Stretch" the graph of f ( x)  2 x
horizontally.
 y-intercept: y  3  20  3
 3 2x  6x
 Note how the length of the
arrows increases as x
increases, representing the
"stretch".

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 d) p( x)  2 x
Reflect the graph about the
x-axis.
 y-intercept:
y  20  1
 Note that  2   2 x
x

ACTIVITY 19.2
Sketch the graphs of g ( x)  3x and its inverse on one system of axes.
SOLUTION
A function and its inverse is symmetrical about the line y  x .

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Exercise 19.2
1. The graph represents f ( x)  3x . Sketch the
graph of the following functions on the same
system of axes.
g ( x)  3 x
h( x)  3x 1
p ( x )  3x  1

2. Determine the equation of the exponential function of the form y  a b x

represented in each graph.
2.1 2.2

3. Match the exponential function with one of the graphs labeled I to VI

3.1 f ( x)  5 x 3.2 f ( x)  5 x
3.3 f ( x)  5x 3.4 f ( x)  5 x  3
3.5 f ( x)  5x 1 3.6 f ( x)  5 x  4

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4. Bird, Practice Exercise 61. P 129, #1 & 2 ☀☀☀

19.3 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

19.3.1 Definition of a logarithm
Consider the exponential equation "2 to the power 3 is 8":
23  8 . (1)
The exponent is 3 and the base is 2.

Compare Equation (1) to the following:

log 2 8  3 . (2)
This is read as "The logarithm to the base 2 of 8 is 3". Thus, the base of the logarithm
is 2 and the log is 3.

In Equation (1) the exponent is 3 and in Equation (2) the log is 3. In both equations
the base is 2. A logarithm is thus an "exponent".

We say the two equations are equivalent, that is, two different ways of transferring
the same information.

❢ "Equivalent" means similar; it does NOT mean "equal".

TWO SPECIAL LOGS

 Common logarithm: Any logarithm to the base 10, written as log
o log10 100  log100  2 because 102  100 .
 Natural logarithm: Any log to the base e, written as ln

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 o loge e2  ln e2  2
o It is sometimes called the Napierian log.

Exercise 19.3.1
1. Express each of the following in exponential form.
1.1 log 3 x  9 1.2 ln x  2
1.3 log100  x 1.4 a  ln 7

2. Express each of the following in log form.

2.1 3x  1.7 2.2 a  e2
2.3 5  25
2y
2.4 eb  3.1

1
3. Write the equivalent logarithmic expressions for 103  . ☀☀☀
1000

LOG LAWS AND PROPERTIES

For all positive real values of x, y, a and n:
1. log a xy  log a x  log a y
x
2. log a    log a x  log a y
 y
3. log a x n  n log a x
4. log a a  1
5. log a a x  x
log a x
6. log y x 
log a y
7. log a 1  0

Two useful facts about the base e:

 e ln x  x
 e x ln a  a x

Also remember the following:

 ln e  1
 ln1  0
 ln 0 is undefined

ACTIVITY 19.3
Simplify the following expressions without using a calculator.
a) log3 8  log3 16 b) log 2 81  log 2 9
log 2 8  log 3 9
c) log 1000 d)
log10  log100
e) log5 25  log5 125 f) ln1  log1  ln e  log10

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SOLUTION
a) Use Rule 1 because the bases of the logs are the same.
log3 8  log3 16  log3 8 16   log 3 128
Rule 1
b) Use Rule 2 because the bases of the logs are the same.
 81 
log 2 81  log 2 9  log 2    log 2 9
Rule 2 9
3
log 1000  log10 2 
3
c)
Rule 5 2
d) Can't use Rules 1 and 2 because the bases of the logs are different.
log 2 8  log 3 9 log 2 23  log 3 32 3 2 1
  
log10  log 5 125 log10  log 5 5 Rule 5 1  3 4
3

e) There is no rule for the multiplication of logs!

log5 25  log5 125  log5 52  log5 53  2  3  6
Rule 5
f) ln1  log1  ln e  log10  0  0  1  1  0

Exercise 19.3.2
Simplify the following expressions without using a calculator.
log 25  log 4
1. 2. log 2 8  log3 27  log 9 9
log 5  log 2
ln x  ln 3
3. log  log10  4.
2 ln x
5. e  ln e
ln 3 x 5x
6. ln e3  log100  log 3 81
7. log 4 8  log 0.01 8. log 7 343  log 7 1
49

9. log 2 0.125  log 3 27 1 10. 102log3  log6 1

11. 3(log3 80log3 4)
12. Bird, Practice Exercise 57, p 119, #1 – 16 ☀☀☀

19.3.2 The logarithmic function

The inverse of an exponential function exists because the exponential function is a
one-to-one function.

If f ( x)  a x , then the inverse of f ( x ) is obtained as follows:

Let y  a x
Inverse
Swap x and y:
x  ay
Change the subject to y:
y  log a x
 f 1 ( x )  log a x

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The inverse of the exponential function is called the logarithmic function. Figure 37
depicts the symmetry of the exponential and logarithmic functions about the line
y  x.

Figure 37 The exponential function and its inverse

☂ The base a must be a positive real number!

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE LOG FUNCTION

 The x-intercept of the logarithmic function is
one.
 The y-axis is an asymptote.
 The range is  ;   .
 The domain is  0;  .
 It is a one-to-one function and hence its
inverse will exist.
o If f ( x)  e x and g ( x)  ln x , then
f 1 ( x)  g ( x) and g 1 ( x)  f ( x) , that
is, the exponential function is the
inverse of the log function, and vice
versa
 f ( x)  e x  f 1 ( x)  ln x Figure 38 Symmetry about the x-axis
 The functions y  log a x and y  log 1a x are
symmetrical about the x-axis as shown in Figure 38.

Exercise 19.3.3
1. Determine the function of the form y  log a x represented in the following
graphs.
1.1 1.2

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2. Match the logarithmic function with one of the graphs labeled I-III.
2.1 f ( x)  log( x  2) 2.2 f ( x )   ln x
2.3 f ( x)  2  ln x

3. Sketch the following sets of graphs on the same set of axes.

3.1 y  log3 x and y  3x
3.2 y  log 2 x and y   log 2 x
3.3 y  log 2 x and y  3  log 2 x

4. The figure shows the graphs of f ( x)  a x and g ( x) . The point B with

coordinates  3;3 83  is on the graph of f. The graph of g is the reflected image
of the graph of f about the y-axis.

4.1 Determine the value of a.

4.2 What is the equation of g?

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19.4 EXPONENTIAL AND LOG EQUATIONS
In this course we'll concentrate on equations which can be reduced to the form a kx  c
and log a kx  c where k and c are real constants.

❢ The first step in solving any equation is always simplify first.

❢ A helpful "tool" is to keep in mind that if

 a x  a b , then x  b (equal bases ⇒ equal exponents)

 a 3  b3 , then a  b (equal exponents ⇒ equal bases)
 log a x  log a b , then x  b (equal bases ⇒ equal arguments)
 log a b  log c b , then a  c

19.4.1 Exponential equations

An exponential equation contains exponential terms such as 2 x and 3  5 y1 .

ACTIVITY 19.4
Solve the following equations. Show all steps.
a) 2 x1  8 b) 3  5t  75  0
SOLUTION
a) Write the right-hand side in exponential form, then simplify and solve.
2 x 1  8
 23
 x 1  3
x  4
b) Simplify first, then write the right-hand side in exponential form to
obtain the answer.
3  5t  75  0
5t  75 3
 25
 52
t  2

Exercise 19.4.1
Solve without using a calculator.
1. 2 x1  16 2. 3x1  81
1
 27 x 1
2
3. 23 x1  23 x  12 4. 9x
5.  4x 16 4x 1  0

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19.4.2 Log equations
A log equation contains log terms such as log3 x and 2 ln 3x .

ACTIVITY 19.5
Solve the following equations. Show all steps.
a) 2ln 2  ln x  ln3 b) log 2 5  log 2 x  3
SOLUTION
a) Simplify by applying the log laws.
2 ln 2  ln x  ln 3
ln  22 x   ln 3
Now compare the arguments of the logs:
4x  3
 x  34

b) Simplify first.
log 2 5  log 2 x  3
log 2 5 x  3
Write the equation ex exponential form:
5 x  23
 x  83

Exercise 19.4.2
Solve the following equations without using a calculator.
1. log x  4 2. ln x  3
3. log x  log( x  2)  3log 2 4. log x  log 6  log( x  6)
5. log x  log 3  log(3 x  1)  log 4 6. log 2 (1  x)  3  log 2 (5  x)
7. log( x  4)  log( x  3)  2 log x  0
8. Bird, Practice Exercise 57, p 120, #17 – 22 ☀☀☀

19.4.3 Mixed examples

Sometimes we have to introduce logs to solve exponential equations. Here are a few
more examples.

AXTIVITY 19.6
Solve the following equations. Show all steps.
a) 3x 2  5 b) e2 x  5
c) log 2 x  log 2 ( x  2)  3
SOLUTION
a) It is rather difficult to express 5 as a number with base 3 (although not
impossible!). Thus, introduce logs both sides:
log  3x2   log 5
Rewrite the left-hand side:

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 ( x  2) log 3  log 5
Solve for x:
log 5
x2
log 3
log 5
x  2
log 3
 3.465
log 5 5
☀ NOTE: It is not possible to "cancel" the logs! Thus, 
log 3 3

b) The base on the left-hand side is e. Thus, introduce ln on both sides.

ln  e 2 x   ln 5
2 x ln e  ln 5
 2 x  ln 5  ln e  1
ln 5
x 
2
 0.805

c) Simplify the left-hand side:

log 2  x( x  2)  3
Write in exponential form:
x( x  2)  23
Simplify and solve for x:
x2  2 x  8  0
( x  2)( x  4)  0
 x  2 or x  4

TEST: Substitute x  4 in the original equation:

log 2 (4)  log 2 (4  2)  3
But the log of a negative number is undefined in the set of real
numbers. Thus, x  2 is the only solution.

☀ NOTE: When solving a log equation, always substitute the solution in the
original equation to make sure the solution is valid.

Exercise 19.4.3
1. Solve for x. Show all steps and give answers accurately to three decimal places
where necessary.
1.1 5x  0.3 1.2 e x  17.54
15.6
x2
1.3  23x 1.4 5x  2  e2 x
1.5 2log 2 3  log 2 x  log 2 45 1.6 ln x  ln3  1
1.7 ln(2 x  1)  2 ln 4  3ln 3 1.8 log 2 x  log 2 ( x  2)  3

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 37 x   12  15  3x 1  243  5 x  2  0
0
1.9 1.10
1.11 2 x  3x  15 1.12 2 x4  5x

2. Solve the unknown. Show all steps.

3
2.1 3x  81 2.2 log100 t 
2
2.3 log a  log 3  log(a  3) 2.4 7 x  2  53 x
2.5 x 1  x 0  0 2.6 log 2 x  0.9079
2.7 27log3 x  8 2.8 log 2 (3  x)  log 2 (4 x  1)  3
x 1 x 1
2.9 2 3
6
 3 24
2.10 ln(2 x  3)  5
10
2.11 log3 (7  x)  log 3 (1  x)  1 2.12 2
1  e x
5x  2 log 25  log 9
2.13 2  5 x 1   300 2.14 log x 
21 log 3  log 5
2.15 log( x  2)  log( x  1)  1 2.16 log 12 ( x  x)  log 12 ( x 2  x)  1
2

3. Bird, Practice Exercise 58, p 121, #1 – 10

4. Bird, Practice Exercise 62, p 131, #1 – 16

19.5 APPLICATIONS
There are quite a number of applications where exponential and log functions are
used. In this chapter, we discuss four applications in detail. You'll come across more
in the following exercise. Then, in the next chapter, we'll have a closer look at the so-
called hyperbolic functions.

19.5.1 Exponential growth and decay

Population growth and radioactive decay are two common applications of exponential
functions. Figure 39 depicts the two scenarios.

Both growth and decay are governed by the

exponential function of the form
A(t )  A0b kt
where A  A(t ) depicts the amount present at any
time t and b is a constant. The value of the constant
k determines growth or decay:
 If k is positive, the function represents
exponential growth.
 If k is negative, the function represents Figure 39 Exponential growth and decay
exponential growth.

☀ NOTE: The exponential function represents unlimited growth or decay. In real

life there are always other factors limiting or accelerating the growth/decay.

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 For example, it is said that a population of bacteria doubles every day. The
growth may then be represented by A(t )  2t if A0  1 . The infected person
will surely use antibiotics to supress the growth of the bacteria!

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH

ACTIVITY 19.7
A researcher grows cells from discarded umbilical tissue in his lab. He observes that a
culture with twelve thousand cells grows to four million in one week. Assume the
cells grows according to the formula A(t )  A0ekt where t is measured in days. Use the
information given to determine the value of k accurately to four decimal places.
SOLUTION
Starting with 12 000:
A0  12000
 A(t )  12000e kt

After seven days there are 4 000 000 cells:

4000000  12000e7 k
4000000 1000
 e7 k  
12000 3
 1000 
 7 k  ln  
 3 
 1000 
ln  
k  
3 
7
 0.8299

EXPONENTIAL DECAY
The amount of radio-active material, A, present after a time t may be represented by
the formula A  A0  e  kt where k is the half-life of the material and A0 is the initial
amount present.

☂ "Half-life" refers to the time it takes half of a radio-active substance to decay.

For example, Uranium-235 is a radio-active isotope of uranium with a half-life
of approximately 703.8 million years4. Thus, if this isotope is released into the
environment now, half of the amount will still be present after351.9 years!

ACTIVITY 19.8
Radio-active Iodine-131 is used in the medical field to investigate the functioning of
the thyroid. Iodine has a half-life of approximately 8 days. If the patient swallows 5

4
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium-235 accessed 9 May 2019

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grams of Iodine-131, derive a formula to determine the amount of Iodine-131 present
at any time t.
SOLUTION
"Patient swallows 5 g"  A0  5
 A  5e kt
After 8 days, 2.5 grams will be left in the body.
2.5  5e8 k
2.5
e8 k   0.5
5
8k  ln 0.5
ln 0.5
k
8
 0.0866
 A(t )  5e 0.0866t

19.5.2 Earthquakes
According to Australian Geographic5 the biggest recorded earthquake was measured
on 22 May 1960 in Valdiva, Chile. It registered 9.5 on the Richter scale.

What is the Richter scale? The Richter scale (or Richter Magnitude Scale) is a scale of
numbers used to calculate the magnitude M of an earthquake. It was devised in 1935
and uses logs to determine the magnitude of an earthquake:
 I 
M  log  
 I0 
The I represents the intensity of the quake measured on a seismograph and I 0 is a
base intensity used for comparison purposes.

☞ Follow the links if you want to read more on quakes.

 https://www.google.com/search?biw=1366&bih=712&ei=XADUXIyQHZ
CSlwS78KDIDg&q=valdivia+chile+earthquake&oq=valdivia&gs_l=psy-
ab.1.1.0i67l2j0l5j0i67j0l2.11148.14327..17243...0.0..0.254.1854.2-
8......0....1..gws-wiz.......0i71j0i131j0i10i67.w3L4VgxWJrg

 https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_scale
 https://www.britannica.com/science/Richter-scale

ACTIVITY 19.9
An earthquake hit Loma Prieto, California in the USA. This earthquake registered 6.9
on the Richter scale. Later the same year, on 28 December, an earthquake registering

5
https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2011/03/earthquakes-the-10-
biggest-in-history/ accessed 9 May 2019

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5.6 hit Newcastle in New South Wales, Australia. How much stronger was the
California earthquake than the NSW quake?
SOLUTION
✘ At first glance one might think the answer is 6.9  5.6  1.3 . This is
WRONG! The strength (intensity) is based on a logarithmic scale!

The strength of an earthquake refers to its intensity I. We must therefor

compare the intensities, I CA and I NSW . To do this, make I the subject in the of
the formula:
 I 
M  log  
 I0 
I
10 M 
I0
 I  I 0  10 M

I CA  I 0  106.9
I NSW  I 0  105.6
I CA I  106.9
  0
I NSW I 0  105.6
 19.952
Thus, the Californian earthquake was approximately 20 times stronger than
the Australian earthquake.

19.5.3 pH
In Chemistry, pH is used to express the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution. A
pH of 7 is neutral, lower values are more acidic and higher values more alkaline. The
pH is expressed in terms of a logarithmic scale based on the hydronium-ion
concentration H3O+ of the solution.
pH   log H3O+  .
This equation for the pH is often called the pH equation. It is sometimes also written
as pH   log  H   .
☞ Remember to use the correct notation for concentration: Square brackets!

ACTIVITY 19.10
Determine the hydronium concentration in a solution with an pH of 5.2.
SOLUTION
5.2   log  H 3O + 
  H 3O +   105.2
 6.3 106 M

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Exercise 19.5
1. In A chemical reaction, the amount of a substance, C cm3, left after t minutes
is given by C  40e0.0006t .
1.1 How much of the substance was initially present?
1.2 How much of the substance is present after 1 hour?
1.3 What is the half-life of this substance?

2. A species of bacteria doubles every 10 minutes. Initially there was only one
bacterium present.
2.1 Write down a formula to represent the growth of the bacteria at any
time.
2.2 How many bacteria are present after one day?

3. Bird, Practice Exercise 61, p.129, #3 & 4

4. Bird, Practice Exercise 62, pp 131 – 132, #18 – 21
5. Bird, Practice Exercise 63, pp 134 – 135, #1 – 15
6. Revision Test 4, pp 158, #4, 5, 6, 7

Exercise 19.6: Mixed exercise

1. Simplify the following into a single algebraic fraction:
3

1.1
y x (4 xy) 2
 1.2 x 1
 y 1 
1

x2 y2

2. Evaluate the following. Round off to 4 decimal places where necessary

3 3
log 80log3 4
2.1 without using a calculator.
5
2.2 log 3 2   2.3
2  ln 7

3. Express the following expressions as a single logarithm.

3.1 ln x  b ln z  a ln y
1
3.2 ln(1  x 2 )  ln x  ln sin x
2

4. Change the subject in the following equations to x:

ex 1  e2x  1 
4.1 y x 4.2 y  ln  

e 1  2 

5. Solve for x (to 3 decimal places where necessary) if:

5.1 3 x  2  3 x  6 x 5.2 e2 x 3  7  0
5.3 3 2 x  3 x 1  31  30 5.4 5e1 x  4  40
x 3 x 1
5.5 2 2 6 x
5.6 1  ln x  ln(1  x)
5.7 2 ln( x  2)  ln x  0 5.8 log2 x  log x  2

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 5.9 (1.25) x  2 5.10  
5 1.12 x3  200
5.11 2 2 x 1  3  2 x  2 5.12 e x  ex  3
x
5.13 3log x  2 log  2 5.14 ln(5  2 x)  3
2

☎ ln x  log e x;log x  log10 x

6. Use the log laws to write the following expressions as a single log in its
simplest form.
6.1 log 2 x  log 2 y  log 2 z 6.2 2logb x  12 logb y
6.3 5log3 (2 x  1)  5log 3 ( x  2) 6.4 1
2 log x4  14 log x4  18 log x8
6.5 log 4 x  log 4 y  1 6.6 log 2 5  log8 5

7. Write the following expressions as the sum and difference of logs without
powers.
3x 2 9
7.1 log 2 7.2 log 3 2
y x

7.3 log
100
x 1
7.4 ln 2 x e3 x  
 1  x 2  cos x 
7.5 ln (sin x) 
tan x
7.6 y  ln  
 e3 x 

8. Solve for x. Round off to two decimal places where necessary.

8.1 log 2 x  5 8.2 log x 10000  4
8.3 log x 128  7 8.4 log x 81  4
8.5 x  log5 125 8.6 x  log5.2 1
8.7 3x  7 8.8 9.1x  3.2

9. Solve for x.
☎ Always try to simplify first!
☎ Always check your answer. Remember, in the real number system we can't
determine the log of a negative number.
9.1 ln(2 x)  ln(3x  e)  2  ln 8 9.2 log(2 x  8)  1  log( x  4)
9.3 log(2 x  3)  log(2 x  1) 9.4 ln x  ln( x  1)  5
9.5 ln( x  2)  ln x 2  ln x 9.6 1  ln( x  2)  ln x

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ANSWERS 19
Exercise 19.1
1.1 e7 1.2 e5 2.1 120
2.2 5914 3.1 0.1405 3.2 41.9996
a  32b 3e  e 4
4.1 e 4.2 4.3 3
3e  1
e2 2n
4.4 5. Bird
100

Exercise 19.2
1. 2.1 y  2 x
2.2 y  2  3x
3.1 VI
3.2 II
3.3 V
3.4 I
3.5 IV
3.6 III
4. Bird

Exercise 19.3.1
1.1 x  39 1.2 x  e2
1.3 10 x  100 1.4 ea  7
2.1 x  log3 1.7 2.2 ln a  2
2.3 2 y  log 5 25 2.4 b  ln3.1

Exercise 19.3.2
1. 2 2. -1
3. 0 4. ln 3 x
2 ln x
5. 8x 6. 1
7. 1 8. 5
2
9. Bird

Exercise 19.3.3
1.1 y  log5 x 1.2 y  log9 x
2.1 III 2.2 I
2.3 II

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3.1 3.2

3.3

Exercise 19.4.1
1. 3 2. 5
3. x/3 4. 1; -1/2
5. 2; 0

Exercise 19.4.2
1. 10 000 2. e3
3. 4 4. 6/5
5. 4/9 6. -1; -3
7 5
7. 8. Bird
2

Exercise 19.4.3
1.1 -0.748 1.2 -2.869
1.3 14.153 1.4 8.242
1.5 1/5 1.6 0.906
1.7 216.5 1.8 2
2.1 4 2.2 1 000
2.3 3/2 2.4 2.453
2.5 -1 2.6 4.045
2.7 23/12 2.8 2
2.9 5 2.10 75.705
2.11 0.639; 0 2.12 -1.386
3. Bird 4. Bird

Exercise 19.5
Bird

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Exercise 19.6
y 2  8 x3
3
xy
1.1 1.2 2.1 20
yx
3 1
x 2y 2
 xy a 
2.2 0.2370 2.3 1.2671 3.1 ln  b 
 z 

 x 2 (1  x 2 )   1 y 
1

3.2 ln   4.1 x  ln   4.2 x  12 ln(2e y  1)

 sin x   1 y 

5.1 3 5.2 0.527 5.3 1.262

5.4 1.175 5.5 0.369 5.6 0.582

5.7 4 5.8 2.902 5.9 3.106
5.10 17.852 5.11 1 5.12 0.962
5.13 25 5.14 2.475
6.1 log 2   xy
z
6.2 
log b x 2 y  6.3 log3  2xx21 
5

6.4 log x 2 6.5 log 4   x

4y
6.6 4
3 log 2 5

7.1 log 2 3  log 2 x  log 2 y 7.2 2  log3 x

7.3 2  log( x  1) 7.4 x ln 2  3x 7.5 tan x ln(sin x)

7.6 ln(1  x 2 )  ln(cos x)  3x 8.1 32

8.2 10 8.3 2 8.4 3

8.5 3 8.6 0 8.7 1.77

8.8 0.53 9.1 3.62 9.2 6

9.3 No solution 9.4 12.69 9.5 0.41

9.5 No solution

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20. HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

20.1 INTRODUCTION
Consider the photograph6 of a hanging chain in in Figure
40. Does this hanging chain remind you of a parabola? If
you said "yes", you are in good company; in 16697 Galileo
also thought a parabola represents the hanging chain!

Let's look at the chain once more. Two poles support the
endpoints and only gravity (its own weight) acts on the
chain between those two points. To set up a mathematical
model, we draw the y-axis through the lowest point on the
chain as shown in Figure 41. Then the x-axis is
Figure 40 A hanging chain
perpendicular to the y-axis and usually (but not always)
connects the lowest points of the supports.

Figure 41 A model of the hanging chain

The shape formed by the chain is called a catenary, from the Latin for "chain". Today
we know the so-called hyperbolic cosine function represents the curve formed by
any hanging flexible string supported at its endpoints only.

Did you see the notice at the back of those extra-long buses: "This vehicle takes two
lanes to turn"? Do you know why the bus needs two lanes? Next time note the
difference between the path followed by the front wheels of the bus and that described
by the rear wheels. Also watch the video animation of a truck turning right at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vBOr5ksMAg. We call the path a tractrix and it
is mathematically described by the hyperbolic sine function.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_catenary#/media/File:Kette_Kettenkurve_Catenary_2008_PD.
JPG, accessed 20 November 2008
7
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Catenary.html, accessed 29 December 2019

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MORE EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICATION OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
 A fixed oil production platform and a subsea pipeline are connected using a
so-called a steel catenary rise8 (SCR).
 Overhead power lines for trains form catenaries.
 Simple suspension bridges where the roadway follows the cable forms
catenaries
o If the roadway is flat and the weight of the cable is negligible
compared to the weight being supported, the result is a parabola
 The potential difference E between a telegraph line and the earth9 with A and
B constants, x the distance from the transmitting end, r the resistance per
kilometre of the conductor and R the insulation resistance per kilometer, may
be written as follows. Note the hyperbolic functions.

 r   r 
E  A cosh  x   B sinh  x 
 R  R
 "Upside down" catenaries are often noticed in arches. The Gateway Arch in
St. Louis, Missouri10 shown in Figure 42, is a world famous tourist attraction
and was built using the hyperbolic cosine function.

Figure 42 The gateway Arch

20.2 THE THEORY

20.2.1 Three hyperbolic functions

We define hyperbolic functions in terms of the exponential function f ( x)  e x where

e  2.7182818 is the irrational number, often called Euler's number.

The dashed lines in Figure 43 shows the functions f ( x)  e x and g ( x)  e  x

respectively. The solid line, looking like a "hanging chain", is the sum of f and g,
f ( x)  g ( x)
divided by 2, that is, . This new function appears so often in real life that
2

8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_catenary_riser, accessed 15 February 2020
9
James, G. 2001. Modern Engineering Mathematics. p 140
10
Photograph accessed on 30 January 2020 at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catenary

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it was given a special name: the hyperbolic cosine function, shortened to cosh x .
Thus, the hyperbolic cosine function is defined as
e x  e x
cosh x  .
2

Figure 43 The hyperbolic cosine function

The hyperbolic sine function, sinh x , describing a tractrix, is defined by

e x  e x
sinh x  .
2

Figure 44 shows the graphs of the two exponential functions f ( x)  e x and

g ( x)  e  x , and sinh x .

Figure 44 The hyperbolic sine function

There is a third hyperbolic function, called the hyperbolic tangent function, shown
in Figure 45. This function is defined by
sinh x
tanh x 
cosh x
e x  e x
 x x
e e

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 Figure 45 The hyperbolic tan function

☞ Study the graphs of the three hyperbolic functions. Make a list of the
properties of each function; we'll return to the properties later.

PRONUNCIATION
According to the Oxford Dictionary11 the names are pronounced as follows:
 Cosh sounds like "cosh"
 Sinh sounds like "shine"
 Tanh is read as "tan h" (the letter h at the end)

20.2.2 Three reciprocal hyperbolic functions

The names of the three hyperbolic functions sinh, cosh and tanh remind us of the three
trig functions sin, cos and tan. Consequently, we define three reciprocal hyperbolic
functions. The graphs of these three functions are depicted in Figure 46.
1 2
 Hyperbolic secant: sech x   x x
cosh x e  e
1 2
 Hyperbolic cosecant: csch x   x x
sinh x e  e
cosh x e x  e x
 Hyperbolic cotangent: coth x  
sinh x e x  e x

Figure 46 The three reciprocal hyperbolic functions

11
The Concise Oxford English Dictionary on CD. 11th ed.

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Exercise 20.1
1. Express each of the following hyperbolic functions in terms of exponential
functions. Simplify each answer.
x
1.1 f ( x)  coth 4 x 1.2 f ( x)  sech
2
sinh 5 x
1.3 f ( x)  2 cosh 3 x 1.4 f ( x) 
10
 x
1.5 f ( x)  csch    1.6 f ( x)  tanh( x)
 3

2. Express the following exponential functions in terms of hyperbolic functions.

Simplify each answer.
e x  e x e3 x  e3 x
2.1 f ( x)  2.2 f ( x) 
2 3
2 x
e e
2x
2.3 f ( x)  2 x 2 x 2.4 f ( x)  e x 1  e2 x 
e e

3. Simplify the following expressions without using a calculator. Show all steps.
3.1 sinh  ln 2  3.2 cosh  ln 4 
3.3 tanh  ln 0.25 3.4 sinh  ln 3  ln 2  ☂☂☂

20.2.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions

We define the six inverse hyperbolic functions the same way as any other inverse
function:
y  sinh 1 x  x  sinh y y  csch 1 x  x  csch y
y  cosh 1 x  x  cosh y y  sech 1 x  x  sech y
y  tanh 1 x  x  tanh y y  coth 1 x  x  coth y

☂ As in trig, we often write arc in front of the hyperbolic function's name to

indicate the inverse hyperbolic function; see Figure 47. For example,
arcsinh x  sinh 1 x .

1 1
☂ Remember, sinh 1 x  because  csch x .
sinh x sinh x

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 Figure 47 Three inverse hyperbolic functions

FOR FUTURE REFERENCE

What is the inverse of the exponential function f ( x)  e x ? The inverse is the natural
log function f 1 ( x)  ln x . Thus, because the hyperbolic functions are defined in
terms of the exponential function, we may also define the inverse hyperbolic
functions in terms of ln.

You may find the following three definitions of the inverse hyperbolic functions in
terms of ln useful in other math modules. The proofs are beyond the scope of this
course.
  
y  sinh 1 x  ln x  x 2  1 ; x 

 y  cosh 1 x  ln  x  x 1 ; x  1
2

1  1 x 
 y  tanh 1 x  ln   ; 1  x  1
2  1 x 

20.2.4 Hyperbolic functions on the Casio

We know that cos x  0.998 if x  1.1 and cos x  0.4536 when x  1.1 radians.
Therefore, make sure your calculator is in the correct angle mode when you do trig
calculations.

Should your calculator be in radian or degree mode when doing calculations on the
Casio? Let's investigate!

Use this key to evaluate hyperbolic expressions.

Then select the hyperbolic function you need from
the list on screen.

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Activity 20.1
Evaluate cosh x if x  1.1 with the calculator in radian and degree mode.
SOLUTION
Degree mode Radian mode

c21.1)= qw4c21.1)=

cosh1.1  1.669 irrespective of the mode ✔

UNIT OF THE ARGUMENT OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

With hyperbolic functions the mode doesn't matter. The unit of the argument of a
hyperbolic function depends on the application. It may be meters, depending in the
application.

Activity 20.2
Calculate the value of each of the following accurately to three decimal places using a
calculator.
a) sinh1.5 b) sech 2.5
1
c) cosh 3.4 d) tan 1 0.5
SOLUTION
1
a) sinh1.5  2.129 b) sech 2.5   0.163
cosh 2.5
c) cosh 1 3.4  1.895 d) tanh 1 0.5  0.549 ✔

Exercise 20.2
1. Evaluate each of the following accurately to three decimal places. If
impossible, explain why.
1.1 cosh 3.4 1.2 tanh1
1.3 sinh 0.352 1.4 coth 0
1.5 sinh 1 (3.1) 1.6 cosh 1 0.5
csch 2 cosh 9
1.7 1.8
4 81
1.9 cosh 2  sinh 2
2 2
1.10 cosh 2 2  sinh 2 2

2. Solve for x accurately to three decimal place. If there is no solution, justify

your answer.
2.1 sinh x  1 2.2 cosh 2x  2

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 2.3 2tanh x  1 2.4 csch   x   0.3 ☂☂☂

20.2.5 Hyperbolic identities

The names of the hyperbolic functions strongly remind us of trig functions. You are
familiar with the trig identities such as cos 2 x  sin 2 x  cos 2 x . So, is it possible to
derive identities for hyperbolic functions? The answer is a definite YES!

Activity 20.3
Use the definitions of hyperbolic functions to show that cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1 .
SOLUTION
LHS  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
2 2
 e x  e x   e x  e x 
   
 2   2  Note the method!
e 2e
2x 2 x
e 2e
2x 2 x
 Show that/prove that/verify ⇒
   1. Start with one side of the identity
4  4  2. Prove it is equal to the other side
e 2 x  2  e 2 x   e 2 x  2  e 2 x  3. Write down the conclusion

4
4

4
 1  RHS
 cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1 ✔

❢ Compare the two identities: cos 2 x  sin 2 x  cos 2 x and cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1 .
The left-hand sides look similar but the right-hand sides are different!

☞ Don't get confused! Osborne's rule may help you to remember the correct
hyperbolic identities.

OSBORN 'S RULE

To obtain the formula for hyperbolic functions from the analogous identity
for the trig function replace each trig function by the corresponding
hyperbolic function AND change the sign of every product or implied
product of two hyperbolic sines.

The identities are summarized in Table 1.

☀ You should be able to prove all those identities!

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 Table 1 A comparative summary of the trig and hyperbolic identities

Trigonometric identity Hyperbolic identity

cos 2 x  sin 2 x  1 cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1
cos 2 x  sin 2 x  cos 2 x cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  cosh 2 x
cos 2 x  1  2sin 2 x cosh 2 x  1  2sinh 2 x
cos 2 x  2 cos 2 x  1 cosh 2 x  2 cosh 2 x  1
1  tan 2 x  sec 2 x 1  tanh 2 x  sech 2 x
1  cot 2 x  csc2 x coth 2 x  1  csch 2 x
sin 2x  2sin x cos x sinh 2x  2sinh x cosh x
sin( x  y )  sin x cos y  cos x sin y sinh( x  y )  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y
cos( x  y )  cos x cos y sin x sin y cosh( x  y )  cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y
tan x  tan y tanh x  tanh y
tan( x  y )  tanh( x  y ) 
1 tan x tan y 1  tanh x tanh y
sin 2 x  12 (1  cos 2 x) sinh 2 x  12 (cosh 2 x 1)
cos 2 x  12 (1  cos 2 x ) cosh 2 x  12 (cosh 2x  1)
sin( x)   sin x sinh( x)   sinh x
cos( x)  cos x cosh(  x)  cosh x

Exercise 20.3
1. Use the definitions of the hyperbolic functions to verify the following
identities. Show all steps.
1.1 cosh 2 x  1  2sinh 2 x 1.2 sinh 2x  2sinh x cosh x
1.3 cosh x  sinh x  cosh 2 x 1.4
2 2
coth 2 x  1  csch 2 x

2. Simplify the following expressions.

2 tanh 2x 2sinh x cosh x
2.1 2.2
1  tanh 2 2x 2 cosh 2 x  1

3. Verify that tanh( x)   tanh x using the definition of tanh x . ☂☂☂

20.2.6 Why "hyperbolic" functions?

A hyperbola is one of the so-called conic sections: A plane intercepts a double cone at
an angle resulting in the two "legs" of the hyperbola.

☞ Read up on conic sections – enrichment only.

 The parabola, circle and ellipse are also examples of conic sections.
 The interactive demo "Conic sections: The double cone" may assist
with your visualization of the origin of conic sections.

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In previous mathematics courses you came across the graph xy  k , called the
rectangular hyperbola. Figure 48 depicts the graph of xy  1 .

Figure 48 The graph of a Figure 49 The hyperbola after rotation

rectangular hyperbola

When we rotate the curve clockwise through 45 , we get a more general form of the
hyperbola shown in Figure 49. The equation of this form of the hyperbola is
x2  y 2  1 .

So, what is the relationship between the hyperbola in Figure 49 and hyperbolic
functions sinh x and cosh x ?
 First, recall the trigonometric functions sine and cosine are also called
circular functions because any point on the circumference of the circle
x 2  y 2  1 may be represented by ( x; y )  (cos t ;sin t ) where t is a parameter;
see Table 2.
 Similarly, any point on the right-hand leg of the hyperbola may be represented
by ( x; y )  (cosh t ;sinh t ) .

Table 2 Comparison: Circular and hyperbolic functions

Trig (or circular) functions Hyperbolic functions

The points (cos t ;sin t ) lie on a circle The points (cosh t ;sinh t ) lie on a right
with a radius of 1 unit half of an equilateral hyperbola

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 The "hyperbolic" in the "hyperbolic sine" and "hyperbolic cosine" follows from the
fact that the point (cosh t ;sinh t ) describes one part of the hyperbola x 2  y 2  1 as the
parameter t changes.

☃ You will learn more about the math of parameters in other math courses.

20.3 GRAPHS AND PROPERTIES

Table 3 summarizes some facts about the three basic hyperbolic functions.

Table 3 Properties of the three basic hyperbolic functions

Function cosh x sinh x tanh x

Name Hyperbolic cosine Hyperbolic sine Hyperbolic tangent
Definition e x  e x e x  e x sinh x
cosh x  sinh x  tanh x 
2 2 cosh x
e x  e x
 x x
e e
Graph

Domain (; ) (; ) (; )

Range [1; ) (; ) ( 1;1)
Even/odd Even Odd Odd
Asymptote None None y  1
Type One-to-many function One-to-one function One-to-one function
Periodicity Aperiodic Aperiodic Aperiodic

The graphs and properties of three inverse hyperbolic functions are summarized in
Table 4.

Why is there a restriction on the domain of, for example, cosh 1 x and not on the
domain of sinh 1 x ? Apply the horizontal-line test to the hyperbolic function!

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 Table 4 Properties of three inverse hyperbolic functions

Function sinh 1 x cosh 1 x tanh 1 x

Name Inverse hyperbolic sine Inverse hyperbolic cosine Inverse hyperbolic
tangent
Definition sinh 1 x cosh 1 x tanh 1 x


 ln x  x 2  1  
 ln x  x 2  1  
1  1 x 
ln  
2  1 x 
Graph

Domain (; ) [1; ) ( 1;1)

Range (; ) [0;  ) (; )

The horizontal line, shown in Error!

Reference source not found., intercepts the
graph of the hyperbolic cosine function twice.
Thus, f ( x)  cosh x is not invertible because
its inverse will not be a function. However, if
we restrict the range of the inverse to non-
negative y-values, the inverse is a function.

Figure 50 Hyperbolic cos and its inverse

The horizontal line in Error! Reference source

not found.intercepts the graph of g ( x)  sinh x
once only. The hyperbolic sine function is thus
invertible.

Figure 51 Hyperbolic sin and its inverse

20.4 HYPERBOLIC EQUATIONS

It is quite easy to solve for x if the equation has only one hyperbolic function: use the
calculator!

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Activity 20.5
Solve for x accurately to three decimal places if sinh x  2 .
SOLUTION
x  sinh 1 2
 1.444 ✔

When we have more than one hyperbolic function or powers of hyperbolic functions
in the equation, we may use one of several methods. Here are three of the most
common methods:
 Substitute the definitions of the hyperbolic functions and solve the resulting
exponential equation.
 If the equation contains powers of the same hyperbolic function, write the
equation in standard form, factorize and solve, similar to algebraic equations.
 Simplify the equation by applying identities and solve the resulting equation.

☃ Which method is the best? Practice makes perfect!

Activity 20.6
Solve for x accurately to three decimal places.
a) 17cosh x  23sinh x  7
b) cosh 2 x  3cosh x  4
c) 3cosh 2 x  11sinh x  17
SOLUTION
a) 17cosh x  23sinh x  7
 e x  e x   e x  e x 
17    23  7 Different hyperbolic functions
 2   2  Can't simplify
17e x  17e  x  23e x  23e  x ⇒ use definitions
7
2
6e x  40e  x  14
3e x  7  20e  x  0
3e 2 x  7e x  20  0
(3e x  5)(e x  4)  0
 3e x  5  0 or ex  4  0
5
ex  e x  4
3
 x  ln  53  Undefined for x 
 x  ln  53  ✔

b) cosh 2 x  3cosh x  4
Powers of cosh
cosh 2 x  3cosh x  4  0
⇒ solve the quadratic equation
 cosh x  1 cosh x  4   0

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 cosh x  1  0 or cosh x  4  0
cosh x  1 cosh x  4
1
 x  cosh 1 Undefined
0
x  0 ✔

c) 3cosh 2 x  11sinh x  17
Different functions
3 1  sinh x   11sinh x  17
2 ⇒ Apply identities to change to
one function
2sinh 2 x  11sinh x  14  0
Factorize or use your calculator!

 sinh x  1 sinh x   143

or
x  0.881 x  2.245 ✔

Exercise 20.4
1. Solve for x, accurately to three decimal places where necessary.
1.1 1  sech 2 x  0.5 1.2 cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  2
1.3 cosh 2x  sinh 2x  0.5 1.4 2.5cosh x  5.3sinh x  8.2
1.5 5cosh x  3sinh x  4 1.6 3cosh x  5sinh x  8

2. Solve for x if 9cosh x  5sinh x  15 . Express the answer in terms of the

natural log. ☂☂☂

Exercise 20.5
1. Use a calculator to evaluate the following correctly to three decimal places.
1.1 sinh3.5 1.2 tanh( 2.1)
1.3 cosh(2.5) 1.4 coth(ln 3)
1.5 sech  23  1.6 cosh(1.2)
1.7 csch 2.5 1.8 coth 2.1
1.9 sech (1.7) 1.10 cosh 0.5

2. Given: tanh x  12 . Write down the values of the other five hyperbolic
functions.

3. Rewrite each of the following expressions in terms of exponential functions.

Simplify your answer as much as possible.
3.1 3cosh(ln x) 3.2 sinh(3ln x)
3.3 cosh3x  sinh3x 3.4 cosh 2x  sinh 2x

TMA105C: Functions – Hyperbolic functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [167]
4. A chain hangs in the form of a curve given by y  35cosh  35x  . Calculate the
following accurately to three decimal places.
4.1 x when y  53.2 4.2 y when x  25.01

5. The speed of a water wave with wavelength  and depth d may be

g  2 d 
approximated by v 2  tanh  .
2   
5.1 Calculate the speed of the wave with wave length 300 metres and a
depth of 35 meters.
5.2 Why can't we calculate the velocity of the wave?

6. Assume the dot in Figure 52 represents a man walking

along a dock. The triangle represents a boat on a river.
The man pulls the boat using a rope. The boat moves

Man
along the solid line. According to Larson12, the
Boat
distance, y, the man has walked along the dock is
x
given by y  a sech 1   where a is the length of the
a Figure 52 The man uses a rope to pull
rope and x the distance the boat is from the dock. the boat

a
6.1 Show that y  a cosh 1   .
x
6.2 Assume the rope is 20 feet long. How far should the person walk to
bring the boat within 5 feet from the dock? Give the answer accurately
to two decimal places.
6.3 Convert the distance in (6.2) into metres. ☂☂☂

20.5 INTERACTIVE MATERIAL

CDF documents
 Conic sections: The double cone

Other animations
 http://www.sosmath.com/trig/hyper/hyper01/etc/hyper012.gif
accessed 7 January 2020
Video
 An animation of a truck turning right
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vBOr5ksMAg

12
Larson, RE, Hostetler, RP, Edwards, BH & Heyd, DE. 1998. Calculus. 6th ed., p 398

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ANSWERS
Exercise 20.1
e4 x  e4 x x 2
1.1 coth 4 x  1.2 sech  x /2  x /2
e4 x  e4 x 2 e e
sinh 5 x e5 x  e5 x
1.3 2 cosh 3 x  e3 x  e 3 x 1.4 
10 20
x
 x 2 e  ex
1.5 csch      x /3 x /3 1.6 tanh( x)   x x
 3 e e e e
x
e  ex e3 x  e3 x 2
2.1   sinh x 2.2  cosh 3 x
2 3 3
e2 x  e2 x
2.3  tanh 2 x 2.4 e x 1  e2 x   2cosh x
e2 x  e2 x
3.1 sinh  ln 2   3 4 3.2 cosh  ln 4   17 8
3.3 tanh  ln 0.25   1517 3.4 sinh  ln 3  ln 2   512

Exercise 20.2
1.1 cosh3.4  14.999 1.2 tanh1  0.762
1.3 sinh 0.352  0.359 1.4 coth 0 undefined
1.5 sinh 1 (3.1)  1.850 1.6 cosh 1 0.5 undefined
csch 2 cosh 9
1.7  0.069 1.8  50.019
4 81
1.9 cosh 2 2  sinh 2 2  1 1.10 cosh 2 2  sinh 2 2  27.308
2.1 sinh x  1  x  0.881 2.2 cosh 2x  2  x  0.658
2.3 2tanh x  1  x  0.549 2.4 csch   x   0.3  x  1.919

Exercise 20.3
2 tanh 2x
1. Proofs 2.1  sinh  4x 
1  tanh 2
2 x

2sinh x cosh x
2.2  tanh 2 x 3. Proof
2 cosh 2 x  1

Exercise 20.4
1.1 1  sech 2 x  0.5  x  0.881 1.2 cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  2  x  0
1.3 cosh 2x  sinh 2x  0.5  x  0.347
1.4 2.5cosh x  5.3sinh x  8.2  x  0.816
1.5 5cosh x  3sinh x  4  x  0.693
1.6 3cosh x  5sinh x  8  x  2.137

2. 9 cosh x  5sinh x  15  x  ln 7; x  ln .5

Exercise 20.5
1.1 sinh3.5  16.543 1.2 tanh( 2.1)  0.970
1.3 cosh(2.5)  6.132 1.4 coth(ln 3)  1.250

TMA105C: Functions – Hyperbolic functions

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1.5 sech  23   0.813 1.6 cosh(1.2)  1.811
1.7 csch 2.5  0.165 1.8 coth 2.1  1.030
1.9 sech (1.7)  0.354 1.10 cosh 0.5  1.128
2. tanh x  2  coth x  2
1

sinh x  0.577;csch x  1.732;cosh x  1.115;sech x  0.866

3 1 1 1 
3.1 3cosh(ln x)   x   3.2 sinh(3ln x)   x 3  3 
2 x 2 x 
3.3 cosh 3x  sinh 3x  e 3 x 3.4 cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  e 2 x
4.1 y  53.2  x  34.304 4.2 x  25.01  y  44.322
5.1 v  48.383 m/s (g using the calculator)
5.2 No direction 6.1 Proof
6.2 41.27 ft. 6.3 12.58

TMA105C: Functions – Hyperbolic functions

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [170]
TMA105C: Differentiation – The power rule
© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [171]
21. THE POWER RULE

21.1 WHAT IS DIFFERENTIATION?

Most real-life problems involve an analysis of quantities that changes over time. Over
centuries, this analysis lead to a new branch in mathematics: Calculus, the
mathematics of change. Today we credit Newton and Leibniz with formalizing the
concepts on which the modern-day calculus are based.

The word "calculus" comes from the Latin for "small pebbles" and involves, inter alia,
the study of the effect of small changes in quantities on the response of the quantities
and what happens when small changes are joined to see the effect of the combination.
Calculus has therefor two major branches, each with its own subdivisions, as shown
in Figure 1:
 Differentiation, developed from the so-called tangent-line problem; and
 Integration, the solution of the so-called area-problem.

Figure 1 A diagram of calculus and its two branches

In this study unit, we'll investigate differentiation with some of its most important
rules and a few applications. The next study unit will cover integration with its basic
rules and applications.

21.2 NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

You are probably already familiar with most of the concepts pertaining to
differentiation. Here is a reminder of a few.

 Differential: Very small changes, indicated by dy , dx , etc. and used in linear

approximation theory (beyond the scope of course)
o Differential  derivative
 Derivative: The rate of change of a function with respect to an independent
variable
d
o is called the differentiation operator
dx

TMA105C: Differentiation – The power rule

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [172]
  When you see it (or it alternative forms) you will know to
differentiate what follows, similar to a + telling you to add
dy
o read as "the derivative of y with respect to x"
dx
o f ( x ) read as "f prime x"

o
d 2
dx
 x  means "differentiate the expression in brackets with respect to x
o We sometimes use dots and double dots to indicate differentiation with
respect to time
 y  dy dt and x  d x dt 2 and y  dy dx
2

 y '  dy dx or y '  dy dt or y '  dy dr , depending on the independent

variable
o Sometimes called the differential coefficient or
 Gradient function or
 Slope/gradient predictor
 Differentiation: The process of calculating the derivative
 Differentiate: The act of calculating the derivative
 Successive differentiation: Differentiate a function repeatedly
dy
o First order derivative: Differentiate once,  f ( x)
dx
d 2 y d  dy 
o Second order derivative: Differentiate twice,     f ( x)
dx 2 dx  dx 
o Third order derivative: Differentiate three times,
d3y d  d2y 
    f ( x)
dx3 dx  dx 2 
dny
o th
n order derivative: Differentiate n times, n
 f ( n ) ( x)
dx
 For 4th and higher order derivatives we put the order in brackets to
avoid confusion with exponents
 f (5) ( x) means "5th order derivative"
f 5 ( x)   f ( x) means the whole function is raised to the
5

power 5

☂ NOTES on
dy
dx
 It is NOT a fraction!
 The variable below the line is the independent variable
 The variable above the line is the dependent variable
 The dy and dx are called differentials.

TMA105C: Differentiation – The power rule

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21.3 DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES
You are familiar with the following formula defining the derivative of a function
y  f ( x) :

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f ( x)  lim
h 0 h

dy
where f ( x)  . Let's use this formula to determine the derivative of f ( x)  x 2  1 .
dx

ACTIVITY 21.1
Determine the derivative of f ( x)  x 2  1 from first principles.
SOLUTION
Substitute f ( x ) in the formula. Then,
( x  h) 2  1   x 2  1
f ( x)  lim
h 0 h
x  2 xh  h 2  1  x 2  1
2
 lim
h 0 h
2 xh  h 2
 lim
h 0 h
h(2 x  h)
 lim
h 0 h
 lim(2 x  h)
h 0

 2x ✔

☞ The calculation of derivatives from first principles is beyond the scope of this
course for students registered for a diploma or higher certificate.

You know the following so-called power rule from previous math courses:

If f ( x)  x n , then f ( x)  nx n 1

𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
☀ Remember 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡
; the derivative is with respect to the
independent variable.

Here are a few examples of the application of this rule.

ACTIVITY 21.2
Determine the derivative of each of the following functions.

TMA105C: Differentiation – The power rule

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 1
a) f ( x)  4 x 3 b) g ( x) 
x3
2
c) i (t )  t c) v(t ) 
4t
SOLUTION
a) f ( x)  4 x 3
f ( x)  4  3x 2  3−1=2
 12 x 2
1
b) g ( x)  3
x
 x 3
 g ( x )  3 x 4 −3 − 1 = −4
3
 4
x
c) i (t )  t
t
1
2

1 1
 i(t )  12 t  −1=−
1
2
2 2
1

2 t
2
d) v(t ) 
4t
2
 √4𝑡 = 2√𝑡
2 t
 t
1
2

 v(t )   12 t 
3
2 1 3
− −1=−
2 2
1
 ✔
2 t3

☀ Always:
 Simplify the expression before differentiation.
 Simplify after differentiation, that is, simplify the answer.

Exercise 21.1
Differentiate each of the following with respect to the given independent variable.
2 3
1. f ( x)  3 x 5  2 x 2 2. f (t )  3  2
t t
3. g ( x)  2 x 4. g (t )  t
3

x 1 2t  3
5. h( x )  6. h(t ) 
x 4t

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© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [175]
 1 2
7. y 8. q(t )  4
x3 x
1
9. x(t )  sin   e2 10. i (t )   132

11. k ( x)  4  4 x 12. p ( x )  x  x e
13. Bird, p 465, Practice Exercise 170, # 1 - 8 ☂☂☂

21.4 THE POWER RULE EXPANDED

We know
d 4
dx
 x   4 x 3 . How about
d
dx
 2 x  1 ? Keep in mind that
4

 2 x  1  (2 x)4  (1)4 . Let's investigate.

4

ACTIVITY 12.3
Verify the calculations in the table used to deduce a more general form of the power
rule.
The given function The derivative
Function Simplified Derivative Rewrite
(2 x  1) 0 1 0 -
(2 x  1)1 2x  1 2 2(1)(2 x  1)0
(2 x  1)2 4x2  4 x  1 8x  4 2(2)(2 x  1)1
(2 x  1)3 8 x3  12 x 2  6 x  1 24 x 2  24 x  6 2(3)(2 x  1) 2
(2 x  1)4 16 x 4  32 x3  24 x 2  8 x  1 64 x3  96 x 2  48 x  8 2(4)(2 x  1)3
Deduction from the first and last columns
(2 x  1)n 2(n)(2 x  1) n 1 ✔

Look at the last row in the table:

4 Old exp New = 4-1
d  
 2 x  1  2 ( 4 )(2 x  1)
3

dx  f ( x )  f '( x ) f ( x)

The power rule for the derivative of  f ( x) where f  f ( x ) is any function and n is
n

a real number:
d
 f ( x)  n  f ( x)  f '( x)
n n 1

dx

☞ This general power rule is an example of the chain rule; we'll return to the
chain rule in the next chapter.

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A FEW REMINDERS
 a 0  1 for a  0
1
 a 1 
a
a n   ab   n ab
1


b n

Activity 21.3
Use the power rule to determine y ' , the derivative of the given function. Simplify
your answer.
a) y  (4 x  3)7 b) y  2x  5
1 3
c) y d) y 3
x 1
3 2 (t  2t  5)
SOLUTION
a) y  (4 x  3)7
Old exp. 𝑛 = 7 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 3
 y '  7(4 x  3)  4
6
New exp. 𝑛 − 1 = 6 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4
 28(4 x  3)6

b) y  2x  5 1
Old exp. 𝑛 = 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5
  2 x  5 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2
1
2 1
New exp. 𝑛 − 1 = − 2

1
 2 x  5 2  2
1
y'
2
1

2x  5

1
c) y 1
3
x2 1 Old exp. 𝑛 = − 3 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥
  x 2  1
 13 4
New exp. 𝑛 − 1 = − 3


1 2
x  1  2 x
 43
y'  
3 Apply the exponential laws
2x

3 3 ( x 2  1) 4

Old exp. 𝑛 = −1 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 2𝑡 + 5

New exp. 𝑛 − 1 = −2 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = 3𝑡 − 2
TMA105C: Differentiation – The power rule
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 3
d) y
(t  2t  5)
3

 3(t 2  2t  5) 1

 y '  3  1 t 3  2t  5   (3t  2) 

2

 
3(3t  2)

t  2t  5  ✔
3 2

EXERCISE 21.2
Differentiate each function with respect to the independent variable. Simplify your
answer.
y   3x  7  x  2  t 
2 3
1. 2.
1 7
3. f ( x)  4. g (t ) 
2x  3 3t  1
5. p(t )  t  7 6. q( x)  3 x 2  9
1 3
7. x 8. y
2t  9 x 2  16
f ( x)   2 x 2  x  2  g ( x)   5 x3  7 x 
2 4
9. 10.
y  3  t  t 5  y  4 1  t 3 
3 2
11. 12.
1 2
13. x 14. x
t  t3  t t  3t  16 
5 2 3

1 1
15. f ( x)  16. f (t ) 
x  4x  8
2 3
1 t3

17. Bird, Practice Exercise 170, p 465 ☂☂☂

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ANSWERS 21
Exercise 21.1
6 6
1. f ( x)  15 x 4  4 x 2. f (t )   
t4 t3
2 1
3. g (t )  4. g (t ) 
2 x 33 t2
1 3
5. h(t )   2 6. h(t )   2
x 4t
3 1
7. y'  8. q '(t )  
2 x5 2 x4 5

9. x '(t )  0 10. i '(t )  0

1
11. k ( x )  12. p( x)   x 1  ex e 1
4 4 x3

Exercise 21.2
dx  6  3x  7  x  dx dt  3  2  t 
dy 2
1. 2.
2 21
3. f '( x)   4. g '(t )  
 2 x  3  3t  1
2 2

1 2x
5. p '(t )  6. q '( x) 
2 t 7 3 3  x2  9
2

1 3
7. x 8. dy
dx 
 2t  9   x  16
3 2 3

f '( x)  2(4 x  1)  2 x 2  x  2  g '( x )  4 15 x  7  5 x  7x

2 3 3
9. 10.
y  3  1  5t 4  3  t  t 5  y  24t 1  t 
2
2 3
11. 12.
5t 4  3t 2  1 6(2  3)
13. x 14. x
t  t3  t  t  3t  16 
5 2 2 4

2x  4 t2
15. f '( x)   16. f (t ) 
x  4 x  8 1  t 
2 3 3 4
3

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22. THE CHAIN RULE

22.1 WHAT IS THE CHAIN RULE?

22.1.1 The derivative of a composite function
Let's quickly revise the concept of "composite functions".

If f ( x)  x 4 and g ( x)  2 x  1 , then
f
g  ( x)  (2 x  1)4 .
From the previous section we applied the general power rule and obtained the
derivative
d d
 f g  ( x)   (2 x  1) 4 
dx dx
 4(2 x  1)3  2
g ( x) g '( x )

The derivative of the composition of two functions is thus a very special combination
of its two parts. The chain rule is a formalization of this "special combination".

22.1.2 The chain rule

We use the chain rule to determine the derivative of the composition of two or more
functions.

Let u  u ( x) and y  y(u)  y u ( x) . Then

dy dy du
  .
dx du dx

Activity 22.1
dy
Determine the chain rule to determine dx if
1
a) y  ( x3  2)5 b) y
5  3x
SOLUTION
a) Let u  x 3  2 . Then y  u 5 .

TMA105C: Differentiation: The chain rule

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [180]
 dy dy du
 
dx du dx

d 5
du
 u    x3  2 
d
dx
 5u  (3 x )
4 2

 5  x3  2   3x 2
4

u'
u

 15 x 2  x 3  2 
4

1
  5  3x  2
1
b) y
5  3x
Let u  5  3x . Then y  u  2 .
1

dy dy du
 
dx du dx
 1 3 
   u  2    3 x 
 2 
1
   5  3 x  2   3 x 
3

2
u u'

3x
 ✔
2 (5  3 x)3

In the examples above we were able to write y as a power of u, that is, y  u n where n
is a real number. What if this was not possible? For example, what is the derivative of
y  sin 3 x ? We may write it as y  sin u with u  3x . To determine the derivate we
need a rule for the derivative of the sine function!

22.2 THE TABLE OF DERIVATIVES

How can we determine the derivative of other functions such as f ( x)  sin ax or
g ( x)  e ax ? We use the same formula as for the power rule! For example, if
f ( x)  sin x , then
df sin( x  h)  sin x
 lim
dx h0 h
sin x cosh  sinh cos x  sin x
 lim
h 0 h

 cos x

TMA105C: Differentiation: The chain rule

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [181]
☞ The "hidden steps", represented by , involves specialized knowledge of
limits which is beyond the scope for higher certificate and diploma students.

We summarized the chain rule for some basic functions in the table below where we
use f ( x ) instead of u. In this table a, k and n are real-valued constants. Also, f ( x ) is
d
any function and f '( x)   f ( x)  .
dx

 Note the application of the chain rule!

 Memorize!!!!!!!!

Rule y y '  dy
dx
1. a 0
2.  f ( x)  n f ( x)  f ( x)
n 1
n

k  f ( x)  kn f ( x)  f ( x)
3. n n 1

4. e f ( x) f ( x)e f ( x )
5. a f ( x) f ( x)a f ( x ) (ln a)
6. ln  f ( x) f ( x )
f ( x)

7. log a  f ( x) f ( x )
f ( x )(ln a )

8. sin  f ( x) f ( x) cos  f ( x)

9. cos  f ( x)  f ( x)sin  f ( x)
10. tan  f ( x) f ( x)sec2  f ( x)
11. cot  f ( x)  f ( x) csc2  f ( x)
12. sec  f ( x) f ( x)sec  f ( x) tan  f ( x)
13. csc  f ( x)  f ( x) csc  f ( x) cot  f ( x)
14. sinh  f ( x) f ( x) cosh  f ( x)
15. cosh  f ( x) f ( x)sinh  f ( x)
16. tanh  f ( x) f ( x)sech 2  f ( x)
17. coth  f ( x)  f ( x)csch 2  f ( x)
18. sech  f ( x)  f ( x)sech  f ( x) tanh  f ( x)
19. csch  f ( x)  f ( x)csch  f ( x) coth  f ( x)

☂ We identified u and then wrote the answer out in great detail. You may "do it
in your head" as shown in later examples.

☞ Always simplify before you differentiate and simplify the answer!

TMA105C: Differentiation: The chain rule

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [182]
ACTIVITY 22.2
Determine y '  dy dx in each of the following cases.
x
a) y  sin 5 x b) y  cos  
2
c) y  e4 x d) y  log 2 3x
e) y  tan 3x  cot 3x f) y  sec5 x  csc 
SOLUTION
x
a) y  sin 5 x b) y  cos  
2
Rule 9
Rule 8
1 x
y '  5 cos 5 x y '   sin
f' f 2 2
f' f

c) y  e4 x d) y  log 2 3x
Rule 7
f'
Rule 4
3 1
y '  4 e 4x y' 
f' f 3x ln 2 x ln 2
f a

e) y  tan 3x  cot 3x f) y  sec5 x  csc 

y '  5sec 5 x tan 5 x  0
1  x
y '  3sec2 3x  csc2   Rule 12 with a 5 Rule 1
3 3  5sec 5 x tan 5 x
Rule 10
Rule 11
✔

❢ You MUST really memorize the formulas in this section. It forms the
foundation of your "house" of differentiation. In the next three sections we'll
add more rules and methods, followed by applications where you'll need
differentiation.

Practice makes perfect!

Exercise 22.1
1. Differentiate with respect to the independent variable.
x
1.1 y  csc 4 x 1.2 y  cosh
2
x
1.3 y  52 x 1.4 y  2 tan
4
t
1.5 y  ln 7t 1.6 y  5sin
5

TMA105C: Differentiation: The chain rule

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [183]
2. Determine y '  dy dx in each case.
2.1 y  cosh 2 x  cos 2 x  cos 2
2.2 y  x3  3x  33
2.3 y  tan 2 x  cot 2 x  sec 
2.4 y  5 x3  5 x3  5 x3
5
2.5 y  2 x  3e  3  4 x e  6e x 1
x
sin x 1
2.6 y   cos 2 x  sin 2 x ☂☂☂
cos x sin x

ACTIVITY 22.3
Determine the derivative of each of the following functions.
a) p( x)  cos x 2 b) y  37 x  4
c) g (t )  tan(2t  1) d) i(t )  ln x 2
SOLUTION
a) p( x)  cos x 2
 
p '( x)  ( 2 x )   sin x 2 
f '( x )  f ( x) 

 2 x sin x 2
b) y  37 x  4
y '  (7)(37 x  4 ) ln 3
 7 ln 3  37 x  4
g (t )  tan(2t  1)   tan(2t 1)
1/2
c)
1
 tan(2t  1)  sec2 (2t  1)   (2)
1/2
g '(t ) 
2
sec 2 (2t  1)

tan(2t  1)
d) i(t )  ln t 2  2ln t
There is thus no need for the chain rule.
1
i '(t )  2 
t
2

t
"Forgot" to simplify first? Then you have to apply the chain rule!
i(t )  ln t 2
2t 2
i '(t ) 

t2 t
The two answers are the same!

TMA105C: Differentiation: The chain rule

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [184]
Exercise 22.2
Complete the following table. Simplify the derivatives where possible.
Function Derivative Function Derivative
2
1. sin 2x 26. tan x
2. sin 2x
27. tan 2 x
3. sin x 2 28. cot 2x
4. sin 2 x 29. coth 2x
5. sin x 30. sec 2 3x
6. 1
sin x
31. csc2x
7. (3  5 x) 2 32. ln(2 x )
8. 3  5x 33. ln( x 3 )
9. 1
35x 34. ln 3 ( x)
1
10. 35. ln x
 3 5 x 2
11. 1
35x
36. ln(cos x)
12. cos3x 37. eln x
2

13. 3cos x 38. ln(e2 x )

14. cos x3 39. log 4 2x
15. cos x 3
40. log 2x
16. 2sin x cos x 41. x
17. e 2 x 42.  x
18. e 2 x 43.  
19. e x / 4 44. cos 2 (1  x)
20. x e 45. cosh 2 (1  x)
21. sin(e3 x ) 46. cos(1  x 2 )
22. sin(3 ) 47.  x32
23. cosh 2x x 1
48. x

24. sinh 3x 49. csc3 2x

25. coth 2x 50. 32 x

Bird
Apply the chain rule!
 Practice Exercise 171, p 467
 Practice Exercise 172, p 468
 Practice Exercise 173, p 471
 Practice Exercise 176, p 475

TMA105C: Differentiation: The chain rule

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [185]
 ANSWERS 22
Exercise 22.1
1 x
1.1 y '  4 csc 4 x cot 4 x 1.2 y '  sinh
2 2
1 x
1.3 y '  2  52 x ln 5 1.4 y '  sec 2
2 4
1 t
1.5 y'  1.6 y '  cos
t 5
2.1 y '  2sinh 2 x  2 cos 2 x 2.2 y '  3x  3x ln 3
2

3 15 x
2.3 y '  2sec2 2 x  2 csc 2 2 x 2.4 y'   15 x 2 
5 5 x2 2
15 6e x
2.5 y '  2 x 1   4ex e 1

x4 e
2.6 y '  sec x  csc x cot x  2sin 2 x
2

Exercise 22.2

Function Derivative Function Derivative

1. sin 2x 2cos2x 26. tan x 2 2 x sec 2 x 2
2. sin x
2
1 x
2 cos 2 27. tan 2 x 2 tan x sec 2 x
3. sin x 2 2 x sin x 2 28. cot 2x 2 csc 2 2x
4. sin 2 x 2sin x cos x  sin 2x 29. coth 2x 2csch 2 2x
5. sin x
cos x
2 sin x
30. sec 2 3x 6sec 2 3 x tan 3 x
6. 1
sin x
 cot x 31. csc2x 2csc3x cot 2x
7. (3  5 x) 2 10(3  5 x)  30  50 x 32. ln(2 x ) 1
x
5
3  5x 33. ln( x 3 ) 3
8. 2 35x x
5
9. 1
35x (3 5 x ) 2 34. ln 3 ( x) 3ln 2 x
x
1 10 1
10. 35. ln x
 3 5 x 2 (3  5 x )3 2 x ln x

11. 1 5
36. ln(cos x)  tan x
35x 2(35 x )3/2

12. cos3x 3sin3x 37. eln x  x 2

2
2x
13. 3cos x 3sin x 38. ln(e2 x )  2 x 2
14. cos x3 3 x 2 sin x 3 39. log 4 2x ln 2
x

15. cos 3 x 3cos 2 x sin x 40. log 2x ln10

x

16.
2sin x cos x 2cos2x 41. x  x 1
 sin 2 x
17. e 2 x 2e 2 x 42.  x  x ln 
18. e 2x 1
e 2x
43.   0
2x

19. e x / 4 1
4 ex/4 44. cos 2 (1  x) 2 cos(1  x) sin(1  x)
20. x e ex e 1 45. cosh 2 (1  x) 2 cosh(1  x)sinh(1  x)

TMA105C: Differentiation: The chain rule

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [186]
21. sin(e3 x ) 3e3 x cos(e3 x ) 46. cos(1  x 2 ) 2 x sin(1  x 2 )
22. sin(3 ) 0 47.  x32 6
x3

23. cosh 2x 2sinh 2x 48. x 1

x
 x12
24. sinh 3x 1
3 cosh 3x 49. csc3 2x 6 csc3 2 x cot 2 x
25. coth 2x 2csch 2 2x 50. 32 x (2 ln 3)32 x

TMA105C: Differentiation: The chain rule

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [187]
23. THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULES

23.1 BACKGROUND
Let's look at two quite basic derivatives. We know how to obtain the answer!

ACTIVITY 23.1
Determine f '( x) if
x3
a) f ( x)  x( x  3) b) f ( x) 
x
☀ Remember to simply first!

SOLUTION
a) f ( x)  x( x  3)
f ( x)  x 2  3x
 f '( x)  2 x  3
x3
b) f ( x) 
x
3
f ( x)  1 
x
3
 f '( x )   2 ✔
x

Why did we simplify first and then determined the derivative? Let's try to determine
the derivative without simplifying first.
d d d
 x( x  3)   x    x  3
dx dx dx
 1 1  1
 f '( x)

Thus:
 The derivative of the product of two functions IS NOT equal to the product of
the derivatives of each function.
 We need a new rule called the product rule of differentiation.
 The derivative of the quotient of two functions IS NOT equal to the quotient
of the derivatives of each function.
 We need a new rule called the quotient rule of differentiation.

These two rules are discussed in detail in the following sections.

TMA105C: Differentiation: The product and quotient rules

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [188]
23.2 THE PRODUCT RULE
Let u  u ( x) and v  v( x) be two functions of x. Their derivatives are u   du dx and
v  dv respectively. If y  uv , then
dx
dy d
  uv   u v  uv
dx dx
 Apply the product rule when you calculate the derivative of product of two
functions
o Product of three or more functions? Use log differentiation, discussed
in a later section.

ACTIVITY 23.2
Determine dy dx if y  x 2 cos 3x .
SOLUTION
y  x 2  cos 3x
u v

 dy
dx  2 x  cos 3x  x 2  3sin 3x 
u' v u
v'

 2 x cos 3x  3x sin 3x
2
✔

ACTIVITY 23.3
Determine f '(t ) if f (t )  e2t sin 3t .
SOLUTION
t
f (t )  e 2t  sin
u 4
v

t 1 t
 f '(t )  2e 2t sin  e 2t  cos 
u' 4 u 4 4
v v'

t 1 t
 2e 2t sin  e 2t cos ✔
4 4 4

ACTIVITY 23.4
Differentiate with respect to the independent variable: y  t t 2  1 .
SOLUTION
☂ The independent variable is t. Thus, differentiate with respect to t.
☞ Note that t 2 1  t 1.

TMA105C: Differentiation: The product and quotient rules

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [189]
 y  t  t2 1
u v

dy  t 
  1 t2 1  t  
dt u ' u  t 1 
2
v
v'
2
t
 t2 1  ✔
t2 1

EXERCISE 23.1
Differentiate each of the following using the product rule. Simplify your answer.
1. y  x ln x 2. y  x3 tan 2 x
3. y  x3 sec 2 2 x 4. y  e2 x ln 3x
2x 1
5. y  sinh 5 x ln 3x 6. y
x
7. y  2x 4x2 1 8. y  e3 x cos 2t ☂☂☂

23.3 THE QUOTIENT RULE

Let u  u ( x) and v  v( x) be two functions of x. Their derivatives are u   du dx and
v  dv y  uv , then
dx respectively. If
dy d  u  u v  uv
  
dx dx  v  v2
 Apply the quotient rule when you calculate the derivative of the quotient of
two functions.
o Quotient of three or more functions or a mixture of products and
quotients? Use log differentiation, discussed in a later section!

ACTIVITY 23.5
cos 3 x
Determine y ' if y  .
5x2

TMA105C: Differentiation: The product and quotient rules

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [190]
SOLUTION
u

cos 3 x
y
5x2
v

  v 
u' u v'

 3sin 3 x   5 x   (cos 3 x)(10 x)

2
  
y'    
2
 2
 5x 
 v 
15 x sin 3 x  10 x cos 3 x
2
 ✔
25 x 4

ACTIVITY 23.6
e4t
Determine g '(t ) if g (t )  .
5t  1
SOLUTION
u

e 4t
g (t ) 
5t  1
v

 u'   v   u   v' 
 4e 4t   5t  1   e 4t   5 
     
 g '(t )       
2
 
 5t  1
 v 
4e  5t  1  5e 4t
4t


 5t  1
2

e 4t  20t  9 
 ✔
 5t  1
2

ACTIVITY 23.7
3x
Differentiate v  .
x 7
2

TMA105C: Differentiation: The product and quotient rules

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [191]
SOLUTION
3x
v
7  x2
3  7  x 2   3 x  2 x 
v ' 
7  x  2 2

21  3 x 2  6 x 2

7  x  2 2

21  3 x 2

7  x 2 2 ✔

EXERCISE 23.2
Use the quotient rule to differentiate the following. Simplify your answer where
possible.
sin 2 x ln 2x
1. y 2. y
2x x
1 x
3. y 4. y
x 1 1  cot 2 x
cos x 4x
5. y 6. y
1  sin x 2x 1
1  tan 2 x  x2  1 
7. y 8. y  ln  2 
2x  x 1 

EXERCISE 23.3
Determine
dy
dx in each of the following cases using either the appropriate rule.
Simplify the answers where possible.
sec x
1. y 2 2. y  2x tan x
x 1
1  cos x e3 x
3. y 4. y 3
ln x 4 x  x2
2x
5. y  2 x e3 x 6. y  3x
e
7. y  ( x  3)( x  3)
2 5
8. y  ( x  2) 2 ln 2 x
1 2x
9. y  sin 2 x ln x 2 10. y 2
3 x  cot x
 
2x sinh 3 x
11. y  e x1 12. y
1  cosh 2 x

TMA105C: Differentiation: The product and quotient rules

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [192]
Bird
 The theory os covered on pp 469 – 477
 Practice
o Practice Exercise 173, p 471, # 1 – 6
o Practice Exercise 174, p 472, # 1 – 8
o Practice Exercise 175, p 474, # 1 – 7
o Practice Exercise 176, p 475, # 1 – 10
o Practice Exercise 177, p 476, # 1 – 2

TMA105C: Differentiation: The product and quotient rules

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [193]
ANSWERS 23
Exercise 23.1
1. y '  ln x  1 2. y '  3x 2 tan 2 x  2 x3 sec2 2 x
3
3. y'  x sec 2 2 x  4 x 3 sec 2 2 x tan 2 x
2
2x
4. y '  2e2 x ln 3x  e
x
5. y '  5cosh 5 x  sinh 5x 6. y'   1
x x2
8x2
7. y '  2 4 x2 1  8. y '  3e3 x cos 2 x  2e3 x sin 2 x
4 x2 1
❢ 4 x2 1  2 x 1

Exercise 23.2
4 x cos 2 x  2sin 2 x 2 x  x ln 2 x
1. y'  2. y'
4x2 2 x2
1 1  2 x cot x
3. y' 4. y'
2( x  1) 2
5
csc 2 x
1 4
5. y' 6. y' 
1  sin x  2 x  1
2

x sec 2 x tan x  sec 2 x 2x 2x

7. y'  8. y'   2
2 x2 x 1 x 1
2

Exercise 23.3
sec x tan x( x 2  1)  2 x sec x 2 2
1. y'  2. y'  tan x  sec 2 x
( x 2  1) 2
2
x x
x sin x ln x  1  cos x
3. y' 
x ln 2 x
3e3 x  4 x3  x 2   e3 x 12 x 2  2 x 
4. y' 
 4 x3  x 2 
2

y '   2 ln 2  e  2  3e
2 x
ln 2  e3 x  2 x  3e3 x 
5. x 3x x 3x
 6. y'
e6 x
y '  2( x  2) ln 2 x  ( x  2)
2
7. y '  2 x( x  3)5  ( x 2  3)( x  5) 4 8. x
2
9. y '  (2 cos 2 x) ln x 2  sin 2 x  
x
2(3x  cot x)  (1  2 x)(6 x  csc2 x)
2
10. y' 
(3x 2  cot x) 2
2x  2 
11. y '  e x1   2
 ( x  1) 
3cos 3x(1  cosh 2 x)  sinh 3 x(2sinh 2 x)
12. y' 
(1  cosh 2 x) 2

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24. LOG DIFFERENTIATION

24.1 WHAT IS LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION?

24.1.1 The definition
You are familiar with the differentiation rule for expressions containing "ln":

d f '( x)
ln  f ( x)    . (1)
dx f ( x)

To refresh your memory, see if you agree with the following – remember to apply the
chain rule where necessary!
d 2 1
a) ln(2 x)   Chain rule
dx 2x x
d 2x
b) ln( x 2  1)   2 Chain rule
dx x 1

 x ln x   1(ln x)  x    ln x  1
d 1
c) Product rule
dx x
d  2 ln x
 ln x    2(ln x)  1x   Chain rule
2
d)
dx  x
d d 1
e) ln x 2    2 ln x   Simplify first
dx dx x
1
d 1
f) ln  ln x    x  Chain rule
dx ln x x ln x

Now consider the expression ln  x10 sin x  . To determine its derivative we can
proceed in one of two ways:
1. First apply the rule in (1), then simplify:
10 x9 (sin x)  x10 (cos x)
ln  x10 sin x   
d
dx   x10 sin x
10 x9 sin x x10 cos x
 10  10
x sin x x sin x
10
  cot x
x

2. First simplify using log laws, then apply the rule in (1):

TMA105C: Differentiation: Log differentiation

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 ln  x10 sin x    10 ln x  ln(sin x)   
d d 10 cos x 10
  cot x
dx   dx x sin x x

The answers are the same, but the second method was easier! So, what is log
differentiation?

Log differentiation is the process where the laws and properties

of logs are used to simplify expressions before differentiation.

Log differentiation is used in cases where it is easier to differentiate the log of a

function than the function itself. Three specific cases will be demonstrated here.

This type of differentiation relies heavily on the chain rule and the properties of logs.
Do you remember the laws and properties?

24.1.2 Revision of the log laws

Let's recap the log laws and properties before we continue.

For a, b, x and y positive, non-zero real numbers and n any real number:
x
1. ln( xy )  ln x  ln y 2. ln    ln x  ln y
 y
3. ln x n  n ln x 4. ln1  0
5. ln e  1 6. e ln x  x
7. ln e x  x

We will apply the log rules in three different cases:

1. 
There is already a ln in the expression: y  ln x x 2  1 
ex
2. The expression has three or more functions: y 
x ln(ln x)
3. There is a variable in the base and in the exponent: y  x x

24.2 DIFFERENTIATION OF EXPRESSIONS CONTAINING "ln"

Sometimes there already is a "ln" in the expression. Let's look at an example.

ACTIVITY 24.1
 e 2 x 
Determine y ' if y  ln  4
. Simplify the answer.
 (2  x) 
SOLUTION
Note the quotient in the argument of the log? Thus, apply Log Law 2 first:
y  ln  e2 x   ln  (2  x)4 
Apply Laws 7 and 3:

TMA105C: Differentiation: Log differentiation

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 y  2 x  4ln(2  x)
Law 7
Law 3
Now differentiate:
4
y '  2  (1)
1 x
Chain rule

Simplify:
4
y '  2  ✔
1 x

ACTIVITY 24.2
Differentiate y  ln  x x 2  1 with respect to x and simplify your answer.
 
SOLUTION
Note the product in the argument of the log? Thus, apply Log Law 1 first and
keep in mind that x 2  1  ( x 2  1)1/2 :
y  ln x  ln( x 2  1)1/2
Apply Law 3:
y  ln x  12 ln( x2  1)
Differentiate; remember the chain rule!
dy 1 1  2 x 
   
dx x 2  x 2  1 
Simplify:
dy 1 x
  2 ✔
dx x x  1

Now try the following on your own.

EXERCISE 24.1
Differentiate the following with respect to the independent variable. Assume all
arguments of the logs are positive and no denominator is 0. Simplify your answer.
 4  x2   3 x3  1 
1. y  ln   2. y  ln  
 x   1  3x 2 
2x 1  ( x 2  1) 2 
3. y  ln 4. y  ln  
4x  3 x x 3
3 2

 t  1  t  1
5. y  ln   6. y  ln 
 t  1  t  1 

24.3 TWO CASES WHERE WE INTRODUCE "ln"

24.3.1 Motivation
We know that

TMA105C: Differentiation: Log differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [197]
 d 3 d x d 3
 x   3x 2 , 3   3x ln 3 and 3   0 .
dx dx dx  
d
But what about  x x  , where we have a variable in the base AND in the exponent?
dx  

We also know that

d 2x
e sin x   2e 2 x sin x  e 2 x cos x (Product Rule for TWO functions)
dx
d  e 2 x  2 x 3e 2 x  3 x 2 e 2 x

dx  x3 
(Quotient Rule for TWO functions)
x6

d  e 2 x sin x 
dx  x 3 
But what about where we have THREE functions?

The examples above illustrate two types of expressions where the introduction of logs
will simplify the differentiation:
 We have an exponential expressions with a variable in the base and in the
exponent; and
 We have the product/quotient of more than two function sin the expression.

However, let's first refresh our knowledge of differentiation.

24.3.2 An important reminder

dy
We know that if y  x 2 , then  2 x because:
dx
dy
 The derivative of y with respect to x is y ' 
dx
 The derivative of x2 with respect to x is 2x.

What is the derivative of ln y with respect to x? Recall that

d f '( x)
ln  f ( x)   
dx f ( x)
Thus, if y is a function of x, then
d y'
ln y   .
dx y

24.3.3 A variable in the base and the exponent

The process is best explained with an example.

ACTIVITY 22.3
Determine y ' if y  x x .
SOLITION
On the right-hand side we have the variable x in the base and in the exponent; we
can thus not use one of the existing differentiation rules.

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 Let's introduce "ln" on both sides:
ln y  ln x x
Apply Log Law 3 on the right:
ln y  x ln x
Note the product (x times ln x ) on the right!

Differentiate both sides:

y'
 ln x  x  1x 
y
 ln x  1
Now solve for y ' :
y '  y  ln x  1 ✔

☞ The derivative y '  y  ln x  1 is in implicit form because there is a y on the

left- and right-hand side. The derivative will be in explicit form if we
substitute the y  x x . Thus,
 Implicit form of the derivative: y '  y  ln x  1
 Explicit form of the derivative: y '  x x ln x  1

ACTIVITY 24.4
Differentiate y  (sin x) x with respect to x.
SOLUTION
Variable in the base (sin x) and in the exponent ⇒ introduce "ln".
Introduce logs and simplify:
ln y  ln (sin x) x 
 x ln  sin x 
Note the product (x) [ln(sinx)]!
Differentiate, applying the product rule on the right:
y'  cos x 
 ln(sin x)  x 
y  sin x 
Thus,
y '  y ln(sin x)  x cot x  ✔

Now try the following on your own.

EXERCISE 24.2
Use logarithmic differentiation to determine y ' .
1. y  x 2/ x 2. y  x x 1
3. y  ( x  1) x 1 4. y  xsin x
5. y  (ln x) x 6. y  x ln x

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24.3.4 The product/quotient of more than two functions
e 2 x sin x
Let's use y  to illustrate the process.
x3

ACTIVITY 24.5
e 2 x sin x
Determine y ' if y  .
x3
SOLUTION
Note the three functions e2x, sinx and x3 on the right. We'll introduce "ln" and the
apply the log laws to simplify the expression on the right.
Introduce "ln" both sides:
 e2 x sin x 
ln y  ln  3 
 x 
Apply Laws 1 and 2 on the right:
ln y  ln  e2 x   ln  sin x   ln  x3 
Now apply Laws 3 and 7:
ln y  2 x  ln  sin x   3ln x
Differentiate both sides:
y' cos x 3
 2 
y sin x x
Simplify:
 3
y '  y  2  cot x   ✔
 x

ACTIVITY 24.6
2 x cosh 3x
Differentiate y  with respect to x.
x
SOLUTION
Introduce "ln" because there are three functions on the right. Then apply the log
laws to simplify the expression on the right.
 2 x cosh 3 x 
ln y  ln  
 x 
 x ln 2  ln  cosh 3 x   12 ln x
Thus,
y' 3sinh 3 x 1  1 
 ln 2    
y cosh 3 x 2  x 
so that
 1 
y '  y  ln 2  3 tanh 3 x   ✔
 2x 

ACTIVITY 24.7
Determine x ' if x  t 3  t t .

TMA105C: Differentiation: Log differentiation

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SOLUTION
d 3
Carefully look at the right-hand side: We know that t   3t 2 , but what about
dt
d t
the last term t  ? Do we introduce "ln" or not?
dt  

Let's introduce logs in the given function:

ln y  ln t 3  t t 
 ln t 3   ln t t 
There are no "log law" to simplify ln t 3  t t  and we can't determine the
derivative. We'll differentiate the two terms separately and then combine the
two answers to get the final answer.

dx d d
Let x  y1  y2 where y1  t 3 and y2  t t . Then   y1    y2  .
dt dt dt
We know that
d d
 y1   (t 3 )  3t 2
dt dt
Introduce "ln" to determine the derivative of the second term:
ln  y2   t ln t
Thus,
y2 '  y2 ln t  1 Remember the product rule!
But
y2  t t
 y2 '  y2  ln t  1
NB! Note the substitution y2  t
t

 t ln t  t
t t

so that
dx
 3t 2  t t ln t  t t ✔
dt

EXERCISE 24.3
Use logarithmic differentiation to determine y ' .
x ln x
1. y  ( x  1)( x  2)( x  3) 2. y
1 x
x5 x sin x
3. y 4. y
x cos x sec x
sin 2 x tan 4 x x3/4 x 2  1
5. y 6. y
( x 2  1)2 cos x

22.4 SUMMARY
Figure 2 summarizes the three cases in a diagram.

TMA105C: Differentiation: Log differentiation

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 Figure 2 A summary of the three cases

24.5 Common mistakes

Important notes
 In all the work above we assume that the argument of the log is a positive
real number and that all the denominators exist. This may be quite
dangerous – when using log differentiation in applications, make sure that
the log exist and that no denominators are zero.
 In assessments we might expect you to decide whether or not to use log
differentiation. Practice so that you can make informed decisions.
 Take note of the back-substitution in Example 7.

Common mistakes
Carefully scrutinize the following examples and take note of the mistakes –
then make sure you don't make them!

Log laws applied incorrectly:

Incorrect Correct
ln( x  y )  ln x  ln y ln x  ln y  ln( xy )
ln( x  y )  ln x  ln y ln x  ln y  ln 
x
y

ln( xy )  ln x ln y ln( xy )  ln x  ln y

 
ln xy 
ln x ln    ln x  ln y
x
y
ln y

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 ln x
 ln x  ln y ln    ln x  ln y
x
y
ln y

Differentiation laws applied incorrectly:

d 3x2
 e   (3x  2)e(3 x  2)1  (3x  2)e x 1
dx
d n
o This is based on the rule u   nu n 1 du
dx
dx
o Problem: The exponent is NOT a constant
d 3x2
  x   x3 x  2 ln x(3)
dx 
d u
o This is based on the rule  a   a u ln a du
dx
dx
o Problem: The base is NOT a constant

Bird
 The theory is discussed on pages 512 – 517.
 Also practice by doing the following.
o Practice Exercise 191, p 513
o Practice Exercise 192, p 515
o Practice Exercise 193, p 516 – 517
o Revision Test 14, p 518, # 6, 7, 8

EXERCISE 24.4
1. Determine
dy
dx in each of the following cases using log differentiation.
Simplify the answers where possible.
 x 2 e3 x  x 2 e3 x
1.1 y  ln   1.2 y 
 sin x  sin x
 (1  x 2 ) cos 3x  (1  x 2 ) cos 3 x
1.3 y  ln   1.4 y
 e3 x  e3 x
 e 2 x 
y  x1 x y  ln 
2

4
1.5 1.6
 (2  x) 
x2 8x  5
1.7 y 1.8 y  x x tanh x
(2 x  1)3

1.9 y  (sin x) tan x 1.10 y  ( x 2  1) x

2. Differentiate the following with respect to the independent variab3e. Simplify

all answers.

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 sin x  cos x
y  xe
6x
2.1 2.2 y
cos x  sin x

 x  1
2.3 y  ln 
 x  1 

3. Express y ' explicitly as a function of x in each of the following cases.

3.1 y  xcosh x 3.2 yx x

Bird
 The theory is covered on pp 512 – 517
 Practice
o Practice Exercise 191, p 513
o Practice Exercise 192, p 515
o Practice Exercise 193, p 516

TMA105C: Differentiation: Log differentiation

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ANSWERS 24
Exercise 24.1
x 1 x2 3x
1. y'  2. y' 
4 x 2
x x  1 1  3x 2
3

1 2 4x 3 x
3. y'  4. y' 2   2
2x 1 4x  3 x 1 x x  3
1 1 1 1
5. y'   6. y'  
t 1 t 1 t 1 t 1

Exercise 24.2
 2 ln x 2   x  1
1. y' y  2 2. y '  y  ln x 
 x
2
x   x 

 x  1  sin x 
3. y '  y ln( x  1)  4. y '  y  cos x ln x 
 x  1   x 

 1  2 ln x
5. y '  y  ln(ln x )  6. y'
 ln x  x

Exercise 24.3
y 1 1 1  1 1 1 
1. y'    2. y' y  
2  x  1 x  2 x  3   x x ln x 1  x 
 1 1  1 1 
3. y' y   tan x  4. y '  y   cot x  tan x 
x5 x  x 2 
 4x 
5. y '  y  2 cot x  4sec 2 x cot x  2 
 x  1
3 x 
6. y' y  2  tan x 
 4x x 1 

Exercise 24.4
2 2 
1.1 y '   3  cot x 1.2 y '  y   3  cot x 
x x 
2x  2x 
1.3 y'    3 tan 3 x  3 1.4 y '  y   3 tan 3 x  3
1  x2  1 x
2

 1  x2  4
y '  y  2 x ln x  y '  2 
x 
1.5 1.6
 2 x
2 4 6   sech 2 x 
y  y   y '  y ln x  1 
tanh x 
1.7 1.8
 x 8 x  5 2 x  1  

 2x2 
1.9 y '  y sec2 x ln  sin x   1 1.10 y '  y ln  x 2  1  2 
 x  1

TMA105C: Differentiation: Log differentiation

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  e6 x 
y '  y 6e6 x ln x  y '   y tan 2 x
x 
2.1 2.2


1 1  cosh x 
2.3 y'   3.1 y '  x cosh x sinh x ln x 
x 1 x 1  x 
 ln x 1 
3.2 y'  x x
  
2 x x

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25. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

25.1 WHAT IS "IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION"?

25.1.1 Motivation
Why do we need "implicit differentiation"? Let's first consider the two English words
"explicit" and "implicit".
 Explicit: Stated clearly and precisely
 Implicit: Implied though not directly expressed
How do we use those words in Mathematics?

Up to now, most variables were defined in the explicit form y  f ( x) . For example,
in the equation
y  3x 2  5
the variable y is written explicitly as a function of x; y is clearly defined in terms of x.
To calculate the value of y, we substitute a value of x and get a unique value of y.

Some variables are, however, defined in implicit form. For instance, y is implicitly
defined by xy  4 . When we substitute a value of x we still have to "solve" for y. In
this example we are able to determine an expression for y: y  4 x ; x  0 .

Here is another example where y is implicitly defined as a function of x: x 2  y 2  4 .

dy
In order to determine y '  dx we first solve for y and then differentiate both sides
of the explicit form as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Implicitly and explicitly defined variables

Implicit form Explicit form Derivative

y  5  3x 2 y  3x 2  5 y '  6x
xy  4 y4 y'   4
x x2
x2  y 2  4 y   4  x2 y'
x
4  x2
ey  x y  ln x, x  0 y' 1
x

☞ Note that y  y ( x ) defined implicitly by x 2  y 2  4 is not a function. From its

explicit form y   4  x 2 we see that it is a combination of the two functions
y   4  x 2 and y   4  x 2 .

TMA105C: Differentiation: Implicit differentiation

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This strategy used Table 1 to determine the derivative of an implicitly defined
variable works well when we are able to solve for y explicitly. However, we are most
often not able to do this. For example, it would be difficult (though possible) to solve
for y in x3  y 3  2 xy . The "smooth" curve in Figure 3 suggests that we may be able
to determine the derivative; we can draw a tangent to the curve at any point. We use a
differentiation technique called implicit differentiation to do it.

Figure 3 The graph of x3 + y3 = 2xy

☂ The curve in the sketch is not a function; use the vertical-line test to verify
this.

25.1.2 A few definitions

Definitions
Explicitly defined variable: Express one variable explicitly in terms of another
variable, e.g. y  3x  2
 One variable is the subject of the formula; no y's on the right-hand side

Implicitly defined variable: The variable is defined implicitly by a relation between

the variables, e.g. sin( xy )  e x  y and x 2  y 2  16
 Mixture of variables on the left and/or right of the equation

Implicit differentiation: The process of determining the derivative of an implicitly

defined variable.

25.2 THE CHAIN RULE REVISITED

dy
Remember, y '  dx implies differentiation with respect to x. Thus,
 When we differentiate expressions involving x and constants only, we
differentiate as usual.

TMA105C: Differentiation: Implicit differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [208]
  When we differentiate expressions involving y, we must use the chain
rule because we assume that y is implicitly defined as a function of x.

dy
❢ Reminder: If y  x 3 , then  3 x 2 . Thus, the derivative of y with respect to x
dx
is dy .
dx

Compare the following two cases:

d 3 d 3 dy
dx
(x )= 3 x 2
dx
(y )= 3 y 2
dx
Variables the same Variables the different

Why? Let u  y 3 where y  y ( x ) , that is, y is a function of x. Then, from the chain
rule,
du du dy
 .
dx dy dx
But
du
 3y2
dy
and
 dy 
 3 y2     3 y2
d du dy
 y 3   .
dx dx  dx  dx

☂ In future, remember to apply the chain rule were necessary. It will be done
implicitly in the upcoming examples.

ACTIVITY 25.1
Evaluate the following derivatives:
d dy
(a)  x  3y  1 3
dx dx
Product rule

(b)
d
 xy 2   (1)
dx   d
 y    x  2 y   dy
2 
 y
dx 
2
 2 xy
dy
dx
( x ) 1
dx
dx
 
d 2
y 2 y
dy
dx

☞ Note the application of the product rule!

sin xy   cos xy  y  x 
d dy
(c)
dx  dx 
d
( xy )
dx

☞ Note that sin xy  sin( xy ) and NOT sin xy   sin x  y

TMA105C: Differentiation: Implicit differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [209]
 d dy  dy 
(d)  y  x 2 y     2 xy  x 2   y ' 2 xy  x 2 y '
dx dx  dx 

dx
 
d 2
x y

☞ Note the use of brackets to prevent sign mistakes!

25.3 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

Make sure you understand the difference between the following two concepts.
 Implicit differentiation: The process of determining the derivative of
an implicitly defined variable
o Differentiate both sides of the relation, keeping in mind that y is
dy
a function of x, that is, the derivative of y is y ' 
dx
o Then solve for y '
 Implicitly defined variable: The variable is defined implicitly by a
relation between the variables, e.g. x 2  y 2  16
o In this case y can be explicitly defined by two functions
y   16  x 2 .
o It is not always possible to change the subject to y, e.g.
x 2  xy  y 3  5 .

STEPS
1. As always, simplify the given expression if possible.
2. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to the independent
variable.
3. Solve for the derivative.
4. Simplify if possible.

ACTIVITY 25.2
Determine y ' if y 5  xy  x5  1 .
SOLUTION
Assume y is a function of x.
Differentiate:
 
5 y 4 y '   y  x y '   5x4  0
 
Diff. y  Diff. y 

Simplify:
5 y 4 y ' y  xy ' 5 x 4  0
Make y ' the subject:

TMA105C: Differentiation: Implicit differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [210]
 y '(5 y 4  x)  y  5 x 4
y  5x4
y'
5 y4  x

ACTIVITY 25.3
Assume y  f ( x) . Determine y '  dy dx if y  2 x ln y  y 2  x .
SOLUTION
 
 y'
y '  2 ln y  2 x    2 y y ' 1
 y
 Product rule 
y'
y ' 2 x   2 y y '  1  2 ln y
y
 2x 
y ' 1   2 y   1  2 ln y
 y 
1  2 ln y
y'
2x
1  2y
y

ACTIVITY 25.4
Let y be a function of x and x5  x 2 y  xy 2  y 3  7 . Determine dy
dx at the point (1; 2) .
SOLUTION
5x4   2 xy  x2 y '   y 2  2 xy y '  3 y 2 y '  0

y '  x 2  2 xy  3 y 2   y 2  2 xy  5 x 4
y 2  2 xy  5 x 4
y' 2
x  2 xy  3 y 2
Substitute x  1 and y  2 :
22  2(2)  5
y' 
1  2(2)  3(2) 2
5

17

Bird
 The theory is covered on pp 507 – 511
 Practice using the following exercises.
o Practice Exercise 188, p 508
o Practice Exercise 189, p 509
o Practice Exercise 190, p 511
o Revision Test 14, p 518, # 4 & 5

TMA105C: Differentiation: Implicit differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [211]
EXERCISE 25.1
Determine dy in each of the following cases implicit differentiation. Simplify the
dx
answers where possible.
1. x 2  xy  y 2  3 2. x cos y  y cos x  1
3. tan y  xy  sin 2 4. xy 2  sec 2 y
5. x 2 coth y  y 2  csc x 6. x 2  sin xy  y
y
7.  xy  y sin x 8. x3 y 2  2 x  y  36
x
9. 2 y 2  y cos x  3x 2 y 10. cosh xy  y 2

EXERCISE 25.2
1. Derive expressions for y ' . Simplify your answers.
1.1 sin xy  x 2  2 xy 2 1.2 sin  x  y   y 2  x3  9  0
e   ln cos y
2 x y
1.3 1.4 xy  x  2 y
1.5 2 cos x sin y  1 1.6 sin x  2 cos 2 y  1
1.7 sin x  x  2  tan y  1.8 sin  x  cos  y  2
x 1
1.9 y2  1.10 tanh  x  y   x
x2  1
1.11 x 2  y 2  xy 2  5 1.12 cosh  x 2  y   2 xy  0
1.13 ln y  ln  x  1  ln x 2 1.14 ln  xy   2 y  0
x y
1.15 e  sin x  0 1.16 coth xy  sin x 2  x cos y 3
x y
1.17 sin xy   ln  1.18  tan xy  sin e
y x
1.19 x cot y  y sinh x

2. Determine the equations of the tangent and the normal to the curve
x 2  y 2  3xy  11  0 at the point (1;2).

TMA105C: Differentiation: Implicit differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [212]
ANSWERS 25
Exercise 25.1
Check answers!
2x  y y sin x  cos y
1. y' 2. y' 
2 x cos x  x sin y
y y2
3. y'  4. y' 
sec y  x
2
2sec 2 y tan 2 y  2 xy
csc x cot x  2 x coth y 2 x  y cos xy
5. y'  6. y' 
x 2 csch 2 y  2 y 1  x cos xy
x 2 y cos x  y  x 2 y 2  3x 2 y 2
7. y'  8. y' 
x  x3  x 2 sin x 2 x3 y  1
6 xy  y sin x y sinh xy
9. y'  10. y' 
2 y  cos x  3x 2 2 y  x sinh xy

Exercise 25.2
2 x  2 y 2  y cos xy 3x 2  cos  x  y 
1.1 y'  1.2 y' 
x cos xy  4 xy cos  x  y   2 y
2e2 x  y 2 xy  y
1.3 y'  1.4 y' 
e2 x  y  tan y x  4 xy
cos x
1.5 y '  tan x tan y 1.6 y'
4sin 2 y
2  tan y  cos x cos  x
1.7 y'  1.8 y' 
 x sec2 y sin  y
 x2  2 x 1 1  sech 2 ( x  y)
1.9 y'  1.10 y' 
2 y  x 2  1 sech 2 ( x  y)
2

y2  2x 2 y  2 x sinh  x 2  y 
1.11 y'  1.12 y' 
2 y  2 xy sinh  x 2  y   2 x
 1 2 y
1.13 y' y   1.14 y ' 
 x 1 x  x  2 xy
 cos x  e 
x y
1.15 y' 
e 
x y

2 x cos x 2  y csc h 2  xy   cos y 3

1.16 y' 
 x csc h 2  xy   3xy 2 sin y 3
y (1  y 2 cos xy ) y  x 2 y sec2 xy
1.17 y'  1.18 y' 
xy 2 cos xy  x x(1  x 2 sec2 xy)
y cosh x  cot y
1.19 y' 
 x csc2 y  sinh x

2. Tangent: 7 y  8 x  22 ; Normal: 8 y  7 x  9

TMA105C: Differentiation: Implicit differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [213]
26. MIXED EXERCISES

Mixed Exercise 26.1

Determine the derivative of each of the following. Simplify the answers where
possible.
1
1. y  10 x  x10  102 2. y  2x 
2x
3. y  sinh x  sinh x
2 2
4. y  sec x csc x  tan x cot x
x2
5. y  ln e x /5  e x /5  e1/5 6. y
x2  3
x x 1
7. y 8. y
x 1 x
9. y  x ln x 10. y  x sin x
11. y  tanh 2 x 3
12. y  tanh 2 x3
13. y  ln x 2  log x3 14. y  3 x2  1
15. y  ln sin 3x 16. y  e x ln x
y  3x x
y  ln(ln x)
2
17. 18.
 ln x
y  x ln 2 x y  ex
2
19. 20.
5
21. y  x log 4 x 22. y
3  7x
23. y  e ln x 2 1
24. y  cos(ln 3 x)
25. y  ln 2 x x  1 26. y  ln 2 x  x  1
x x2  2
27. y 2 28. y
x 2 x
29. y  sinh 2 x cosh 2 x 30. y  sin 2 x cos 2 x
31. y  sin 2 x cosh 2 x 32. y  esinh x ln cos x
x
33. y  x tanh x 34. y
tanh x
cos 2 x
35. y 36. y  cosh 2 5 x  sinh 2 5 x
sin 2 x

TMA105C: Differentiation: Mixed exercises

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [214]
MIXED EXERCISE 26.2 (Dr Aphane)
1. Determine the derivative of each of the following. Simplify your answers.

1.1 y  cos   x3  x 2  2 x y  ln  x 2    ln x   ln x
3
1.2
5 x
y  etan x sec2 x y  e6 x
2 2
1.3 1.4 ln x3
e2
1.5 y  2 y   x  eln  ln  3sin 3x   x
x 2
1.6
x x
1
1.7 y  ln x cot x   sec x  ln 3sin 3 x  e x 1
 xe 
x
1.8 y  e3t cot 2t 1.9 y  ln  ln x   ln 3  sin ln x2  
1.10 y  cos  2 x3  3x   cot  ln x 
1.11 y   x 2  1
10
1.12 y  e x cos 5 x

1.13 y  tan   sec   6sin  1.14 y   cos 
 1
t
1.15 y  cos  sin 4t 1.16 y  t t2  3
3
1 tan x
1.17 y  tan t  ln sec 1  t  1.18 y
3 e4 x  1
1.19 y  x 2 ln x 1.20 y  esin x  log 4 x 5
1.21 y  sinh 3x  cosh 4 x 2
1.22 y  ln(tanh 4t )  esec ht

2. Determine expressions for y ' . Simplify all answers.

sin x  cos x sin x cos x
2.1 y  ln 2.2 y
cos x  sin x e x  x 2  1
1

x  1  3 x  1
1 3
2 2

2.3 y  xsin x 2.4 y 1

x4  x4  25
1
cos x tan x
2.5 y  x 3 x 1 2.6 y
ln 1  x 2 
cos x ln x
y  ln
y   ln x 
x
2.7 x 2.8

3  2 x2 sec 2 x x  4
2.9 y  ln 2.10 y
2 x 75 x ecos x
3x
e sec3 x
2.11 y 2.12 y  (sinh x) tanh x
x 2x  3
4 2

esech t
2.13 y
(ln t ) cosh t

TMA105C: Differentiation: Mixed exercises

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [215]
3. Derive expressions for y ' . Simplify your answers.
3.1 sin xy  x 2  2 xy 2 3.2 sin  x  y   y 2  x3  9  0
e
2 x y 
3.3  ln cos y 3.4 xy  x  2 y
3.5 2 cos x sin y  1 3.6 sin x  2 cos 2 y  1
3.7 sin x  x  2  tan y  3.8 sin  x  cos  y  2
x 1
3.9 y2  3.10 tanh  x  y   x
x2  1
3.11 x 2  y 2  xy 2  5 3.12 cosh  x 2  y   2 xy  0
3.13 ln y  ln  x  1  ln x 2 3.14 ln  xy   2 y  0
x y
3.15 e  sin x  0 3.16 coth xy  sin x 2  x cos y 3
x y
3.17 sin xy   ln  3.18  tan xy  sin e
y x
3.19 x cot y  y sinh x

TMA105C: Differentiation: Mixed exercises

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [216]
ANSWERS 26
Mixed Exercise 26.1
1 1
1. y '  10 x ln10  10 x9 2. y'  
2 x 2 8 x3
3. y '  2 x sinh x 2  2sinh x cosh x 4. y '  4 csc 2 x cot 2 x
1 1 x 6x
5. y '  e 5 6. y'   2
5 5 ( x  3)2
1 1
7. y'   2 8. y' 2
( x  1) 2 x
9. y '  ln x  1 10. y '  sin x  x cos x
11. y '  6 tanh 2 2 x sech 2 2 x 12. y '  6 x 2 sech 2 2 x3
2 3
13. y'   14. y '  x( x 2  1) 2/3
x x ln10
15. y '  3cot 3 x 16. y '  e x ln x (ln x  1)
1
y '  3x x
(2 x  1) ln 3 y'
2
17. 18.
x ln x
1
y '  ln 2 x  y '  e x  2 x 2e x
2 2
19. 20.
ln 2 x
1 35
21. y '  log 4 x  22. y'
ln 4 (3  7 x) 2
x  sin x
23. y' 24. y'
x 12 x
1
2
25. y' 
1

1
26. y' 2 x 1
2 2( x  1) 2x  x 1
2  x2
27. y'  28. y' x
( x 2  2) 2
29. y '  cosh 2 x 30. y '  cos 2 x
31. y '  2 cos x cosh 2 x  2sin 2 x sinh 2 x
32. y '  esinh x cosh x ln cos x  tan x 
1 1 tanh x  x sech 2 x
33. y'  tanh x  sech 2 x 34. y' 
2 x 2 2 x tanh 2 x
35. y '   csc x cot x 36. y' 0

Mixed Exercise 26.2

2 3  ln x 
2
1
1.1 y  0  3x  2 x  2
' 2
1.2 y  
'

x x 2 x ln x
y '  2etan x sec2 x tan x  2etan x sec4 x tan x
2 2
1.3

TMA105C: Differentiation: Mixed exercises

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [217]
  3 e 2  2 x  1
 12 x  5  ln x  
6 x2 5 x
1.4 y e
' 3
1.5 y 
'

 x x  x
2 2

1
1.6 y '   x ln    6 cot 3x   x 1
2 x
cot x 3cot 3x e x 1 1
1.7 y'   ln x csc 2 x   sec x tan x    ex e 1  2
x 2 2 x 1 x
2 cos  ln x 2 
 2csc 2t  3cot 2t 
1
1.8 y  e
' 3t 2
1.9 y 
'
0
x ln x x
csc 2  ln x 
1.10 y   sin  2 x  3 x  6 x  3  
' 3 2

x
1.11 y '  20 x  x  1 2 9

1.12 y '  e x cos 5 x  5e x sin 5 x 1.13 y '  sec2   sec  tan   6cos 
  1 1 t 2 cos 4t
1.14 y'   cos    sin  1.15 y '   sin 
2    1
2
3 3 sin 2t
t2 1
1.16 y'  t 2  3  1.17 y '  sec 2 t  tan 1  t 
t2  3 3

1.18 y' 
 e4 x  1 sec2 x  4e4 x tan x 1.19 y '  2 x ln x  x
e  1
4x 2

5
1.20 y '  esin x cos x  1.21 y '  3cosh 3 x  8cosh 4 x sinh 4 x
x ln 4
4sech 2 4t
1.22 y'   sech t tanh t.esech t
tanh 4t
1  cos x  sin x sin x  cos x 
2.1 y'   
2  sin x  cos x cos x  sin x 
 2x   sin x 
2.2 y '  y  cot x  tan x  1  2  2.3 y '  y cos x ln x 
 x  1  x 
 x 1 4 4 x3 
2.4 y'  y  2    
 x  1 3 x  1 x 5  x  2  
4

 3ln x 1 
2.5 y'  y   
 (3x  1) x(3 x  1) 
2

 tan x sec 2 x 2x 
2.6 y '  y    
 2 2 x tan x 1  x 2  ln 1  x 2  

tan x 1 1  1 
2.7 y'     2.8 y '  y ln(ln x ) 
2 x x ln x 2 x  ln x 
4x 1
2.9 y'   
3  2x 2
2 x

TMA105C: Differentiation: Mixed exercises

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  1 
2.10 y '  y  2 tan x   5ln 7  sin x 
 2x  8 
 4 2x 
2.11 y '  y 3  3 tan 3 x   2
 x 2 x  3 
2.12 y '  y[sec h2 x ln sinh x  1]
2 x  2 y 2  y cos xy 3x 2  cos  x  y 
3.1 y 
'
3.2 y 
'

x cos xy  4 xy cos  x  y   2 y
2e2 x  y 2 xy  y
3.3 y'  3.4 y' 
e2 x  y  tan y x  4 xy
cos x
3.5 y '  tan x tan y 3.6 y' 
4sin 2 y
2  tan y  cos x cos  x
3.7 y'  3.8 y' 
 x sec 2 y sin  y
 x2  2x  1 1  sec h 2 ( x  y )
3.9 y 
'
3.10 y' 
2 y  x 2  1 sec h 2 ( x  y )
2

y2  2x 2 y  2 x sinh  x 2  y 
3.11 y  '
3.12 y  '

2 y  2 xy sinh  x 2  y   2 x
 1 2 y
3.13 y'  y    3.14 y' 
 x 1 x  x  2 xy
 cos x  e 
x y
3.15 y' 
e 
x y

2 x cos x 2  y csc h 2  xy   cos y 3

3.16 y' 
 x csc h 2  xy   3xy 2 sin y 3
y(1  y 2 cos xy ) y  x 2 y sec2 xy
3.17 y  '
3.18 y  '

xy 2 cos xy  x x(1  x 2 sec 2 xy )

y cosh x  cot y
3.19 y' 
 x csc2 y  sinh x

TMA105C: Differentiation: Mixed exercises

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27. THE NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD

27.1 BACKGROUND
You have the tools to solve linear and quadratics algebraic equations, trigonometric
equations, and exponential and log equations.

For example, if x 2  x  1  0 , we may use the quadratic formula to obtain the

solution:
b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
1  1  4

2
1 3j
 
2 2

You may even use your clever calculator to solve quadratic and cubic equations.

ACTIVITY 27.1.1
Solve for x if x3  3x 2  x  1  0 . w541=p3=1=
SOLUTION
Using the Casio, p1===$$$$$
x  2.769; x  0.115  0.590 j ✔

We expect three solutions because we have a cubic

equation. Why is there only one real solution? The
graph of f ( x)  x3  3x 2  x  1 is shown in Figure
4Error! Reference source not found.. Note how
the curve intercepts the x-axis only once. Therefore
we have only one real solution.

What if you didn't have a calculator to solve the

equation in Activity 1.1? It is not possible to
factorize f ( x)  x3  3x 2  x  1 . We need another Figure 4 The graph for Activity 1.1
method!

ACTIVITY 27.1.2
For x if 6 x 4  11x3  93 x 2  13 x  15  0 .
SOLUTION
We may factorize the left-hand side using any valid technique:
6 x 4  11x3  93x 2  13x  15  ( x  3)(2 x  1)( x  5)(3x  1)

TMA105C: Differentiation: The Newton Raphson method

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 The solution is thus
x  5; x   1 3 ; x  1 2 ; x  3
as confirmed by the graph in Figure 5. ✔

What if we were unable to factorize the polynomial on

the left-hand side? There are formulas to solve some
cubic and fourth-order algebraic equations, which are
beyond the scope of this course. However, there are
no general formulas to solve higher order algebraic
equations. We need another method! Figure 5 The graph for Activity 1.2

The sinc function, shown in Figure 6, appears quite often in Fourier transforms, a
mathematical application you may learn about in
advanced mathematics courses. To determine the
local maxima and minima of the function, we have
to solve the transcendental equation tan x  x .

You may use the SOLVE function on your

calculator; I tried and got only one solution: x  0 .
From the sketch we see there are actually many
turning points. So, how can we determine the other
turning points? We need a new method! Figure 6 The sinc function

 Make sure your calculator is in radian mode!

The so-called Newton-Raphson method provides a relatively fast and effective

technique to solve most equations, at least numerically.

Before we get to the method, remember the following rules for rounding!

ROUNDING
The rule: Assume you have to work with n decimal places.
 If the decimal digit at position n  1 is 4 or less, the value of the digit in position
n stays the same.
o Round off to three decimal places
 1.3972  1.397
 1.39729  1.397
 If the decimal digit at position n  1 is 5 or more, add one to the digit in position
n.
o Round off to three decimal places
 1.3978  1.398
 1.39789  1.398
 1.39784  1.398

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27.2 THE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
27.2.1 Short history
Isaac Newton described a method to determine the roots of any polynomial in
documents written in 1669 and 1671, but unfortunately never published them. The
method was published later by William Jones and John Colson in the 1700's. Newton
thought the method was applicable to polynomials only; he never linked it to
principles in calculus.

Joseph Raphson published a simplified version of Newton's method 1690. He also

believed the method was restricted to polynomials only. In 1740 Thomas Simpson
described Newton's method as an iterative method for solving general non-linear
equations using calculus methods.

27.2.2 What is the Newton-Raphson method?

The Newton-Raphson method is a numerical method used to solve equations of the
form f ( x)  0 .

Today some books refer to the method as Newton's method, while others call it the
Newton-Raphson method. Everybody, however, agrees on the formula and the steps
involved.

27.2.3 The derivation of the formula

Consider the function y  f ( x) in Figure 7. To determine the x-intercept of the curve,
we must solve for x in f ( x)  0 .
☞ The derivation of the formula is beyond the scope
for Higher Certificate and Diploma students.

☂ We give only a brief overview of the derivation

here. You may get the complete derivation from
myTUTor.

You may investigate on your own using the Figure 7 The solution of f(x) = 0
following CDF file on myTUTor. Note the
copyright!
 Learning Newton's method

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☀ You must, however, be able to apply the formula!

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE METHOD

 Since we don't know this value of x we "guess" a
value and call it x1 .
 Draw a vertical line from the point ( x1;0) to the
point  x1; f ( x1 )  on the curve as shown in Figure
Figure 8 The tangent lines
8.
 Draw the line tangent to the curve at this point.
 Let the tangent intercept the x-axis at x2 , a value closer to the actual intercept
x.
 Since we know the value if x1 and the slope m  dy dx
, we may calculate the
x  x1

value of x2 :
f ( x1 )
x2  x1 
f '( x1 )
 Repeat the steps until the point xn is "close" to the actual value of x. Then,
f ( xn )
xn 1  x1 
f ( xn )

This formula is called the Newton-Raphson formula and is used to solve an equation
by applying the formula repeatedly.
 It is an example of an iterative process because the same formula is used over
and over until the specified degree of accuracy is reached.
 Each step in the process is called an iteration.
 The solution of the equation is usually an approximation since the actual
solution is unknown and we can't use manipulations of the equation (such as
the quadratic formula) to solve it.
 The method yields real solutions only.
 CAS uses a numerical root finder to solve an equation; most uses this method.

REMEMBER
 Always first write the given equation in the form f ( x)  0 .
 When x1 is chosen "wisely", the sequence of approximations  x1; x2 ; x3 ; 
will converge (gets closer to) the exact root x.
 The number of iterations depends on the accuracy required.
 Remember, "four iterations" means "calculate x5 ".
 How many iterations? Suppose an accuracy of four decimal places is required.
Stop when xn1  xn  0.0001 , that is the first four decimal places of
successive values of xn are the same.
 When asked for an answer with three decimal places, round all intermediate
approximations off to four decimal places.

TMA105C: Differentiation: The Newton Raphson method

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 Some textbooks label the initial guess x0 and some uses x1 . In these notes the
notations may be "mixed". Some textbooks use r instead of x.

Let's summarize the steps in the Newton-Raphson method.

27.2.4 The steps

Following the steps shown in Figure 9 to solve an equation using the Newton-
Raphson method:
1. Write the equation in the standard form f ( x)  0 .

2. Calculate f ( x ) .

3. Write down the formula for the specific problem.

4. Enter the formula in your calculator.

5. Substitute the latest value of X (on the calculator) to calculate

the next iterative value.

6. Say the answer must be given accurately to three decimal

places.
a. Write each answer with four decimals (one extra).
b. Compare two successive answers.
i. If the two answers are the same up to and
including the fourth decimal, stop.
ii. If not, substitute the latest value of X.

7. Write down the approximate value of x; round off to three

decimal places.

27.2.5 Using the calculator

Remember when there is a trig function in the formula, the Casio
must be in radian mode.

ACTIVITY 27.2.1
Solve cos x  x  0 using the Newton-Raphson method and initial
guess x1  1 . Give the answer accurately to four decimal places.
 Make sure your calculator is in radian mode!

Figure 9 The steps to solve an

equation

TMA105C: Differentiation: The Newton Raphson method

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SOLUTION
f ( x)  cos x  x  f '( x)   sin x  1
Thus, the Newton-Raphson formula is
 cos xn  xn  cos xn  xn
xn 1  xn     xn  .
  sin xn  1  sin xn  1

☂ Always simplify the formula before "programming" the Casio!

Programming the Casio fx-991ZA PLUS

 Enter the initial guess and press =
 Enter the Newton-Raphson formula using the Ans key instead of x
o Remember the brackets!!!!
 Press = and copy the answer in your answer book
 Repeat until the desired accuracy is reached

Write down your answer to the question as follows:

f ( x)  cos x  x  f '( x)   sin x  1
 cos xn  xn  cos xn  xn
xn 1  xn     xn 
  sin xn  1  sin xn  1
x1  1
x2  0.75036
Round intermediate answers off to five decimals
x3  0.73911
x4  0.73909
x5  0.73909
Stop since the last two answers are the same
 x  0.7391 ✔
Round the final answer to four decimal places as asked

 Remember to write down the answer!

 Note the use of the "approximately equal to" sign  . Use it in every step where
you round off.
 We say the Newton-Raphson method converges, that is, the intermediate values
x1 , x2 , x3 , gets closer to the actual solution. See the graphs in Table 2.

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 Table 2 The convergence of the Newton-Raphson method

x2  0.75036

Solution x1  1

The graph if f ( x)  cos x  x . Zoom in on Convergence: x2 is closer to the solution

the shaded area surrounding the solution than x1

ACTIVITY 27.2.2
Solve for x if x 3  3 x  1  0 . Use x1  1.5 as initial guess and give the answer
accurately to four decimal places.
SOLUTION
f ( x)  x 3  3x  1
f '( x)  3x 2  3
x3  3x  1
 xn 1  xn 
3x 2  3
x1  1.5
x2  15
23

x2  1.53209 ← Write down five decimal places followed by… or round off
x3  1.53208
x4  1.53208 ← Stop because five decimal places are the same

 x  1.5321 ✔ ← Round off correctly

27.3 THE INITIAL GUESS

In this course we will usually give the initial guess. However, you may be asked to
guess yourself, and you may do it in one of two ways.
 Sketch the graph of f ( x ) and use this graph to "guess" the first value.
 Use the remainder theorem – not explained in this course.

27.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

Does this method always give the expected answer?

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ACTIVITY 27.4.1
Use numerical methods to solve for x if x3  x  1  0 and the indicated initial value.
Give the answer correct to four decimal places.
a) x1  1 b) x1  0.6 c) x1  0.5
SOLUTION
f ( x)  x3  x  1  f '( x)  3x 2  1
 x 3  x 1 
 xn 1  xn   n 2 n 
y 0.5

 2 xn  1  -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

x
2
0

f  1
 For the answer to be accurate to four -0.5

decimal places, we round of the intermediate

answers to five decimal places. -1
f  0. 6
f  0. 5

-1.5

Turning point

Figure 10 The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 − 1

x1  1 x1  0.6 x1  0.5
x2  1.5 x2  17.9 x2  5.0
x3  1.34783 x3  11.94680 x3  3.36486
x4  1.32520 x4  7.98552 x4  2.28095
x5  1.32472 x5  5.35691
x6  1.32472 x6  3.62540
 x  1.3247 ✔ x7  2.50559
x8  1.82013
x9  1.46104
x10  1.33932
x11  1.32491
x12  1.32472 x20  1.32472
x13  1.32472 x21  1.32472
 x  1.3247 ✔  x  1.3247 ✔

 Note the 0 in x8  11.85980 . Leaving out this zero will imply four decimal
places.
 Why did we need 12 iterations in (b) and 20 in (c) to reach the required
accuracy?
 Consider the graph of f ( x ) given in Figure 10. From the graph we see
that the equation x3  x  1  0 has only one root between 1 and 1.5.
Thus, choosing x1  1 will converge to the correct answer relatively

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 quickly while x1  0.6 , which is further away from the actual solution,
will require more steps.
 One turning point of f ( x ) is at x  3 3  0.57735 . Thus, the actual root
is to the right of this turning point. But 0.5 is to the left of this turning
point and hence choosing x1  0.5 will require even more steps.

SOME LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD

 The initial guess must be relatively close the root to limit the number of
iterations required. However, with computer technology such as Mathematica
and Matlab the approximate root may be obtained in the blink of the eye.
 The initial guess must be close enough to the root to prohibit convergence to a
different root.

 We strongly recommend that you do all the exercises using your calculator.

In the textbook
Bird (2017)
 Theory: pp 154 – 157
 Practice:
o Practice Exercise 73, p 15
o Revision Test 4, p 158, #15

Additional notes on myTUTor

Derivation of the Newton-Raphson method
Dictionary (summary of the terminology)
CDF: Learning Newton's method
CDF: Floating ball

EXERCISE 27.1
1. Use the Newton-Raphson method to determine the roots close to the initial
guesses. Give the answer accurately to four decimal places.
1.1 2sin x  x; x1  2 1.2 2sin x  x; x1  2
1.3 x 3  4 x  1; x1  2 1.4 x 3  4 x  1; x1  2
1.5 2cos x  2  x; x1  3.5 1.6 x5 10  0; x1  1.5
1.7 3 x  1  x; x1  1.1 1.8 x3  2 x  1  0; x1  2
1.9 3ln x  x; x1  2 1.10 x3  5cos 2 x; x1  0.5

2. Consider the function f ( x)  x 2  2 .

2.1 Determine the positive root of f ( x)  0 using the Newton-Raphson
method with initial guess x1  1 . Give the answer accurately to five
decimal places.
2.2 Compare this answer to the value of 2 given by your calculator.

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3. Explain in your own words why the following four questions ask for the same
information.
a) Determine the roots of f ( x)  x3  3x  1 .
b) Determine the x-coordinates of the intersections of the curve y  x 3
with the line y  3 x  1 .
c) Determine the x-coordinates of the points where the curve y  x3  3x
crosses the horizontal line y  x .
d) Determine the values of x where the derivative of
g ( x)  14 x 4  23 x 2  x  5 equals zero.

EXERCISE 27.2
1. The sinc function is an example of a piecewise defined function and is given
by
 sin x
 , x0
sinc x   x

 1, x0
1.1 Why can't we define the function as
sin x
sinc x  x  ?
x
1.2 Determine the derivative of f ( x)  sinc x
for x  0 . Write the answer in its simplest form.
1.3 Use Newton's method to calculate the coordinates of the first local
maximum turning point to the right of the vertical axis accurately to
three decimal places.

2. How far will a floating spherical ball sink into the water? Assume the radius of
the ball is R meters and its specific gravity (the ration of the ball's density to
the density of the water in kg/m3) is 𝛾. The submerged depth x of the ball is
then given by
4 R3  3x 2 R  x3  0 .

2.1 Determine the submerged depth of a ball with radius 3.3796 m and
specific gravity using
2.1.1 The SOLVE function on your calculator; and
2.1.2 The Newton-Raphson method accurately to five decimal
places. Show all steps!
2.2 Comment on the difference between the two answers.
You may investigate on your own using the following CDF file on
myTUTor. Note the copyright!
 Floating Ball

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3. The circle in the shetch has a radius 1. The longer cicular arch
joining A and B is twice as long as the cord AB. Determine the
lentght of the cord AB accurately to eight decimal places.

4. The following equation arises in a study to determine the

acidity of a saturated solution of magnesium hydroxide in
hydrochloric acid:
3.64 1011
  H 3O   3.6 104


 H 3O 


for the hydronium concentration  H3O .



To determine the value of  H3O , set x  104  H3O and show that
 
4.1
the equation is converted to
x3  3.6 x 2  36.4  0
4.2 Solve for x using Newton's method. Give the answer accurately to two
decimal places. Show all steps.
hence determine  H3O .

4.3

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ANSWERS 27
Exercise 27.1
1.1 1.8955 1.2 -1.8955
1.3 1.8608 1.4 -2.1149
1.5 3.6982 1.6 1.5849
1.7 1.1459 1.8 01.6180
1.9 1.8572 1.10 0.7441
2.1 1.41321 2.2 1.414213562
3. Discussion

Exercise 27.2
1.1 Division by 0 not allowed 1.2 tan x  x
1.3 (7.725;0.12) 2.1 4.553322762
2.2 4.55333 3. 2.47646652
4.1 Proof 4.2 2.45
4.3 2.45 10 4

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28. BASIC APPLICATIONS

28.1 BACKGROUND

19. THE BASICS OF DIFFERENTIATION

You are now able to calculate the derivative of one type of function. What does the
derivative mean? Why do we include the limit as h tend to zero in the formula to
determine the derivative?

Before we answer those questions, let's revise a few special types of straight lines.

26.2.2 The straight line

26.2.2.1 The slope of a straight line
The slope or gradient of an incline refers to the
"steepness" of the incline. The slope of the line in Figure
11 indicates 5 units across for every 2 units up. The slope
2
is often expressed as a fraction: m  .
5 Figure 11 The slope of a line

☀ We consider slope and gradient as synonyms in this course. In more advanced

courses, you will learn that gradient may be regarded as a vector and slope as a
scalar.

We use the following formula to calculate the slope of a straight line:

change in y
m
change in x
y

x

From Figure 12,

6
m
2
Figure 12 The gradient of a straight line
3

The slope or gradient of a straight line is a number m representing the direction and
steepness of the line.
 The line is increasing from left to right ⇒ the slope is positive ⇒ m  0 .
 The line is decreasing from left to right ⇒ the slope is negative ⇒ m  0 .
 The line is horizontal ⇒ the slope is zero ⇒ m  0 .

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  The line is vertical ⇒ Δ𝑥 = 0, and division by zero is undefined ⇒ the slope is
undefined.

26.2.2.2 The equation of a straight line

The general equation of a straight line is given by
y  mx  c
where m is the slope of the line and c is the y-intercept of the line.

Let ( x1; y1 ) and ( x2 ; y2 ) be any two points on a straight line. Then

y
m
x
y y
 2 1
x2  x2
and the equation of the line is given by
y  y1  m( x  x1 ) .

Consider two straight lines perpendicular to each other. Let the m1 and m2 be the
gradients of the two lines. Then
m1m2  1
1
 m2  
m1

ACTIVITY 26.2.3
The points A and B with coordinates (1;3) and (2; 4) are on a straight line.
Determine:
a) The slope of the line AB.
b) The general equation of AB.
c) The slope of the line CD perpendicular to AB at the point B.
d) The equation of CD.
SOLUTION
a) The slope:
43
m
2  (1)
1

3
b) Substitute A(1;3) and m in the general equation:

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 3  13 (1)  c
 c  3  13
 103
x 10
y  
3 3
c) Substitute m  1 3 :
1
m2  1
3

 m2  3
d) Substitute m  3 and the coordinates
(2; 4) in the general equation:
4  3(2)  c
c  4  6
 10
 y  3x  10 ✔
Figure 13 The two lines

☃ Figure 13 shows the two lines.

☞ Always simplify the equation of a straight line to the form y  mx  c .

Exercise 26.2.2
Determine the equation of the straight line passing through the following sets of
points. Also determine the equation of the line perpendicular to this line at the first of
the two given points.
1. (1; 1) and (3;15) 2. (0; 2) and (2;8)
3. (1;3) and (1; 5) 4. (3;1) and (3;1) ☂☂

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26.2.2.3 Curves and straight lines
Consider the graph of the arbitrary function y  f ( x) shown in Figure 14. Carefully
look at the three straight lines in the sketch.

 The secant line connects two points on

the curve.
 The tangent line touches the curve at one
point only.
 The normal line is perpendicular to the
tangent at a specific point on the curve.

Figure 14 The graph of y = f(x) and three lines

ACTIVITY 26.2.5
Consider the function defined by f ( x)  y  x 2 . Determine the equation of the
following straight lines.
a) The secant passing through the points (0; 1) and (2;3) ;
b) The tangent to the graph of f ( x ) with slope 4 at the point (2;3) ; and
c) The normal at (2;3) .
SOLUTION
a) Secant:
3  ( 1)
m
20
2
(0; 1) :  1  2(0)  c
 c  1
 ysecant  2 x  1

b) Tangent:

m4
(2;3) : 3  4(2)  c
 c  5
 ytangent  4 x  5
Figure 15 The three lines in the activity

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 c) Normal:
1
m2  
4
(2;3) : 3    14  (2)  c
7
c 
2
1 7
 ynormal   x  ✔
4 2

☞ Do the three lines in Figure 15 correspond to the equations?

☃ The slope of the tangent in this activity was given. How can we calculate the
slope of a tangent to a curve at a point on the curve? The answer lies in
differentiation!

19.2 WHAT IS DIFFERENTIATION?

Most real-life problems involve an analysis of quantities that changes over time. Over
centuries, this analysis lead to a new branch in mathematics: Calculus, the
mathematics of change. Today we credit Newton and Leibniz with formalizing the
concepts on which the modern-day calculus are based.

The word "calculus" comes from the Latin for "small pebbles" and involves, inter alia,
the study of the effect of small changes in quantities on the response of the quantities
and what happens when small changes are joined to see the effect of the combination.
Calculus has therefor two major branches, each with its own subdivisions, as shown
in Figure 1:
 Differentiation, developed from the so-called tangent-line problem; and
 Integration, the solution of the so-called area-problem.

Figure 16 A diagram of calculus and its two branches

Let's answer the questions put earlier.

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 1. Why do we include the limit in the formula to calculate the derivative?
2. How can we use the derivative to calculate the slope of a line tangent to a
curve at a point?
3. Where will we use the theory of derivatives?

19.2.1 The limit in the formula

Recall the formula
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f ( x)  lim
h 0 h
Let's investigate the role of the limit in the formula.

Consider a secant line passing through the points on the graph of y  f ( x) . For
example, let f ( x)  e x . The dashed line in Figure 17 represents the slope of a secant
line passing through the points (0;1) and (h; e  h ) on the graph of. The solid straight
line depicts the tangent to y  f ( x) at (0;1) . The slope of the secant line is then
given by
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
msecant  .
h
Note how the dashed (secant) line gets closer to the solid (tangent) line as h gets
smaller. Thus,
mtangent  lim  msecant 
h 0

so that
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
mtangent  lim
h 0 h
at a specific point on the graph. But
f ( x  h)  f ( x) dy
lim  .
h 0 h dx
dy
mtangent at a point  .
dx at the point

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 ℎ = 2.0 ℎ = 1.5

ℎ = 1.0 ℎ = 0.5
Figure 17 The value of h and the slope of the secant line

CONCLUSION
As h  0 , the lope of the secant passing through two points on the graph of a
function becomes the slope of the line tangent to one point. Thus,
dy
 mtangent at x  a
dx x  a

You may investigate on your own using the following CDF file on
myTUTor. Note the copyright!
 The Tangent Line Problem.

19.2.2 The slope predictor

The tangent to the graph of y  f ( x) at a point (a; b) on the graph is given by
dy
mtangent  .
dx x a

HOW AND WHAT ?

1. To determine the slope of a tangent to a point on the graph of a function:
a. Determine the derivative of the function.
b. Substitute the x-value of the point in the derivative.
2. The derivative of a function is often called the slope predictor.
a. We use the derivative of a function to "predict" the slope the slope of
the tangent at a specific point.
b. The derivative is NOT equal to the slope; the derivative is a general
formula we use to determine the slope of the tangent at a specific point.

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ACTIVIT0Y 19.2.1
Determine the equation of the line tangent to f ( x)  x 4  4 x3 at the point (3; 27) .
SOLUTION
Determine the derivative of f ( x ) :
f ( x)  4 x3  12 x 2
Substitute x  3 in the derivative:
m  f (3)
 4(3)3  12(3) 2
0
Thus, the equation of the tangent is
y  27 . ✔ Figure 18 The tangent line at (3;-27)

☃ See the function and the tangent in Figure 18.

☞ First calculate the derivative, then substitute the value of x.

We'll revisit the derivative as slope predictor later.

19.2.3 Rate of change

"Rate of change" in the context of differentiation refers to the change in one quantity
caused by a change in another quantity. Here are a few examples.
 Speed v is defined as the rate of change in distance s over time t, that is,
s
v .
t
 A water tank is filled at a rate of 20 litres per second. Let v represent the
volume of water at any time t. Mathematically this may be written as
V
 20
t

We may distinguish between two types of rate of change.

1. The average rate of change is measured over a finite interval and is
calculated as follows.
change in the dependent variable
Average rate of change 
change in independent variable
y

t
2. The instantaneous rate of change is measured at a specific value of the
independent variable, say a. Then the instantaneous rate of change is
calculated using
y
Instantaneous rate of change  lim
t  0 t

dy

dt t  a

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 You may investigate on your own using the following CDF file on
myTUTor. Note the copyright!
 Instantaneous Rate of Change
 Average Rate of Change

ACTIVITY 19.2
Write down an expression for the following mathematical statement: The rate of
decay in the amount of radioactive material at any time is direct proportional to the
amount present.
SOLUTION
Let A  A(t ) be the amount of radioactive material present at ant time t.
dA
 "rate of decay":
dt
 "direct proportional: 
 "amount present": A
Thus,
dA
A
dt
That is,
dA
 kA . ✔
dt

☀ You will learn more about rate of change, an application of differentiation,

later.

☞ There are many more applications of differentiation. Here are two:

 You are given a sheet of metal to construct an open
rectangular box. What are the dimensions of the
box with the biggest volume?
 Solve the equation tan x  x to determine the local
maxima and minima of the so-called sinc function
shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19 The sinc function

ANSWERS 19
Exercise 26.2.1
6 6
1. f ( x)  15 x 4  4 x 2. f (t )   
t4 t3
2 1
3. g (t )  4. g (t ) 
2 x 33 t2
1 3
5. h(t )   2 6. h(t )   2
x 4t

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 1
7. k ( x )  8. p( x)   x 1  ex e 1
4 3
4 x

Exercise 26.2.2
1 5 1
1. y  4 x  3; y   x  2. y  3 x  2;y   x  2
4 4 3
3. x  1; y 1 4. y  1; x  3

Exercise 19.2
1 x
1.1 y '  4 csc 4 x cot 4 x 1.2 y '  sinh
2 2
1 x
1.3 y '  2  52 x ln 5 1.4 y '  sec 2
2 4
1 t
1.5 y'  1.6 y '  cos
t 5
2.1 y '  2sinh 2 x  2 cos 2 x 2.2 y '  3x  3x ln 3
2

3 15 x
2.3 y '  2sec2 2 x  2 csc 2 2 x 2.4 y'   15 x 2 
5 5 x2 2
15 6e x
2.5 y '  2 x 1   4ex e 1

x4 e
2.6 y '  sec x  csc x cot x  2sin 2 x
2

3. Bird, Practice Exercise 171, p 467

4. Bird, Practice Exercise 172, p 468

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26. BASIC APPLICATIONS

26.1 BACKGROUND
In this section we will use differentiation to solve a few basic "mathematical models"
or "word sums". To actually determine the solution of a mathematical model, there
are a few basic steps to follow, no matter how complex the model is:
1. Read the information carefully. Identify what is given and what is asked.
 Let's use x for the given information and y for the quantity asked.
2. "Translate" the words into "mathematics".
 Write the given information as mathematical equations.
3. Set up an equation, called the governing equation, in the form y  f ( x) , if
possible.
4. Solve for y in terms of x using a suitable technique.
 In this section the "suitable technique" will be differentiation.
5. Answer the question!

In this course the governing equation will always be given, but in more advanced
mathematics courses you will have to set it up yourselves. To solve this equation,
we'll need the slope predictor (derivative) and the behaviour of the tangent to the
curve of y  f ( x) at a specific point on the curve.

26.2 GRAPHICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIFFERENTIATION

You are now able to calculate the derivative of a function. What does the derivative
mean? Why do we include the limit as h tend to zero in the formula to determine the
derivative?

Before we answer those questions, let's revise a few special types of straight lines.

26.2.1 The slope of a straight line

The slope or gradient of an incline refers to the
"steepness" of the incline. The slope of the line in Figure
11 indicates 5 units across for every 2 units up. The slope
2
is often expressed as a fraction: m  .
5 Figure 20 The slope of a line

☀ We consider slope and gradient as synonyms in this course. In more advanced

courses, you will learn that gradient may be regarded as a vector and slope as a
scalar.

We use the following formula to calculate the slope of a straight line:

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 change in y
m
change in x
y

x

From Figure 12,

6
m
2
Figure 21 The gradient of a straight line
3

The slope or gradient of a straight line is a number m representing the direction and
steepness of the line.
 The line is increasing from left to right ⇒ the slope is positive ⇒ m  0 .
 The line is decreasing from left to right ⇒ the slope is negative ⇒ m  0 .
 The line is horizontal ⇒ the slope is zero ⇒ m  0 .
 The line is vertical ⇒ Δ𝑥 = 0, and division by zero is undefined ⇒ the slope is
undefined.

26.2.2 The equation of a straight line

The general equation of a straight line is given by
y  mx  c
where m is the slope of the line and c is the y-intercept of the line.

Let ( x1; y1 ) and ( x2 ; y2 ) be any two points on a straight line. Then

y
m
x
y y
 2 1
x2  x2
and the equation of the line is given by
y  y1  m( x  x1 ) .

Consider two straight lines perpendicular to each other. Let the m1 and m2 be the
gradients of the two lines. Then
m1m2  1
1
 m2  
m1

ACTIVITY 26.1
The points A and B with coordinates (1;3) and (2; 4) are on a straight line.
Determine:
a) The slope of the line AB.
b) The general equation of AB.
c) The slope of the line CD perpendicular to AB at the point B.

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d) The equation of CD.
SOLUTION
a) The slope:
43
m
2  (1)
1

3
b) Substitute A(1;3) and m in the general equation:
3  13 (1)  c
 c  3  13
 103
x 10
y  
3 3
c) Substitute m  1 3 :
1
m2  1
3

 m2  3
d) Substitute m  3 and the coordinates
(2; 4) in the general equation:
4  3(2)  c
c  4  6
 10
 y  3x  10 ✔
Figure 22 The two lines

☃ Figure 13 shows the two lines.

☞ Always simplify the equation of a straight line to the form y  mx  c .

Exercise 26.1
Determine the equation of the straight line passing through the following sets of
points. Also determine the equation of the line perpendicular to this line at the first of
the two given points.
1. (1; 1) and (3;15) 2. (0; 2) and (2;8)
3. (1;3) and (1; 5) 4. (3;1) and (3;1) ☂☂☂

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26.2.3 Tangent and normal lines to a curve

Tangent, secant and normal lines are straight lines with

general equation y  mx  c where m is the gradient or
slope of the line and c the y-intercept. See the three lines in
the sketch on the right.
 A tangent line to a curve is a straight line and it touches
the graph in one point only.
 A normal line is a straight line perpendicular to the
tangent at a point on the graph.
 A secant line connects two points on the graph.
 If the gradient of the tangent is mT , the gradient of the
1
normal to the curve is given by mN   .
mT

28.2 Differentiation and graphs

Consider the function defined by f ( x)  4  x 2 . We know the derivative is

f ( x)  2 x , but what does it mean? The four graphs in

28.2 RATE OF CHANGE

28.2.1 What is "rate of change"?
Recall the formula defining the derivative of a function y  f ( x) :
dy f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 f ( x)  lim .
dx h 0 h

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This formula describes how the y changes when x changes. If y  g (t ) was a function
of time, then
dy g (t  h)  g (t )
 g (t )  lim
dt h  0 h

will describe the change in y over time.

In both cases the change in one quantity, y, is caused by the change in another (x or t
in the two examples). We call this change in y the "rate of change" in y at any specific
value of x or t. Thus, at any specific time t the rate of change in y is given by the
derivative of y with respect to t, that is,
dy
Rate of change  .
dt
❢ In this course, "'rate of change" will mostly refer to a derivative with respect to
t. However, it may also refer to, for example, the bending of a beam, y, at any
point x along the beam, Then,
dy
Rate of change  .
dx

"Rate of change" in the context of differentiation refers to the change in one quantity
caused by a change in another quantity. Here are a few examples.
 Speed v is defined as the rate of change in distance s over time t, that is,
s
v .
t
 A water tank is filled at a rate of 20 litres per second. Let v represent the
volume of water at any time t. Mathematically this may be written as
V
 20
t

We may distinguish between two types of rate of change.

3. The average rate of change is measured over a finite interval and is
calculated as follows.
change in the dependent variable
Average rate of change 
change in independent variable
y

t
4. The instantaneous rate of change is measured at a specific value of the
independent variable, say a. Then the instantaneous rate of change is
calculated using
y
Instantaneous rate of change  lim
t  0 t

dy

dt t  a
You may investigate on your own using the following CDF file on
myTUTor. Note the copyright!
 Instantaneous Rate of Change

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  Average Rate of Change

ACTIVITY 19.2
Write down an expression for the following mathematical statement: The rate of
decay in the amount of radioactive material at any time is direct proportional to the
amount present.
SOLUTION
Let A  A(t ) be the amount of radioactive material present at ant time t.
dA
 "rate of decay":
dt
 "direct proportional: 
 "amount present": A
Thus,
dA
A
dt
That is,
dA
 kA . ✔
dt

28.2.2 Motion
We observe one application of rate of change every day: How does the velocity of a
car changes over time? From previous courses in Physics you know that
s
Average velocity 
t
and
v
Average acceleration 
t
where s is the displacement of a body at any time t. Now let's use differentiation to
calculate the velocity and acceleration of the body at a specific time.

We'll consider two types of motion:

 An object moves in a straight line, called linear motion.
 An object moves in a circle, called angular motion.

❢ "Displacement" and "velocity" are vector quantities. In this section we won't

include direction because the motion is either in a straight line or along a
circular path.

28.2.1.1 Linear motion

Assume the displacement of an object moving in a straight line at any time t is
s  s (t ) .

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To determine the velocity at a specific time, called the instantaneous velocity, we let
t  0 and hence
s
Instantaneous velocity  lim
 0 t

ds
v 
dt
Similarly,
v
Instantaneous acceleration  lim
0 t

dv
a 
dt
d 2s
 2
dt

☃ Equations such as v  ds dt are called differential equations because they are

equations with derivatives in. You will learn techniques on how to solve such
equations in more advanced courses.

28.2.1.2 Angular motion

Assume an object moves along a circular path. At any time t the
object has rotated through an angular displacement    (t ) .

Angular velocity  lim
 0 t

d
 
dt
and

Angular acceleration  lim
0 t

d
 
dt
d 2
 2
dt

☞ Note the use of 𝜃, 𝜔 and 𝛼 as symbols for angular displacement, angular

velocity and angular acceleration respectively.

EXERCISE 28.1
1. The angular displacement of an object is given by  (t )  2sin(3t   4 ) .
1.1 Determine expressions for the angular velocity and angular
displacement at any time.
1.2 Hence calculate the angular velocity when t   6 .

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2. A projectile is fired vertically upwards. It's height h (in meters) at any time t
(in seconds) is given by h  30t  4.9t 2 .
2.1 Determine expressions for the velocity and acceleration at any time t.
2.2 Is the acceleration constant? Motivate your answer.
2.3 When will the velocity of the projectile be zero?
2.4 What is its height at this time?

3. Bird, p 479, Practice Exercise 178

Bird, p 482, Practice Exercise 179

28.3 TANGENT AND NORMAL LINES

28.3.1 Reminders
Let's think about some of the concepts touched on earlier in this study unit. Use
Figure 23 as a reference guide.
 Tangent and normal lines are straight lines with
general equation y  mx  c where m is the gradient
or slope of the line and c the y-intercept.
 A tangent line touches the graph in one point only.
o The gradient of the tangent at this point is
dy
calculated using mT  .
dx x c
 A normal line is a line perpendicular to the tangent at
a point on the graph.
o The gradient of the line is obtained from
1
mN   .
mT
 The derivative is sometimes called the slope predictor
because it is used to calculate the slope (gradient) of a
tangent line.
Figure 23 Lines tangent and normal to a
curve
28.3.2 Equations for tangents and normals
To determine the equation of the tangent to y  f ( x) at the
point (a; b) :
1. Calculate f ( x ) .
2. Calculate the gradient using mT  f (a) .
3. Calculate c by substitution in the general equation; b  mT a  c
4. Write down the equation of the tangent.

To determine the equation of the normal to y  f ( x) at the point (a; b) :

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 1. Calculate f ( x ) .
2. Calculate the gradient of the tangent using mT  f (a) .
1
3. Calculate mN using the fact that, for perpendicular lines, mN  .
mT
4. Calculate c by substitution in the general equation; b  mnormal a  c
5. Write down the equation of the normal.

EXERCISE 28.2
1. The graph of f ( x)  x3  3x 2  x  1 is shown in Figure 23.
1.1 Use your calculator to solve for x
accurately to three decimal places
if f ( x)  0 .
1.2 Use the graph to explain why there
is only one real root.
1.3 Determine the equation of the
equation of the tangent to f ( x )
when x  1 .
1.4 Solve for x if f ( x)  0 . Give an
exact answer.
Figure 24 The function in (1)
1.5 What is the gradient of the tangent
at each of those to values of x?

2. Determine the equations of the tangent and normal lines to y  ( x  1) / ( x  1)

at x  0 .

3. Figure 25 depict the graph of

g ( x)  cos x  x .
3.1 Why can x not be given in
degrees?
3.2 Is it possible to solve for x in
f ( x)  0 using your calculator?
Explain!
3.3 Determine the slope of the
tangent to the curve at x   2 .
Figure 25 The graph for (3)

x3 x 2
4. Given: f ( x)    2x  5 .
3 2
4.1 Calculate f (1) .
4.2 Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point x  1 .

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5. Consider the following relation: 3( x 2  y 2 )2  100 xy ; the graph is shown in
Figure 26.
5.1 Does the graph represent a function?
Explain!
5.2 What is the values of y when x  3 ?
5.3 Write down an expression for y  dy dx .
5.4 Determine the equation of the tangent for
the smallest y-value when x  3 .

Figure 26 The graph for (5)

6. The graph in Figure 27 depicts xy 3  2 y  0

for x  [0;5] . Determine:
6.1 The equation of the tangent to the
curve at the point (2;1) .
6.2 The equation of the line perpendicular
to the tangent at this point.

Figure 27 The graph for (6)

7. Consider the function i(t )  tet ; t  0 shown in Figure 28.

7.1 What is the value of i for large values of
t, that is, when t   ?
7.2 For which value of t is the slope of the
tangent to the curve 0?
7.3 What is the value of i at this point?

☀ This point is called a maximum turning

point of the function, a concept
discussed further in the next section. Figure 28 The graph for (7)

8. Bird, p 492, Practice Exercise 183

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28.4 CRITICAL POINTS
A critical point or stationary point of a function y  f ( x) is a point in the domain
of f where f ( x)  0 or where f ( x ) doesn't exist. In this study unit we'll calculate the
coordinates of two types of stationary points: turning points and points of inflection.

You covered this topic in a previous mathematics course; we give only a summary of
the facts here.

28.4.1 Turning points

Turning points are points on the curve where the gradient of the tangent to the curve
is zero, that is f ( x)  0 , and the sign of the gradient changes sign (from + to – or
vice versa).

To calculate the coordinates of turning points:

1. Determine f ( x ) .
2. Solve for x from f ( x)  0 .
3. Substitute each value of x in y  f ( x) to obtain the y-coordinate of the turning
point.
4. Use the second derivative test to determine the nature (maximum or
minimum) of the turning point.
a. The test: Let C be the x-coordinate of the point.
dy d2y
b.  0 and  0  The curve has a local maximum at C
dx dx 2 x C
dy d2y
c.  0 and  0  The curve has a local minimum at C
dx dx 2 x C

dy d2y
d.  0 and  0  Neither a maximum nor a minimum;
dx dx 2 x C
investigate further

28.4.2 Points of inflection

An inflection point (sometimes called a point of inflexion) is a point where the curve
has a tangent and the concavity of the curve changes.
d2y d2y
 A point with x-coordinate C is an inflection point if 2  0 and
dx dx 2
changes sign close to C

To calculate the coordinates of the points of inflection:

1. Determine f ( x) .
2. Solve for x from f ( x )  0 .
3. Substitute each value of x in y  f ( x) to obtain the y-coordinate of the turning
point.

The theory on critical points is summarized in the diagram in Figure 29.

TMA105C: Differentiation: Applications

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 Figure 29 The summary in a diagram

Activity 28.1
Calculate the stationary points of y  x 4  4 x3 .
SOLUTION

Let y  f ( x)  x 4  4 x3 (1.1)
f '( x)  4 x  12 x
3 2
(1.2)
f ''( x)  12 x  24 x (1.3)
2

Turning points
Set y ' = 0 in 1.2; solve for x ; calculate y by substituting x in 1.1;
determine nature of turning points using 1.3
4 x3  12 x 2  0
 4 x 2 ( x  3)  0
x  0 or x3
y  f (0)  0 y  f (3)  27
f ''(0)  0 f ''(3)  36  0
 (0; 0) is not a turning point  (3; 27) is a minimum turning
point

Points of inflection
Set y '' = 0 in 1.3; solve for x; calculate y by substituting x in 1.1
12 x 2  24 x  0
12 x( x  2)  0
x  0 or x2
y  f (0)  0 y  f (2)  16
 (0; 0) and (2; 16) are points of inflection
The graph of the function is shown in Figure 30.

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 Figure 30 The graph for Example 1

EXERCISE 28.3 (Dr Aphane)

1. Given: f  x   2 x3  3x 2 . Determine:
1.1 The coordinates of the turning points.
1.2 Distinguish between the points.

2. Determine and distinguish between the maximum and minimum turning points
of the function f  x   2 x3  3x 2  12 x.

3. Consider y  x  x 2  1 .
3.1 Determine the coordinates of the maximum and the minimum points of
the function y  x  x 2  1
3.2 Determine the point of inflection.

x3 x 2
4. Given the function f  x     2 x  5.
3 2
4.1 Calculate the coordinates of the turning points and distinguish between them.
4.2 Calculate the coordinates of the inflection point.

5. Observe f ( x)  x 4  4 x 3 3 . Determine the following:

5.1 The y-intercept.
5.2 The coordinates of the turning point(s).
5.3 The nature of the turning points (mathematically).

6. If y  xe x , determine the coordinates of the minimum and maximum turning

points and any point of inflexion.

7. Calculate the minimum and maximum turning points and also determine the
point of inflexion of y  12 ln x  x 2  10x .

TMA105C: Differentiation: Applications

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8. Carefully answer the following questions.
dy
8.1 If y  4 sin  sin 2   4 sin 3  , prove that if  0.
d
2 1
8.2 Hence show that cos   0 , sin   and sin   .
3 2
8.3 Prove that if  is acute, then y has a maximum value.
8.4 Determine this value of y.

9. Determine the maximum and minimum value of the curve mathematically of

2
y  (t  1) 3  2t (t  2) .
3

10. Bird, pp 485 – 486, Practice Exercise 180

11. Bird, p 491, Practice Exercise 182

28.5 OPTIMIZATION
"Optimize" means to make the best use of available resources. Thus, to optimize a
quantity means to calculate its biggest/smallest/maximum/minimum value.

Activity 26.3
You have 100 m of fencing to build a chicken coop. What is the area of the biggest
coop you can construct?
SOLUTION
☞ In this course we will do step 1 on your behalf and give you th
equation for the area.
Steps
1. Set up a mathematical model (an
equation).
a. Let A be the area of the coop
b. Let x and y represent the dimensions
(length and width) of the coop
c. Set up an equation for the area
i. 2( x  y )  100
ii.  A  xy  50 y  y 2
☀ Figure 31 gives a graphical representation of this equation.

TMA105C: Differentiation: Applications

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 Figure 31 The area as a function of y

2. Calculate the maximum/minimum value of the area

a. Let dA dy  0
b. Solve for y
dA
i.  50  2 y  0
dy
ii.  y  25
c. Calculate A
i. 2( x  25)  100  x  25
ii.  A  (25)(25)  625
3. Verify A is indeed a maximum
d2A
i.  2 y
dy 2
d2A
ii.   50  0
dy 2 y 25
iii. Hence A is a maximum
4. Write down the answer.
i. The maximum value of the coop is 625 m2

☂ Note the units!

 If there are units in the question, there MUST be units in the answer.
 If there are no units in the question, there can't be units in the answer –
don't guess!

EXERCISE 28.4
1. Bird, p 489, Practice Exercise 181, # 1, 3, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13

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ANSWERS 28
Exercise 28.1
1.1   6cos  3t   4  1.2   18sin  3t   4 
2.1 v  30  9.8t ; a  9.8 2.2 Yes
150 2250
2.3 t  3.06 s 2.4 a  45.02 m/s 2
49 49

Exercise 28.2
1.1 x  2.769; x  0.115  0.590 j 1.2 Discuss
3 6
1.3 y  2 x 1.4 x
3
1.5 m0 2. yT  2 x  1 3 ; yN   12 x  13
3.1 Discussion 3.2 Discussion
3.3 m  2 4.1 f (1)  17 6
4.2 y  2 x  29 6 5.1 Discussion
 y3
5.2 y  1; y  81 5.3 y 
3xy 2  2
13 14 x 4
5.4 y x 6.1 y 
9 9 4 9
6.2 y  4x  7 7.1 i 0
7.2 t 1 7.2 i  e 1

Exercise 28.3
1. Maximum: (1;1); Minimum: (0;0)
2. Maximum: (2; 20); Minimum: (1; 7)
3.1 Maximum: (0.6;0.4); Minimum: (0.6; 0.4)
3.2 (0;0)
4.1 Maximum: (1; 37 6 ); Minimum: (2; 5 3 )
4.2 ( 1 2 ; 7112) 5.1 y3
5.2 Minimum: (3; 24); Stationary: (0;3)
6. Maximum: (1; 0.368); Inflection: (2; 0.271)
7. Maximum: (2; 7.682); Minimum: (3; 7.817); Inflection: (2.449; 7.742)
8.1 Proof 8.2 Proof
8.3 Proof 8.4 y  1.25
9. Maximum: y  2 3 ; Minimum: y  2

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TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation
© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [252]
29. BASIC INTEGRATION

29.1INTRODUCTION
29.1.1 Mathematical operations
Think back to all the mathematical operations you mastered over the years. Every
time you mastered one operation, it was followed by a way to "undo" the operation.
Here are a few examples:

Table 1 "Undo" operations

The operation "Undo" the operation

Addition 5+3=8 Subtraction 8−3= 5
Multiplication 6 × 3 = 18 Division 18 ÷ 3 = 6
Powers 43 = 64 Roots 3
√64 = 4

Note how the "undo" operation every time returns the original number; see Table 1.
Now you have mastered the differentiation techniques it is time to study a way to
"undo" differentiation. How do we "undo" or "reverse" differentiation?

In mathematics an "operator" tells you what to do with numbers or functions. For

example, the + in 2 + 7 tells you to add the numbers 2 and 7 to get the answer 9. In
2x  3x the × tells you to multiply 2𝑥 and 3𝑥 to get 6𝑥 2 . Similarly, the
d
differentiation operator  f ( x)  tells you to differentiate the function f (x) with
dx
respect to x. What operator do we use to "undo" or "reverse" differentiation?

29.1.2 Anti-differentiation
29.1.2.1 What is an anti-derivative?
Looking at differentiation, we know
d 2
dx
 x   2 x . We say the derivative of the
function f ( x)  x 2 is the function F ( x)  2x .

To "undo" or "reverse" differentiation, we must do the "opposite of differentiation",

that is, we must "undo" differentiation to get the original function f ( x)  x 2 back.
Let's call the opposite of differentiation anti-differentiation for now.

☂ The preposition "anti" in this context refers to "doing the opposite". Thus,
"anti-differentiation" means "the opposite of differentiation".

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

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Activity 29.1
Let F  F ( x) be the derivative of f  f ( x) , that is, f '( x)  F ( x) . Determine f (x)
for each of the given functions F(x) .
1.1 F ( x)  3x 2

Answer: f ( x)  x3 since
d 3
dx
 x   3x 2
1.2 F ( x)  cosh x
d
Answer: f ( x)  sinh x since  sinh x   cosh x
dx
1
1.3 F ( x) 
2 x
Answer: f ( x)  x since
d
dx
 
x 
dx
 
d 12
x  12 x  2 
1 1
2 x
✔

Thus, the anti-derivative of a function is the answer to the following question: Which
function f (x) must I differentiate to get F(x) ? Hence, the function f (x) in Activity
29.1 is the anti-derivative of F(x) .

Activity 29.2
Determine the anti-derivative f (x) of each of the following
functions. Clearly motivate your answer.
2.1 F ( x)  sec 2 x
d
Answer: f ( x)  tan x because  tan x   sec2 x
dx
2.2 F ( x)  2cos2x
d
Answer: f ( x)  sin 2x because  sin 2 x   2cos 2 x
dx
1
2.3 F ( x) 
x
d 1
Answer: f ( x)  ln x because  ln x   ✔
dx x

29.1.2.2 Notation
The process of calculating the anti-derivative of a derivative is called anti-
differentiation or integration. The anti-derivative of a function is also called the
integral of the function.

The anti-differentiation or integration operator is  dx when the variable is x. Thus,

instead of writing "The anti-derivative of F ( x)  2cos2x is f ( x)  sin 2x ", we write
 2cos 2 xdx  sin 2 x

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

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Also,
 2xdx  x
2
.
We say we evaluate or calculate or determine the integral.

Activity 29.3
Evaluate the following integrals:
 2e dx
2x
3.1

 2e dx  e2 x
2x
Answer:

 4x dx
3
3.2

 4x dx  x
3 4
Answer:
3.3   3sin 3x  dx
Answer:   3sin 3x  dx  cos3x ✔

☃ The answers in Activity 29.3 are strictly speaking not complete; we'll motivate
this comment a little later.

29.1.2.3 Terminology
Let's summarize the terminology related to anti-differentiation/integration so far.

 Anti-differentiation: The process of calculating the anti-derivative of a

function
 Anti-derivative: A synonym for "integral" in this context
 Integration: The process of evaluating an integral
 Integral: The result of integration
 Integrand: The function we must integrate


 Differential: A small change 3
o Telling you what the variable is
4x dx
 ∫: The integral sign Integrand Differential
  4x dx : Read as "the integral of 4x
3 3
with respect to x"

❢  4x
3
has no meaning! There is no differential 𝑑𝑥.

Before we continue with more examples, we have to investigate the uniqueness of the
anti-derivative.

29.1.2.4 The integration constant

Carefully compare the following derivatives:

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [255]
 
d 2
dx
 x   2x

d 2
dx
 x  2  2x

d 2
dx
 x  3  2 x
The graphs of the functions are shown in Figure 1. The
only difference between the three functions is the y-
intercept, which is a constant. Figure 1 The three functions

The three original functions are unique; each function has only one possible
derivative. However, the anti-differentiation of 2x yields only one answer:
  2xdx  x 2

To get the original function back we also want

  2 xdx  x 2  2
  2xdx  x 3
2

To make provision for a possible constant in the anti-derivative we add a constant c to

the answer:
  2xdx  x 2  c

The c is called the integration constant. The integral  2xdx is called an indefinite
integral because we don't know the value of c. To determine the value of c we need
more information; we'll discuss this in another chapter.

The correct answer to the questions in Activity 29.3 are thus

3.1  2e2 x dx  e2 x  c
3.2  4x3dx  x 4  c
3.3   3sin 3x  dx  cos3x  c

29.2BASIC RULES
29.2.1 Integrating zero
d
The derivative of any constant c is zero, that is, (c)  0 . Thus,
dx
 0dx  c .
☀  0dx   0dy   0dt  c

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

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29.2.2 Integrating a constant
d
We know that, for any constant a,  ax   a . Thus,
dx
 adx  ax  c
where c is the integration constant.

☀  ady  ay  c and  adt  at  c

☞ Note how the differentials 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦 and 𝑑𝑡 determine the variable in the
integral.

☂  ydx xy  c because the differential 𝑑𝑥 implies we consider y as a constant.

29.2.3 Integrating 𝒙𝒏
We know
d n
dx
 x   nxn1 .
The rule for differentiation:
"Subtract 1 from the old exponent to get the new exponent (𝑛 − 1) and multiply by
the old exponent n."

 x dx ? Keep in mind that integration is the "opposite" of differentiation.

n
So, what is

The rule for integration:

"Add 1 to the old exponent to get the new exponent (𝑛 + 1) and divide by the new
exponent."
x n1
  c .
n
x dx
n 1

☞ Remember the +𝑐!

❢ Important fact about integration for a constant a:  af ( x)dx  a  f ( x)dx

Activity 29.4
Evaluate each of the following integrals. Simplify your answer.
 2x dx
2
4.1
dt
4.2 t 2

12t dt
5
4.3
4.4  ydy
TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation
© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [257]
 
3
4.5 x2 dx
SOLUTION
 2 x dx  2 x dx
2 2
4.1 ⟵ The 2 is a constant; you may write it in front of the ∫sign
 x 21 
 2  ⟵
c Apply the rule
 2 1 
2 x3
  c ⟵ Simplify
3

dt
4.2 t 2
  t 2 dt ⟵ Rewrite the integrand

t 21
  c ⟵ Apply the rule
2  1
t 1
 c
1
1
   c ⟵ Simplify
t

 t6 
   c ⟵ 5 + 1 = 6
5
4.3 12t dt 12
6
 2t 6  c ⟵ 12 ÷ 6 = 2

 ydy   y 2 dy
1
4.4 ⟵ Rewrite the integrand
1 1
y2
1 c ⟵ Apply the rule
2 1
3
y 2

 c
3
2

2 32 ✔
 y c ⟵ Simplify
3

 x 2 dx   x 3 dx
3 2
4.5 ⟵ Rewrite
5
x 3

 c 2
⟵ The rule: 3 + 1 = 3
5
5
3

3 53
 x c ✔
5

1 4
☞ Never leave a fraction inside a fraction. Thus, simplify  and
3
4 3
3 3 1 3
   .
2

5 2 5 10

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

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EXERCISE 29.1
Evaluate each of the following integrals and simplify your answer.
☀ "Simplify" means simplify all fractions and all exponents must be positive.

1.  0dr 2.  3dr 3.  dz
3
 3x dx  x dx 3
5 3
4. 5. 5
6. x5 dx

dt t3
7.  t3 8.  t 3 dt 9.  4 dt
dy
10. 7 11.  z 5 dz 12.  axda ☂☂☂

29.2.4 Intuitive integration

d
We know  sin 2 x   2cos 2 x and hence  2cos 2xdx  sin 2x  c .
dx

What about  cos 2xdx ? We may write it as

1  1
  2  2  cos 2 xdx  2  2 cos 2 xdx
and hence
1
 cos 2 xdx  2  2 cos 2 xdx Integrand
⟵ Integrand = derivative of sin 2𝑥

1
 sin 2 x  c
2

Here is another example: We know

d x3
dx
 
1 x
e  e 3  c . Hence,
3
1 x
 3 e 3 dx  e 3  c
x

We deduce that
1 x
e dx   3  e 3 dx
x
3

3
1 x3
 3 e dx ⟵ Integrand = derivative of 𝑒 𝑥/3
3
Intgerand

 3e 3  c
x

It is quite tiresome to ask in your head "what must I differentiate to get …" every time
you have to evaluate an integral. Let's summarize the formulas for you to memorize –
all 31 of them! You will get a formula page in the exam but not in tests.

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

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☃ Bird calls the application of the formulas "algebraic substitution" (Bird, p
528).

❢ Note the f '( x) in every integrand.

Basic functions
 f ( x) 
n 1

 f ( x)  f ( x) dx  c
n
1.
n 1
f ( x)
2.  f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x)  c

 f ( x) e dx  e f ( x )  c
f ( x)
3.
b f ( x)
4.  f ( x) b f ( x ) dx 
ln b
c

Trig functions
5.  f ( x) sin  f ( x) dx   cos  f ( x)   c

6.  f ( x) cos  f ( x) dx  sin  f ( x)  c

7.  f ( x) tan  f ( x) dx  ln sec  f ( x)  c

8.  f ( x) cot  f ( x) dx  ln sin  f ( x)  c

9.  f ( x) sec  f ( x) dx  ln sec  f ( x)  tan  f ( x)   c

10.  f ( x) csc  f ( x) dx  ln csc  f ( x)  cot  f ( x)   c

11.  f ( x) sec  f ( x) tan  f ( x) dx  sec  f ( x)  c

12.  f ( x) csc  f ( x) cot  f ( x) dx   csc  f ( x)   c

13.  f ( x) sec  f ( x) dx  tan  f ( x)  c

2

14.  f ( x) csc  f ( x) dx   cot  f ( x)  c

2

cos  2 f ( x) cos2  f ( x) sin 2  f ( x)

15.  f ( x) sin  f ( x) cos  f ( x) dx  c    c  c
4 2 2
sin  f ( x)
n 1

 f ( x) sin  f ( x) cos  f ( x) dx  c

n
16.
n 1
cosn1  f ( x)
17.  f ( x) sin  f ( x) cos  f ( x) dx  
 n
c
n 1
18.  f ( x) sin 2  f ( x) dx  12  1  cos(2 f ( x))dx
19.  f ( x) cos  f ( x) dx   1  cos(2 f ( x))dx
2 1
2

20.  f ( x) tan  f ( x) dx   sec  f ( x) 1dx

2 2

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

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  f ( x) cot  f ( x) dx   csc  f ( x) 1dx
2 2
21.

Hyperbolic functions

22.  f ( x) sinh  f ( x) dx  cosh  f ( x)   c

23.  f ( x) cosh  f ( x) dx  sinh  f ( x)  c

24.  f ( x) tanh  f ( x) dx  ln sech  f ( x)  c

25.  f ( x) coth  f ( x) dx  ln sinh  f ( x)  c

26.  f ( x) sech  f ( x) dx  ln sech  f ( x)  tanh  f ( x)   c

27.  f ( x) csch  f ( x) dx  ln csch  f ( x)  coth  f ( x)   c

28.  f ( x) sech  f ( x) tanh  f ( x) dx   sech  f ( x)  c

29.  f ( x) csch  f ( x) coth  f ( x) dx   csch  f ( x)  c

30.  f ( x) sech  f ( x) dx  tanh  f ( x)  c

2

31.  f ( x) csch  f ( x) dx   coth  f ( x)  c

2

☂ The argument of trig functions MUST be in radians!

☂ Always simplify the integrated BEFORE integration.

☂ Always identify 𝑓(𝑥) and ensure the presence of 𝑓′(𝑥) is also present;
"balancing" may be required!

☂ Remember, sin 1 x 
1
since
1
 csc x
sin x sin x

Activity 29.5
Evaluate each of the following integrals. Simplify your answer.
5.1  2sin 3xdx
 4 dx
2x
5.2
5.3   4  cos 2x
3  e5 x  dx
2 
5.4   x  2x dx
x2  5
5.5  x dx
  cos x  sin x  dx
2 2
5.6

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

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SOLUTION
5.1  2sin 3xdx  2 sin 3xdx
1 
 2    3 sin 3 x dx 
3 f' f 
2 
   cos 3x   c
3  Rule 5 
2
  cos 3x  c
3

1 
4 dx    2  4 dx 
2x 2x
5.2
2 f' f 
1  42 x 
  c
2  ln 4 
Rule 4

1
 42 x  c
2 ln 4

5.3   4  cos  dx   4dx   cos

2x
3
2x
3 dx
3 2
 4x 
Know!

2 3
cos 23x dx  c
f
f'

3
 4 x  sin 23x  c
2 Rule 6

2 
5.4   x  2 x dx  2ln x  Rule 2
x2  c
Rule 1

x2  5  5
5.5  x dx    x  x  dx ⟵ Simplify first!

x2
  5ln x  c
2 Rule 6
Rule 3

  cos x  sin 2 x  dx   cos 2 xdx

2
5.6 ⟵ Rewrite using a trig identity
1
 sin 2 x  c ✔
2
Rule 6

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [262]
29.3 PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT
The next topic, "undo the chain rule", involves even more integration rules. Thus:
 Memorize the rules!
 Practice by evaluating as many integrals as you can.
 Remember to simplify before applying the rules.

 USEFUL EXPONENTIAL /LOG IDENTITIES

 eln x  x
 ln ex  x
 ln xa  a ln x
 USEFUL TRIG IDENTITIES
 sin 2 x  12 1  cos 2 x 
 cos2 x  12 1  cos 2 x 
 tan2 x  sec2 x 1
 cot 2 x  csc2 x 1
sin x
  tan x
cos x
 sin x cos x  12 sin 2 x

Exercise 29.2
Evaluate each of the following and simplify your answer where necessary.
1.  0dz 2.  dx 3.  2di
dt 2
4. 5 5.  3 dt 6.  4xdx
 3y dy t  x dx
5 3 3
7. 8. dt 9.
1 dy
 x dx  y
3
10. 5
11. x5 dx 12. 3

e e  3 dt
3x t t
13. dx 14. 2
dt 15.
3dx
4 e e
y
3x2
16. 7
dy 17. dx 18. 2x

sin 2 x
19.  sin 3xdx 20.  2 cos 4xdx 21.  2
dx
x
 sin 2 dx  3sec  csc
2 2
22. 23. 2xdx 24. 5xdx

 2t  csc 2 3 x
25.  2sec 4 x tan 4 xdx 26.  sinh  3  dt 27.  6 dx
 x  x cot 2 x
28.  csc  2  cot  2  dx 29.  2 tan 3xdx 30.  2 dx ☂☂

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

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Exercise 29.3
1. Simplify each of the following integrands before integration.
sin 2 x x2  1
1.1  sin x dx 1.2  x2 dx
 t5 5 
1.3  y ydy
3 1.4   4  t 4  dt
2 x 4  3x 2  5
 2 x2 dx  1  tan   d
2
1.5 1.6

4 3
  t  t  dt  cot  d
2
1.7 1.8

 2 x 1  x  dx   cos y  sin 2 y  dy
4 2
1.9 1.10
sin x
1.11  1  sin 2
x
dx 1.12  1  t 1  t  dt
2. Carefully study each of the following mathematical statements. Is the
statement true or false? Give a brief reason for your answer.
x2
2.1  x sin xdx  
2
cos x  c

(2 x  1)3
    c
2
2.2 2 x 1 dx
3
y
2.3  y  1 dy  y  ln  y  1  c
3
   csc2   d   cot 
2
2.4
3

3. Bird, Practice Exercise 194, pp 524 – 525 ☂☂☂

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [264]
ANSWERS 29
Exercise 29.1
1.  0dr  c 2.  3dr  3r  c
x6
 dz  z  c  3x dx  c
5
3. 4.
2
8
3 3 9x 3
x dx   c   c
3 5
5. 5
6. 3 x dx
4 x4 8
dt 1 2
t  t dt   t  c
3
7. 3
 c 8.
2t 2
t3 t4 dy y
9.  4 16  c
dt  10.  7  7 c
7
2z 2
 z dz  7  c  axda  a x  c
5 2
11. 12.

Exercise 29.2
1.  0dz  c 2.  dx  x  c
dt t
3.  2di  2i  c 4.  5  5 c
2 2t
 3 dt  c  4 xdx  2 x c
2
5. 6.
3
1 6 1
 3 y dy  2 y  c t
3
7. 5
8. dt   c
2t 2

3 43 1 1
9.  x3 dx 
4
x c 10. x 5
dx  
4 x4
c
3 8 dy 1
 x dx  8 x 3  c y  c
3 5
11. 12. 3
2 y2
1 3 x
 e dx   3 e  c e
3 x
dt  2e 2 dt
t t
13. 14. 2

3t 7 y7
 4
y
15. 3 t
dt  c 16. 7
dy 
e c
ln 3 ln 4
e2 3 x 3dx 3
  e2 x   2e2 x  c
3x2
17. e dx  e c 18.
3
1 1
19.  sin 3xdx   3 cos 3x  c 20.  2cos 4 xdx  2 sin 4 x  c
sin 2 x 1 x
21.  2
dx  sin 2 x  c
4
22.  sin 2 dx  2sin x
2 c

3 1
 3sec 2 xdx  tan 2 x  c  csc 5 xdx   cot 5 x  c
2 2
23. 24.
2 5

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [265]
 1  2t  3  2t 
25.  2sec 4 x tan 4 xdx  2 sec 4 x  c 26.  sinh  3  dt  2 cosh  3   c

csc2 3x 1  x  x
27.  6 dx   18 cot 3x  c 28.  csc  2  cot  2  dx  2csc x
2 c

2 cot 2 x 1
29.  2 tan 3xdx  3 ln sec3x  c 30.  2
dx  ln sin 2 x  c
4

Exercise 29.3
sin 2 x x2  1 1
1.1  sin x dx  2sin x  c 1.2  x2 dx  x  x  c
3 7/3  t5 5  1 6 5
1.3  y 3 ydy  7 y  c 1.4   4  t 4  dt  24 t  3t 3  c
2 x 4  3x 2  5 x3 3 5
1.5  2 x2 dx   x
3 2 2x
c

4 3
 1  tan   d  tan   c
4 5
  t   dt  t 4  3ln t  c
2
1.6 1.7
t 5

 2 x 1  x  dx  x
1
 cot  d    cot   c 4
1.8 2
1.9 2
 c
x2

  cos y  sin 2 y  dy  y  c
sin x
 1  sin dx  sec x  c
2
1.10 1.11 2
x

t3
1.12  1  t 1  t  dt  t  t
c

x2
2.1  x sin xdx   2
cos x  c : False

(2 x  1)3
     c : False
2
2.2 2 x 1 dx
3
y
2.3  y  1 dy  y  ln  y  1  c : True
3
   csc2   d   cot  : False
2
2.4
3

TMA105C: Integration: Anti-differentiation

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [266]
30. MORE ADVANCED INTEGRATION

30.1 THE CHAIN RULE REVERSED

Let's have another look at the integration rules. We use the chain rule to determine
d
 3x 2  1 :
4

dx
d
 3x 2  1  4(3x 2  1)3  6 x
4

dx f ( x) f '( x )

 24 x(3x 2  1)3

Hence we know the anti-derivative of 24 x(3 x 2  1)3 is

 24x(3x  1)3dx  (3x2  1)4  c .
2

How can we determine the anti-derivative without knowing the original function?
Let's write the integrand in terms of a function f ( x )  3 x 2  1 and its derivative
f '( x)  6x :
 24 x(3x  1)3dx   4(3 x 2  1)3  6 x dx
2

f ( x) f '( x )

  4  f ( x)   f '( x)dx
3

 (3 x 2  1) 4  c ← We know this is the anti-derivative

  f ( x)4 
 4 c
 4 
 
  f ( x)  c
4

Now compare the following two integrals:

 4x dx  x  c
3 4

and

 4 f ( x)  f '( x)dx   f ( x)

3
c
4

At a first glance it looks as if we applied the same rule for the integral of x n and
 f ( x)  :
n

x n1
 x n dx 
intgerand n 1
c

and
 f ( x) 
n 1

  f ( x)  f '( x) dx  c
n

n 1
Intgerand

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [267]
However, on closer inspection we notice the f '( x) in the integrand of the last rule.

☞ Whenever you want to reverse the application of the chain rule, you must have
the function and its derivative in the integrand.

Activity 30.1
Evaluate  3x2  x3  5 dx .
4

SOLUTION
Let f ( x)  x 3  5 . Then f '( x )  3 x 2 . Now apply the rule.

x  5
4 1
 f ( x) 
3 n 1

  3x  x  5   f ( x) 
4
f '( x) dx  c
n
2 3
dx  c n 1
f '( x ) 4 1 Intgerand
f ( x)

( x3  5)5
 c ✔
5

☞ What "happened" to the 3x2 in the integrand? It is not part of the answer.
 You used it when you applied the rule! Without the 3x2 we can't apply
the rule.

Activity 30.2
Determine  x sin x 2 dx .
SOLUTION
d
We know that  sin x    cos x  c . Let's try a method similar to the one
dx
used in Activity 30.1.

Let f ( x)  x 2 . Then f '( x)  2x .

Look for the derivative in the integrand.

1
The constant 2 doesn't appear in the integrand. Fortunately we know 2 × 2 =
1
1. Thus, include the 2 in the integrand and "balance" it with 2 in front.
1
  x sin x 2 dx   2 x sin x 2 dx
Intgerand 2 f '( x ) f ( x)  sin  f ( x) f '( x) dx   cos  f ( x)  c
Intgerand

1 
   cos x 2   c
2 f ( x) 

1
  cos x 2  c ✔
2

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [268]
☂ What if …
 … there was no x in the integrand?
 sin x dx ; we don't have a technique yet.
2

 … there was an x 2 in front of the sin x2 ?

 x sin x dx ; we don't have a technique yet.
2 2

 … the x 2 was in front of sin x ? We apply an technique called

"integration by parts" (beyond the scope of this module) and get
 x sin xdx  2cos x  2x sin x  x cos x  c
2 2

☀ Note the following.

 Integration has no product rule.
 Integration has no quotient rule.
 Integration has no chain rule.

There are many techniques available to evaluate integrals. Here are a few you may
come across in more advanced math modules:
 Table of integrals in terms of u
 Integration by parts
 Trig substitution
 t substitution
 Numerical integration
 The residue theorem

Is this chapter we'll use the integration formulas in the previous chapter.

30.2 WORKED EXAMPLES

We'll do a few examples and leave you to practice a lot. The following steps may
assist you.

Steps
1. Simplify the integrand.
2. Identify f (x) .
3. Calculate f '( x) .
4. "Fix" the derivative in the integrand.
5. Apply the correct formula.
6. Simplify the answer.

Activity 30.3
x
Simplify  x2  3
dx .

SOLUTION
Rewrite the integrand:

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [269]
 dt   x  x 2  3
x  12
 x2  3
dx

Identify:
f ( x)  x 2  3
Derivative:
f '( x)  2x
Need a 2 in the integrand:
 12
x 1    f ( x) 
n 1

 x2  3
dx   2 x  x 2  3 
2 f '( x )  f ( x ) 
dx Rule 1:  f ( x)  f ( x)
n
dx 
n 1
c

1  ( x 2  3) 2 
 1 1

  c
2   12  1 

 ( x 2  3) 2  c
1

 x2  3  c ✔

Activity 30.4
3x
Evaluate  2 dx .
x 1

Incorrect answer
Apply Rule 1:
3x
 x 2  1dx   3x( x  1) dx
2 1

3
  2 x( x 2  1) 1 dx
2
3  ( x 2  1) 11 
 
2  1  1 
3 1

2  0  ✗
☞ Division by 0 is undefined and hence Rule 1 is the WRONG rule!

SOLUTION
f '( x ) Let f ( x)  x2  1
3x 3 2x  f '( x)  2 x
x 2
1
dx   2
2 x 1
dx
f ( x)

3 f ( x)
 ln x 2  1  c ✔ Rule 2:  f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x)  c
2

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [270]
 f '( x)
Let's have a closer look at Rule 2:  f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x)  c

 The integrand is a fraction

f '( x)
 f '( x)  f ( x)  n  1  Rule 2
1
 If the integrand has the form
 f ( x) 
1

 Note the exponent of f (x) in the denominator is 1 ⇒ Rule 2

 Any other power of f (x) in the denominator ⇒ Rule 1
2x
o  Rule 1
x2  3
2x
o  Rule 2
x 3
2

2x
o  Rule 1
 x  3
2 5

Activity 30.5
3x
Evaluate  dx .
x  1
2 3

Incorrect answer
Apply Rule 2:

 x 2  1 3 dx  2 ln  x  1   c
3x 3 3

✗
2

 
☞ x  1   f ( x)  and hence Rule 2 is the WRONG rule!
2 3 3

SOLUTION
Let f ( x)  x2  1 3x
 3x( x 2  1)3
3x  n  1  Rewrite
 dx  f '( x)  2 x ( x 2  1)3
x  1
2 3

 f ( x) 
n 1
3
   f '( x)  f ( x) dx  c
n
Rule 1:
  3 x  x 2  1 dx n 1
f '( x )  f ( x ) 

x  1
2 31

 c
3  1
1
 c
2( x  1) 2
2
✔

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [271]
Activity 30.6
Determine I if I   2 x 2 cos x3dx .
SOLUTION
I   2 x 2 cos x 3dx Let f ( x)  x3  Fix the integrand
 f '( x)  3x2
2
  3 x 2 cos x 3 dx
3 f '( x ) f ( x)

2 Rule 6:  f '( x) cos  f ( x) dx  sin  f ( x)  c

 sin x3  c ✔
3

Activity 30.7
Determine I if I   2sin x cos3 xdx .
SOLUTION
I   2sin x cos3 xdx Let f ( x)  cos x  Fix the integrand
 f '( x)   sin x
 2    sin x  cos x  dx
3

 f ( x) 
f '( x ) f ( x) n 1

 f '( x)  f ( x) dx  c
n
Rule 1:
 (cos x) 4  n 1
 2  c
 4 
cos 4 x
 c ✔
2

Exercise 30.1
Evaluate each integral and simplify the answer.
2 zdz 3
1.  4t 1dt 2.  3 z2 1 3.  (2  x) 4
dx

 r r  1 dr
dy
 3x 7  3x dx  5y  4
2 2 3
4. 5. 6.

dt x 2 dx t
7.  (4t 1)6 8.  4
2 x3  1
9.  1  2t 2
dt

 3x 1  2 x  dx
sinh x
 cosh3 x dx t 2  3t 2 dt
2
10. 11. 12.

cos 3x x 2  3x  7
 x sinh x dx  5  2sin 3x dx 
2
13. 14. 15. dx
x
2x 4 cos  dx
16. x 3
2
dx 17.  3  2sin  d 18. x
3dx sin t 8sin tdt
19.  3x  2 20.  2  cos t dt 21.  1  4 cos t

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [272]
 ln t dt dt
22.  t
dt 23.  t ln t 24.  t  ln t  2

3sec2 x sec x tan x sinh 2 x

25.  6  3tan x dx 26.  2  sec x
dx 27.  1  cosh 2 x dx
cos  d 3x 2  1 ( x  3)dx
28.  1  sin  29.  x3  x dx 30. x 2
 6x  7
x2  4 (ln y )2 dy 1
31.  x3 dx 32.  y 33.  3t  2 dt
1 1
e  5xe  x2 e x dx
3 x 1  x2
34. dx 35. dx 36.

5  ey
 sin x e e  e2 y dy
cos x 1t
37. dx 38. dt 39.

 xe  3   cos  7t  5 dt
2 2
x x
40. 2
dx 41. 2
 x dx 42.

cos x
x  sin  4  2t  dt 
2
43. tan x3dx 44. 45. dx
x
46.  x sin x 2  1 dx  3
 47. x
1 1 
cos   1 dx
2
x 
48.  t sec t  dt
2 2

 cos t sin tdt  tan y sec ydy  sec

2 2 3
49. 50. 51. y tan ydy
sin 2 x sin xdx csc2 t
52.  sin x dx 53.  1  sin 2 x 54.  cot 3 t dt
sec x tan x cos t sin y
55.  sec x  1 dx 56.  1  sin t dt 57.  cos2 y dy ☂☂☂

Exercise 30.2
1. Prove the following integration rules using trig identities.
1.1  tan xdx  ln sec x  c 1.2  cot xdx  ln sin x  c
2. Evaluate each of the following. Then use differentiation to prove that your
answer is correct.
  2sin 3x  3cos 2x  dx  t  sec t  dt
2 2
2.1 2.2

  tan   1 d x  1 dx
2 2 2
2.3 2.4

3. Evaluate and simplify each of the following.

NOTE: You may have to apply a trig identity before integration.
 sin xdx  cos xdx
2 2
3.1 3.2
dx dx
3.3  sin 2
x
3.4  cos x 2

 tan  cot xdx

2 2
3.5 xdx 3.6

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [273]
4. Bird
 Practice Exercise 196, p 530, #1 – 6
 Practice Exercise 197, p 532, #1 – 7 ☂☂☂

❢ Do really know the rules? Do you know the difference between differentiation
and integration? Then do the following exercises!

Exercise 30.3
Complete the following table. Do not simplify your answer.

Question Answer Question Answer

1.  5dt 2.  12 dy

 dz  x dx
4
3. 4.
5.  dx3
x
6.  dt
1
t2

7.  dx
1
2x 8.  dt 1
t 1

9.  3x dx 3
10.  dx
x2
7

11.  e dx2x
12.  e dxx/3

13.  dx
3
e4 x
14.  3 dx x

15.  2 dx3x
16.  dx
2
42 x

17.  sin 7xdx 18.  cos dx x

4

19.  2cos 3xdx 20.  sin 3tdt

1
2

21.  3sec 2xdx 2

22.  csc dx 2 2x
3

23.  4sec 2 x tan 2 xdx 24.  3csc 4 x cot 4 xdx

25.   x  3  3  dx 26.   x  x dx
3 x 3 3 2

27.  ln x
x dx 28.  1
dx
x ln x

29.  cos x
sin x dx 30.  cos x
dx
sin 2 x

31.  x
x 1 dx 32.  dx
x 1
x

33.  e 3 x 7
dx 34.  cos(3x  7)dx
35.  2x
x2 1
dx 36.  3x
x2 1
dx
37.  x 1
x 2  2 x 5
dx 38.  x2  2 x
dx
x3 3 x2 1

39.  x
x2 1
dx 40.  sin t cos tdt

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [274]
Exercise 30.4
Complete the following table.

Derivative Function Integral

1. 3x4
2. sin 2x
3. cos 2x
4. tan 2x
5. sec2x
6. csc2x
7. cot 2x
8. sec2 2x
9. csc2 2x
10. sec2x tan 2x
11. csc2x cot 2x

12. (3 x  1)
4

1
13. 5x

14. e3x
15. 32x
2x
16. x 2

x2
17. 2x

18. x 1

19. 3
2x 1
1
20. 3x

2
21. x 1

x
22. x2 3

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [275]
ANSWERS 30
Exercise 30.1
3  z 2  1
4
3
(4t  1) 2
3
2 zdz
1.  4t  1dt 
6
c 2.  3
z2 1

2
c

 7  3x 
3
2 2
3 1
 (2  x)4 dx  (2  x)3  c  3x 7  3x dx  c
2
3. 4.
3
(r 3  1)2
 r  r 1 dr 
dy
 5 y  4  15 ln 5 y  4  c c
2 3
5. 6.
6
2(2 x3  1) 4
3
dt 1 x2 dx
7.  (4t 1)6   20(4t 1)5  c 8.  4
2 x3  1

9
c

t 1  2t 2 sinh x 1
9.  1  2t 2
dt  
2
c 10.  cosh 3
x
dx 
2 cosh 2 x
c

3(1  2 x 2 )2 (2  3t 2 ) 2
3

 3x 1  2 x  dx   c  t 2  3t dt   c
2 2
11. 12.
8 9
1
 x sinh x dx  2 cosh x c cos3x 1

2 2
13. 14. dx  5  2sin 3x  c
5  2sin 3x 3
x 2  3x  7 2x
15.
 x
2 5
dx  x 2  2 x 2  14 x  c
5
3
16. x 3
2
dx  ln x 2  3  c

4cos  dx
17.  3  2sin  d  2ln 3  2sin   c 18.  x  ln x  c
3dx sin t
19.  3x  2  ln 3x  2  c 20.  2  cos t dt  ln 2  cos t  c
8sin tdt ln t
 1  4cos t  2ln 1  4cos t  c  t dt  (ln t )  c
2
21. 22.
dt dt 1
23.  t ln t  ln(ln t )  c 24.  t  ln t 2  ln t  c
3sec2 x sec x tan x
25.  6  3tan x dx  ln 6  3tan x  c 26.  2  sec x
dx  ln 2  sec x  c
sinh 2 x 1 cos  d
27.  1  cosh 2 x dx  2 ln 1  cosh 2 x  c 28.  1  sin   ln 1  sin   c
3x 2  1 ( x  3)dx 1
 x3  x dx  ln x  x  c x  ln x 2  6 x  7  c
3
29. 30. 2
 6x  7 2
x2  4 2 (ln y)2 dy (ln y)3
31.  x3 dx  ln x  x2  c 32.  y  3 c
1 1 1 3 x 1
 3t  2 dt  3 ln 3t  2  c  e dx  3 e  c
3 x 1
33. 34.
5  x2 1 1
 5xe dx   2 e  c  x2 e x dx  e x  c
 x2 1
35. 36.

 sin x e dx  e  c  e dt  e  c
cos x cos x 1t 1t
37. 38.

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [276]
 5  ey 5 1
 e2 y dy   2e2 y  y  c  xe 2 dx  e
 x2  x2
39. 40. 2
c

 
x2
3 2 1
  cos  7t  5 dt  7 sin(7t  5)  c
2
x
41. 3  x dx 2
 c 42.
ln 3
1 2 3 1
 x tan x dx  3 sec x  c  sin  4  2t  dt  2 cos(4  2t )  c
2 3
43. 44.

cos x
45.  x dx  2sin x  c 46.   2

x sin x 2  1 dx   cos x 2  1  c
3

3
3
 
1  1 
 t sec  t  dt  2 tan(t
1 1
 x2 cos  x 1 dx   sin  x 1  c )c
2 2 2
47. 48.

 cos t sin tdt   cos 2t  c  tan y sec ydy  tan y  c

2 2 3
49. 50.
sin 2 x
 sec y tan ydy  13 sec3 y  c  sin x dx  2sin x  c
3
51. 52.

sin xdx csc2 t

 1  sin 2 x  sec x  c  cot3 t dt  tan t  c
2
53. 54.
sec x tan x cos t
55.  sec x  1 dx  ln sec x  1  c 56.  1  sin t dt  ln 1  sin t  c
sin y
57.  cos2
y
dy  sec y  c

Exercise 30.2
1.1  tan xdx  ln sec x  c 1.2  cot xdx  ln sin x  c
Proof/discussion Proof/discussion
2.1   2sin 3x  3cos 2x  dx  6cos3x  6sin 2x  c
t3
 t  sec t  dt  3  tan t  c
2 2
2.2

  tan   1 d  tan   c
2
2.3
x5 2 x3
  x  1 dx 
2
2.4 2
  xc
5 3
NB!!!!   x 2  1 dx 
1
2x 
2
2 x( x 2  1) 2 dx
x 1 x 1
 sin xdx  2  4 sin 2 x  c  cos xdx   sin 2 x  c
2 2
3.1 3.2
2 4
dx dx
3.3  sin 2 x   cot x  c 3.4  cos 2
x
 tan x  c

 tan xdx  x  tan x  c  cot xdx  x  cot x  c

2 2
3.5 3.6

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [277]
Exercise 30.3
Question Answer Question Answer
1.  5dt 5t  c 2.  12 dy 2 c
y

zc
 dz  x dx x5
c
4
3. 4. 5

5.  dx3
3 2 x  c 6.  dt
1  1t  c
x t2

7.  dx
1 1
ln x  c 8.  dt 1 ln(t 1)  c
2x 2 t 1

9.  3x dx 3 x4
c 10.  dx  x3  c
3
3 x2 1
4 7 7

11.  e dx2x 1
2 e2 x  c 12.  e dxx/3
3ex /3  c

13.  dx
3  4 e34 x  c 14.  3 dx x 3x
c
e4 x ln 3

15.  2 dx 16.  dx
2 x
3x 23 x
3ln 2 c 2
42 x
2  42ln 4  c
17.  sin 7xdx  17 cos 7x  c 18.  cos dx x
4
4sin 4x  c

19.  2cos 3xdx

2
3 sin 3x  c 20.  sin 3tdt
1
2
 12  13 cos 3t  c

21.  3sec 2xdx 2 3

2 tan 2x  c 22.  csc dx 2 2x
3
 32 cot 23x  c

23.  4sec 2 x tan 2 xdx

4
2 sec 2x  c 24.  3csc 4 x cot 4 xdx  34 csc 4x  c

25.   x  3  3  dx  ln3 3  27 x  c 26.   x  x dx x3/ 2  53 x5/ 3  c

3 x 3 x4 x
3 2 2
4 3

  ln x  28.  ln  ln x   c
2
c
ln x 1
27. x dx 1
2
dx
x ln x

29.  cos x
sin x dx  csc2 x  c 30.  cos x
dx
sin 2 x
1
2 ln csc t  cot t  c
31.  x
x 1 dx x  ln x  1  c 32.  dx
x 1
x
x  ln x  c
33.  e 3 x 7
dx 1
3 e3 x  7  c 34.  cos(3x  7)dx
1
3 sin(3 x  7)  c

35.  2x
x2 1
dx ln x2  1  c 36.  3x
x2 1
dx 3
2 ln x 2  1  c
37.  x 1
x 2  2 x 5
dx 1
2 ln x2  2 x  5  c 38.  x2  2 x
dx
x3 3 x2 1
1
3 ln x3  3x2  1  c
39.  x
dx 1
ln x 2  1  c 40.  sin t cos tdt  12  12 cos 2t  c
x2 1 2

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [278]
Exercise 30.4
Derivative Function Integral
3 4x3 1. 3x4 5 c
3 x5

2cos2x 2. sin 2x  12 cos 2x  c

2sin 2x 3. cos 2x 1
2 sin 2x  c
2sec2 2x 4. tan 2x 1
2 ln sec 2x  c
2sec2x tan 2x 5. sec2x 1
2 ln sec 2 x  tan 2 x  c
2csc2x cot 2x 6. csc2x 1
2 ln csc 2 x  cot 2 x  c
2csc2 2x 7. cot 2x 1
2 ln sin 2x  c
2sec2x  2sec2x tan 2x 8. sec2 2x 1
2 tan 2x  c
2csc2x  2csc2x cot 2x 9. csc 2x 2
 12 cot 2x  c
2sec2x tan 2x  tan 2x  2sec2x sec2 2x 10. 1
2 sec 2x  c
sec2x tan 2x
2csc2x cot 2x  cot 2x  2csc2x  csc2 2x 11.  12 csc 2x  c
csc2x cot 2x
4(3x  1)3  3 12. (3 x  1)  (3 x51)  c
4 5
1
3

 51x 2 13. 1
5x
1
5 ln x  c
3e3x 14. e3x 1
3 e3 x  c
2ln3 32x 15. 32x  3ln 3
2x
1
2
2( x  2) 2 x
( x  2)2
or 4
x 2 16. 2x
x 2 2 x  4ln x  2  c
 x12 17. x2
2x
x
2  ln x  c
x 1  x  1  c
1 2 3/ 2
2 x1 18. 3

2  2  2 x  1
1
3 (2 x  1) 2 / 3  2 19. 3
2x 1 1 3 4/ 3
c
 3x1 2 20. 1
3x
1
3 ln x  c
 ( x21)2 21. 2
x 1 2ln x  1  c
( x 2 3)  x (2 x )
ln x 2  3  c
x
22. x2 3
1
2
( x  3)
2 2

TMA105C: Integration: More integrals

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [279]
31. DEFINITE INTEGRALS

31.1 INTRODUCTION
31.1.1 Historical background
Long ago, before computers and calculators, mathematicians wanted to calculate the
area between a curve and the x-axis.

It is quite easy to calculate this area for a straight line.

The shaded area in Error! Reference source not
found.Figure 1 depicts the area between the straight line
𝑦 = 3𝑥 and the x-axis. The area forms a triangle and may
be calculated as follows:
1
Area   base  height 
2
1
 (2)(6) Figure 2 The area between a straight line and
2 the x-axis
6

What if the curve is more complex, say y  e2 x ? Those long-ago mathematicians
experimented with various options. You, as a 21st–century student, already know the
answer from Mensuration! Divide the shaded area between x  0 and x  2 into
strips and apply the Trapezium Rule. Let's have another look.

Figure 3 Compare the sum of the areas of the strips

The area of each strip in Error! Reference source not found. is given by
A   height of strip    width of strip  . Assume the width of each strip is x and the
height is y  e2 x . Then
A  height  width
 e2 x x
for each strip.

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Let Ai represent the area of the ith strip. The total area may thus be written as the sum
of all the Ai , that is,
Area  sum of areas Ai of strips
k
=  e 2 xi x
i 1

The more strips we have, the closer the sum of the areas of the strips are to the actual
area as shown in Error! Reference source not found.. Thus,
 k 
Area  lim   e2 xi x 
k 
 i 1 
 k 
Those "old" mathematicians decided to use the symbol  for lim    and,
k 
 i 1 
similarly to differentiation, use the differential dx instead of x to indicate "a very
small change in x". Today we use
2
Area   e2 x dx
0
and call it a definite integral. In general,
b
I   f ( x)dx
a
Terminology
 f (x) : The integrand
 dx : The differential
 a and b : The limits of integration
o a : The lower limit of integration
o b : The upper limit of integration

1.2 The definite integral

How do we evaluate a definite integral? According to Part 2 of the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus,
b

 f ( x)dx   F ( x)
b
a
a

 F (b)  F (a)
where F is any anti-derivative of f on the interval  a; b , that is, F   f .

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Steps
1. Determine the anti-derivative F(x) of f (x) .
 Write the answer in the form  F ( x)a
b

2. Calculate F(b)  F(a) .

 Always substitute the upper integration limit first.
3. Simplify the answer.

FACTS ABOUT THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

 The result of a definite integral is always a number.
o There is no integration constant c in the answer!
b a
  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
a b
o Note the change in the sign when you swap the integration limits
around.
b b
  kf ( x)dx  k  f ( x)dx for any constant
a a
o Because the constant is independent of x, you may write it in front of
the integral sign.

Activity 31.1
5

 x dx .
3
Determine
1
SOLUTION
5
5
 x4 
1 
3
x dx 4
 1
54 14
 
4 4
625 1
 
4 4
 156 ✔

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Activity 31.2
2
dt
Evaluate  .
1
3t  2
SOLUTION
2
1 
2
dt
1 3t  2   3 ln 3t  2 1
1
 ln 3(2)  2  ln 3(1)  2 
3
1
  ln 4  ln1
3
 0.462 ✔

COMPARE DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS

How will you distinguish between a definite and an indefinite integral in this course?

Indefinite integral Definite integral

b

  f ( x)dx   F ( x)  F (b)  F (a)

b
f ( x)dx  g ( x)  c a
a

o No integration limits are given or o The limits are given (or implied in a
implied word sum)
o Apply an integration rule to evaluate o Apply an integration rule to evaluate
the integrand the integrand
o The answer is a formula o The answer is a number
o The answer always has an integration o There is no integration constant in the
constant answer

Exercise 31.1
Evaluate the following. Show all steps and give exact answers where possible.
Otherwise round off to three significant figures.
2 2

 (1  3x)dx  t dt
5
1. 2.
1 2
5 4

 6dy 
3
3. 4. xdx
2 1
3 4
dx dt
5. 
1 x
6.  1 t
0

3x  5
3 6
dy
7. 
1
x 4
dx 8. 
3
y
3 8
dt dt
9. 
1 9t 3
10. 
5 t 1

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 2 1

e 10 dx
7 x 5 x
11. dx 11.
1 0

2 4

 sin xdx  sec

2
13. 14. xdx
0 0

2 3

 csc tdt  csc cot  d

2
15. 16.
 
6

2 
17.  sin 2tdt
0
18.  sin t cos tdt
0

2 6

 cos  tdt  cos  d

2
19. 20.
0 0

21. Bird, Practice Exercise 195, pp 526 – 527, #1 – 8 ☂☂☂

31.2 USING YOUR CALCULATOR

You may use the key on your clever calculator to evaluate a definite integral.
1

 sin  x  dx  0.637
0

yjqKQ))R0E1=

IMPORTANT NOTES ON USING THE CALCULATOR

 Make sure your calculator is in radian mode when evaluating integrals
containing trig functions.
 Use X as variable on the calculator no matter what the variable in the
integrand is.
 When the question states "show all steps" you must use your head! Should you
write down only the answer, you will get no marks, even if your answer is
correct.

31.3 APPLICATIONS
We may use a definite integral to solve a wide variety of problems. Here we'll look at
only a few applications where the definite integral is used.

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31.3.1 The area under a curve
Based on the definition, a definite integral may be used to
calculate the area between a curve and the x-axis between
two points on the axis.

Thus, the area A between any curve y  f ( x) and the x-

axis on the interval  a; b is given by
b
A   f ( x)dx .
a
See Figure 3.
Figure 4 Area as a definite integral

☀ The upper limit of the integral is always the right-

hand value of the interval.

☃ If the area is negative, the order of the limits are incorrect or the area is below
the x-axis.

Activity 31.3
Calculate the shaded area shown in Figure 4.
SOLUTION
From the sketch, f (x)  3x .
2
 A   3xdx
0
2
 x2 
 3 
 2 0
Figure 5 The area under a straight line
3
  22  0 
2 Using geometry:
1
3
  4 Area   base  height 
2 2
6 ✔ 1
 (2)(6)
2
6

☂ There are no units in the answer because there were no units in the question.

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Activity 31.4
Calculate the area between y  e2 x and the x-axis on the interval [0;2].
SOLUTION
2
A   e2 x dx
0
2
 1 
   e2 x 
 2 0
1
  e2(2)  e2(0) 
2
1
  e4  1
2
 0.491 ✔

Exercise 31.2
1. Sketch and then use integration to determine the area enclosed by y  2 x  x 2
and the x-axis.

2. Determine correctly to TWO decimal places the area enclosed by the curve
1
f  x   x  and the lines x  1and x  2 .
x

3. Show that the area enclosed between the x-axis, the curve 4 y  x 2  2 ln x and
the lines x  1 and x  3 is 16 (19  9 ln 3) .
HINT:  ln xdx  x  ln x  1  c

4. Bird, Practice Exercise 213, p 570, #3 – 8

Bird, Practice Exercise 214, p 572, #1 – 3 ☂☂☂

31.3.2 The area between two curves

Consider the two curves y  f ( x) and y  g( x)
shown in Figure 5. The two curves intersect at x  a
and x  b . The shaded area enclosed by the two curves
is given by
b
A    f ( x)  g ( x) dx .
a

☞ We write f (x) first in the formula because

when we draw a vertical line from top to
bottom, this line will intercept y  f ( x) first. Figure 6 The area enclosed by two curves

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Activity 31.5
Calculate the area enclosed by the curves f ( x)  x  7
and g ( x)  x 2  1 .
SOLUTION
See the graphs in Figure 6. The two graphs
intercept where
x2 1  x  7
that is, when
x2  x  6  0
Hence x  2 or x  3 .
Figure 7
Thus, the integration limits are -2 and 3.
3
A  ( x  7)  ( x  1)  dx
2

2
3
  ( x 2  x  6)dx
2
3
 x3 x 2 
    6 x 
 3 2  2
 33 32   (2)3 ( 2) 2 
     6(3)       6(2)  
 3 2   3 2 
 27   22  
       
 2   3  
125
 ✔
6

☀ In this unit we'll give you the formula for the definite integral. In more
advanced courses you'll have to set up your own formula.

Exercise 31.3
1. Determine the area enclosed by the following curves. The formula is given in
the graph.
1.1 f ( x)  2 x  2 x 2 and g ( x)  x  x 2

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 1.2 f ( x )  8 x and g ( x )  x 2

1.3 f ( x)  2 x 2 and g ( x)  x 4  2 x 2

2. Calculate the shaded area, accurately to three

1
decimal places, between f (t )  sec2 t and
2
g (t )  4sin t on the interval    3 ;  3 
2

shown in the sketch.

3. Estimate the area between

f ( x)  2sin x and g( x)  sin 2x ,
0  x  .

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4. Approximate the area of the region bounded by
x
the curves y  and y  x 4  x . Use your
x 1
2

calculator and work accurately to three significant

digits.

♘ Why is the upper limit of the integral

1.18? You may solve for x if
x
 x 4  x using
x 1
2

 Newton-Raphson
 The solve function on your calculator.
I just guessed using the graph!

5. Bird, Practice Exercise 215, p 574 ☂☂☂

31.3.4 Other applications

31.3.4.1 The RMS and average value of a function
The average or mean value, y , of a function y  f ( x) on an interval  a; b is given
by
b
1
b  a a
y f ( x)dx .

The root-mean-square or RMS value of the function is given by

b
1
RMS  
ba a
y 2 dx .

❢ We'll return to average values in the study unit on statistics.

Activity 31.6
Calculate the average and RMS value of y  f ( x )  x 2 on the interval 0; 2 . Show
all steps.
☀ See the sketch to visualise the difference!

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SOLUTION
2
1
y 
20 0
x 2 dx

2
1  x3 
  
2  3 0
1  23 
   0
2 3 
4

3
2
RMS    x 2  dx
1 2 2

20
2
1 4
2 0
 x dx

2
1  x5 
  
2  5 0
1  25 
   0
2 5 
16

5
16
 RMS 
5
4 5
  1.79
5

Exercise 31.4
Graphs are included to assist with visualization.

1. Calculate the mean value of y  x3  3x  5 on the

interval  0.5; 2 . Show all steps and give an exact
answer.

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2. Determine the mean and RMS value
of y  sin x for 0  x   accurately
to three decimal places. Show all
steps.

3. Calculate the average and RMS values of the given functions across the
specified intervals. Write down the formula and then use your clever
calculator.
1
3.1 f (t )  1 t across [0;2] 3.2 f ( x )  across [1;2]
x
3.3 g(t )  cos t across [0; 2 ]

3.4 f (t)  2sin2t across [0; 2 ]

4. Bird, Practice Exercise 216, p 577, #2 – 5 (using integration; show all steps)
Bird, Practice Exercise 217, p 578, #2 – 6
☂☂☂

31.3.4.2 Work, etc.

The formulas will be given in all assessments!
 When a force F(x) changes as it moves an object from a to b, then the
b
work done by the force is given by W   F ( x)dx
a

 The work done when electric charges move towards each other is
b kq q
W   12 2 dx where q1 and q2 are the charges at distance x apart.
a x
 The total force acting on an unevenly shaped plate submerged vertically in
b
a liquid is given by F  w xydy where w is the density of the liquid, x
a

the length of the plate and y the depth of the plate.

 Displacement s   vdt and velocity v   adt
 Exception!! Memorize the formulas for displacement and velocity!
1
 Voltage on a capacitor VC   idt , and many more!
C

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ANSWERS 31
Exercise 31.1
2 2
15
 (1  3x)dx   t dt  0
5
1. 2.
1
2 2
5 4

 6dy  42  xdx  4.01

3
3. 4.
2 1
3 4
dx dt
5. 
1 x
 1.46 6.  1  t  1.61
0

3x  5
3 6
22 dy
7. 
1
x 4
dx  
81
8.  3
y
 0.693
3 8
dt dt
9. 
1 9t 3
 0.281 10.  5 t 1
 1.29
2 1

e 10 dx  3.91
7 x 5
11. dx  1160 12. x

1 0

2 4

 sin xdx  0  sec xdx  1

2
13. 14.
0 0

2 3

 csc  csc cot  d  0.845

2
15. tdt undefined 16.
 
6

2 
17.  sin 2tdt  1
0
18.  sin t cos tdt  0
0

2 6

 cos  tdt  0  cos  d  0.478

2
19. 20.
0 0

Exercise 31.2
 1
2 2
1. A   (2 x  x )dx  2 4
3 2. A    x   dx  2.19
1
0
x

3
1  x3  1
3
A    x 2  2 ln x  dx    2 x(ln x  1)   19  9 ln 3
1
3.
41 4 3 1 6

Exercise 31.3
1
1.1 A   (2 x  2 x2 )  ( x  x 2 )  dx  1 6
0
2
1.2 A    8x  x2  dx  8 3
0
2
1.3 A   2 x 2  ( x 2  2 x 2 )  dx   64 5
2

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 
1 
3

A   2 sec t  4sin 2 t  dt  4.189

2
2.
 3 

3. A    2sin x  sin 2 x dx  4
0
1.18
 x 
4. A 
0
 2
 x 1
 ( x4  x) dx  0.785


Exercise 31.4
2
y    x3  3x  5 dx 
1 125
1.
2 0.5 32
 
1 1
 
2. y sin xdx  0.637; RMS  sin 2
xdx  0.707
0 0
2 2
1 1 39
3.1 y   (1  t )dt  2; RMS   (1  t )dt 
20 20 3
2 2
1 1 1 2
3.2 y   dx  0.693; RMS  x 2
dx 
11 x 1
2
 /2  /2
2 2 2
y  cos tdt  0.637; RMS   cos xdx 
2
3.3
 0
 0
2
 /2  /2
2 2
y  2sin 2tdt  1.273; RMS   (2sin 2t ) dt  2
2
3.4
 0
 0

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32. NUMERICAL INTEGRATION

32.1 MOTIVATION
It is not always possible to evaluate an integral
analytically, that is, using known techniques. For
example, there is no technique yet we may use to evaluate
I   sin x 2 dx analytically. Figure 7 depicts the integrand
of I. Note that this function is no longer periodic because
the distance between the x-intercepts decreases as x Figure 8 The graph of y = sin(x2)
increases.

Let's zoom in on the interval  0;  2  in Figure 7 and

calculate the area shown in Figure 8. This means we

2

 sin( x
2
have to evaluate the definite integral ) dx . We
0

don't know an analytical techniques to calculate the

area. Using your clever calculator, we find

2

 sin( x ) dx  0.828 . Your calculator uses a numerical

2

method called the "Causs-Kronrod quadrature Figure 9 The area between the curve and the x-axis
formula". You may study this method in more
advanced courses but for now we'll look at to simpler numerical methods:
 The Trapezium trapezoidal) rule; and
 Simpson's rule.

32.2 THE TRAPEZIUM RULE

In Mensuration we used the trapezium rule to calculate the area of a shape with an
irregular boundary. Now you know why: when we split the area into a number of
strips and increase the number of strips, the sum of the areas of the strips
approximates the area of the shape – integration!

b
To determine the area represented by A   ydx where y  f ( x) ,
a

h
 y0  yn  2  y1  y2   yn 1  
b
 a
ydx 
2
ba
where y0  f (a) , yn  f (b) , n the number of strips and h  .
n

h
 In words, A  first ordinate + last ordinate + 2  other ordinates 
2

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 The trapezium rule may be used with any number of strips.
 We connected the y-values with straight lines to form trapeziums and then
added the areas of all the trapeziums; see Figure 9.

Activity 32.1

2

Evaluate I   sin( x 2 ) dx accurately to three decimal

0

places using the trapezium rule with four strips.

SOLUTION
See Figure 9 for the strips.

n4h 2

4


8 Figure 10 The shaded area divided into four strips

☀ The x values are 0; 

8 ; 
8  8   4; 
4   8  3 8 ; 3
8  8   2

Set up the table: The final answer must be correct to three decimal places.
Thus, use four decimal places in the table.

  3 
x 0 8 4 8 2

sin( x 2 ) 0 0.1536 0.5785 0.9833 0.6243

Apply the formula:


2

I   sin( x 2 )dx
0

 0  0.6243  2  0.1536  0.5785  0.9833 
8

2
 0.796 ✔

❢ Why this answer is different from the answer obtained using the calculator:
We rounded every answer in the table.
The Trapezium rule yields an approximate answer only; the sum of a
number of trapeziums.

Let's look at one way to increase the accuracy of numerical integration.

TMA105C: Integration: Numerical integration

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [295]
32.3 SIMPSON'S RULE
With Simpson's rule we connect the y-values with
parabolas. In Figure 10 we divided the interval  a; b into
two strips with m representing the midpoint. The definite
integral is then approximated by the sum of the two areas
between the parabola and the x-axis.

The general formula to calculate the area represented by

b
A   ydx where y  f ( x) is, according to Simpson's
a

rule,
h
 y0  yn  4  y1  y3    2  y2  y4  
b

Figure 11 Simpson's rule
ydx 
a 3
ba
where y0  f (a) , yn  f (b) and h  .
n

 In words,
A  first ordinate + last ordinate + 4  sum of odd ordinates  + 2  sum of even ordinates 
 In table form, add an extra row/column and fill in 1 4 2 4 2 2 4 1 as
indicated.

First Odd Even Odd Even Odd Last

y y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6
1 4 2 4 2 4 1

Then multiply the adjacent ordinate cell by this number. For example, in this case,
h  0.1 and

x 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

y 0.0 0.25 0.31 0.43 0.37 0.20 0.0
1 4 2 4 2 4 1

0.1
Then, A  0.0  0.0  4(0.25  0.43  0.20)  2(0.31  0.37)  0.0542
3

 Simpson's rule can only be used with an even number of intervals.

TMA105C: Integration: Numerical integration

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [296]
Activity 32.2

2

Evaluate I   sin( x 2 ) dx accurately to three decimal places using Simpson's rule with
0

four strips.
SOLUTION
  3 
x 0 8 4 8 2

sin( x 2 ) 0 0.1536 0.5785 0.9833 0.6243

1 4 2 4 1


2

I   sin( x 2 )dx
0

 0  0.6243  4  0.1536  0.9833  2(0.5785) 
8

3
 0.828 ✔

❢ Is the value of I using Simpson's rule the same as the answer from the
calculator?
ISimpson  0.8284510727
I calculator  0.8281163288

☞ Keep in mind both answers are the result of a numerical method!

32.4 ERROR ANALYSIS

b
Consider the integral I   ydx . To compare the exact and numerical (approximate)
a

evaluations of I, we calculate the percentage error, %E:

 exact value - numerical value 
%E    100 .
 exact value 

 By dividing the interval [a; b] into more strips the accuracy of the numerical
method will improve, but the calculations, when done by hand, become more
tedious.

☃ We obtain the exact or analytic answer using a known technique/formula.

TMA105C: Integration: Numerical integration

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [297]
Exercise 32
1. Evaluate each of the following integrals using four strips and (a) the trapezium
rule, (b) Simpson's rule and (c) direct integration. Then do an error analysis to
determine which numerical method is more accurate.
1 3 2
 0 x dx 1 x dx
2
1.1 1.2

2. Use (a) the trapezium and (b) Simpson's rule to evaluate each of the following
integrals accurate to three decimal places. Use four intervals.

1 3
0 1  sin x dx 1 2 ln(3x)dx
2
2.1 2.2
 1.4
 sin  d  e x dx
3 2
2.3 2.4
0 0

1.0 sin t
3. Evaluate  0.2 t
dt using Simpson's rule and eight intervals.


2
4. Evaluate t cos tdt using Simpson's rule and six intervals.
0

5. Evaluate each of the following definite integrals using a suitable numerical

method. Clearly state which method you used and why.
x
1 1.2 e
0  1 x dx with five strips
2
5.1 sin t dt with h 0.2 5.2

1
6. Use Simpson's rule with h  0.1 to estimate 0
1  xdx .

7. Bird:
 Practice Exercise 210, p 559
 Practice Exercise 211, p 561 (Use the trapezium rule)
 Practice Exercise 212, pp 563 – 564 (Exclude calculations with the mid-
ordinate rule)

TMA105C: Integration: Numerical integration

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [298]
ANSWERS 30
1 1
1.1 I e  , I S  , IT  0.338125, % ET  1.4%, % ES  0
3 3
1.2 I e  2.9282, IT  2.9447, I S  2.9291, % ET  0.56%, % ES  0.09%
2.1 IT  1.013, I S  1.001 2.2 IT  6.9587, I S  6.985
2.3 IT  0.660, I S  0.676 2.4 IT  0.840, I S  0.844
3. I S  0.741 4. I S  0.571
5.1 IT  0.314 5.2 IT  0.513
6. 1.219

TMA105C: Integration: Numerical integration

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [299]
31. MIXED EXERCISE (CJ Louw)
1. Evaluate the following integrals and simplify your answers.
 3xdx  x dx
7
1.1 1.2
1.3   dx 1.4  x dx
 x dx  x dx
3
1.5 1.6

  dx  (3x ) dx
3 2
1.7 1.8

 5xdx  3x dz
3
1.9 1.10
2du (1  p) 2
1.11  3
7u
1.12  p
dp

x5  x3 x 2
1.13  x 2 dx 1.14   3  x 3

dx

dx
1.15  3
x

2. Evaluate the following integrals and simplify your answers.

5
 x dx  e dx
3x
2.1 2.2
dx
 x e dx  e3x
2 x3
2.3 2.4

 e
t
2.5 e p dp 2.6 dt
e 3t ln x
2.7  3 dt 2.8  x
dx

dx x2
2.9  x ln x 2.10  x 3  4 dx
x3
2.11  x 2  6 x dx 2.12  tand
x 2  6x dT
2.13  x 3  9 x 2  12dx 2.14 T
csc 2 x
 1  cot x dx 3
x
2.15 2.16 dx

5 cos x
 csc x dx 10
6x
2.17 2.18 dx
dx
 23x a
x
2.19 2.20 dx

3. Evaluate the following integrals and simplify your answers.

x
3.1  sin 6xdx 3.2  cosh 2 dx

TMA105C: Integration: Mixed exercise

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [300]
 x
3.3  sec 5xdx 3.4  tan 2 dx

3.5  csc 4d 3.6  4 cot 3 d
2x
 sech 6x dx  csc 3 dx
2 2
3.7 3.8

3.9  3sec h2x tanh 2x dx 3.10  sin x cos xdx

 2sec 3xdx  csc 5xdx
2 2
3.11 3.12
dx dp
3.13  sin(1  2 x) 3.14  sin 2
p
e
cosh 2 x
3.15 sinh 2 xdx

4. Evaluate the following integrals and simplify your answers.

x2
4.1  5 dp 4.2  7 dx
3
 e 4 x dx
x
4.3  3 dx
e 4.4
2
 2 dx  4 2 x dx
3x
4.5 4.6
3
 [2  3x  e  e ]dx 4.8  [ z 2  z  z ]dz
3x 2 4 x  3
4.7

 (3x ) dx 4.10  ( x  1)(x 2  2 x  3)dx

2 3
4.9
(1  y )2 ln 3 x
4.11  y dy 4.12  x dx
x2 1
 ( x  5) x  10x  3dx  x 3  3x dx
2
4.13 4.14

7x x4
4.15  3 x 2
dx 4.16  ( x 5  3) 3 dx
x5  x2
 x 3 dx 7
7x
4.17 4.18 dx
xdx dx
4.19  3
1  2x 2
4.20 x 2
 2x 1

5. Evaluate the following definite integrals. Round your answers off to three
decimal places.
3

1
5.1
0
1  xdx 5.2  0
e 2 x 1 dx
x2 2

1
5.3  0 ( x  4 x  5) 2
2
dx 5.4
1
(1  x 2 ) 2 dx

3 1
 sec3 x tan x dx 
4
5.5 5.6 dx
0 2 x 1

TMA105C: Integration: Mixed exercise

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [301]
 0

ln 3
5.7  0
e 2u du 5.8
1
e3 x dx

x x 5 2

04 cosh 2 x sinh 2 x dx

3
1 x 3
3
5.9 dx 5.10
1 dv
5.11 
0 3  2v

6. Applications: Area between the x-axis and the curve.

6.1 Determine the area enclosed between the x-axis and the line y  x
between the values 0 and 3.
(Use the area formula for a triangle to see for yourself that the area of
the triangle is equal to the answer of the integral).
6.2 Determine the area enclosed between y  x  x 2 and the x-axis.
ln x
6.3 Calculate the area of the region bounded by the curve y  , the x-
x
axis and the lines x  1 and x  e 3 . Simplify your answer.
4
6.4 Calculate the area enclosed between the curve y  , the x-axis and
x 1
the lines x = 1 and x = 4.
6.5 Calculate the area under the curve between the given boundaries to three
decimal places: y  sin  and 0     .
6.6 Calculate the area between the x-axis and the curve if
1
y , 1 x  3.
1 x

TMA105C: Integration: Mixed exercise

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [302]
ANSWERS 31
3x 2 x8 x 2
1.1 c 1.2 c 1.3 x  c 1.4 c
2 8 2
2 3 2 5 9x 7
1.5 x c 1.6 x c 1.7 x  c 1.8 c
3 5 7
335 3 4 33 u2
1.9 x c 1.10 3xz  c 1.11 3
c
4 7
4 p3 2 p5 x4 x2
1.12 2 p   c 1.13  c
3 5 4 2
x2 1 33 2
1.14  c 1.15 x c
6 x2 2
1 3x
2.1 5 ln x  c 2.2 e c
3
1 x3 1
2.3 e c 2.4  e 3 x  c
3 3
2.5 2 ep  c 2.6  e t  c
1 3t (ln x) 2
2.7 e c 2.8 c
9 2
1
2.9 ln(ln x)  c 2.10 ln x 3  4  c
3
2.11 1
2 ln x 2  6 x  c 2.12 ln sec   c
1
2.13 ln x 3  9 x 2  12  c 2.14 ln T  c
3
3x
2.15  ln 1  cot x  c 2.16 c
ln 3
5cos x 106 x
2.17 c 2.18 c
ln 5 6ln10
1
c 1
2.19 2.20 c
3.23 x ln 2 x
a ln a
1 x
3.1  cos 6 x  c 3.2 2sinh  c
6 2
1 x
3.3 ln sec 5 x  tan 5 x  c 3.4 2 ln sec  c
5 2
1 1
3.5 ln csc 4  cot 4  c 3.7 tanh 6 x  c
4 6
3 2x 3
3.8 cot c 3.9 sec h2 x  c
2 3 2
sin 2 x  cos2 x 2
3.10  c or c 3.11 tan 3 x  c
2 2 3
1
3.12  cot 5 x  c
5

TMA105C: Integration: Mixed exercise

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [303]
 1
3.13  ln csc(1  2 x)  cot(1  2 x)  c 3.14  cot p  c
2
1 cosh 2 x
3.15 e c 4.1 5p  c
2
x
x3
4.2 c 4.3 3e  c
3
21
 3 4 x 23x
4.4 e c 4.5 c
4 3 ln 2
1 23 x 1
4.6 2x
c 4.7  x3  4 x  e x  c
4 ln 4 3ln 2 4e

3 2 2 3 3
3 4
27 x 7
4.8  z  z c 4.9 c
z 3 4 7
( x  2 x  3) 2
2
4 2
4.10 c 4.11 2 y y3  y5  c
4 3 5
ln 4 x 1
4.12 c 4.13 ( x 2  10 x  3)3  c
4 3
1 7
4.14 ln(x 3  3x)  c 4.15 ln 3  x 2  c
3 2
1 x3
4.16 c 4.17  ln x  c
10( x 5  3) 2 3
3
2
77 x
4.18 c 4.19 (1  2 x 2 ) 3  c
7 ln 7 8
1
4.20 c
x 1
5.1) 4.667 5.2) 1.175 5.3) -0.05 5.4) 3.6
5.5) 0.609 5.6) 0.693 5.7) 4 5.8) 0.317
5.9) 9.765 5.10 4.8299 5.11) 0.549 5.12) 0.333
9 1
6.1) 6.2) 6.3) 4.5 6.4) 3.665
2 6
6.5) 2 6.6) 0.693

TMA105C: Integration: Mixed exercise

© Tshwane University of Technology: EL Voges [304]